» gardener How to create flower, vegetable, herb and fruit gardens using completely natural techniques lavelleDedication ‘This book is dedicated to Mike Lavelle who would have loved to have seen this book. sedition is published by Southwater Southwater isan impeint of Anness Publishing Led Hermes House 88-89 Blackfniars Road, London SE1 SHA. tel. 0207401 2077; fax 0207633 9499 ew:southwaterbooks.com info@anness.com © Anness Publishing Led 2004 UK agent: The Manning Partnership Ltd sel. 01225 478444; faxc01225 478440, sales@manning-parmership.co.uk UK distributor: Grantham Book Services Lid rel. 01476 541080, orders@gbs.tbs-Id-co. Noxth American agens/distibutor: National Book Network, rel, 301 459 3366 fax 301 429 5746; www.nbnbooks.com Australian agene/dstiburor: Pan Macmillan Australia tel. 1300 135 113; fax 1300 135 103 customer service@macmillan.com.au New Zealand agent/distributor: David Bateman Led tel (09) 415 7664; fax (09)415 8892 Allrights reserved. No partof tis publication may be ‘reproduced, stored ina retrieval system, or transmuted inany way or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the Prior wntten permission ofthecopyright holder A CIP catalogue record for this book Ssavailable from the British Library. Publisher: Joanna Lorenz Editorial Dizector: Judith Simons Project Editor: Felicity Forster Designer: Lisa Tai Jacket design: Balley Design Associates Additional text: Richard Bid and Jonathan Edwards Additional photography: Jonathan Buckley and Michelle Garret. Illuserator: Liz Pepperell Production Contzoller: Darren Price ‘Previously published as pare of ger volume, Orgone Candoing 10987654321 CONTENTS INTRODUCTION What is Organic Gardening? Why Go Organic? Understanding Your Garden ‘The Organic Cycle SOIL AND SOIL MANAGEMENT ‘Types of Soil Soil Structure Soil Chemistry Digging and Cultivation No-Dig Gardening Soil Conditioners Making Garden Compost Green Manures BASIC TECHNIQUES ‘Weeding and Weed Control Watering Feeding Basic Pruning Plant Propagation The Greenhouse Environment Greenhouse Cultivation Cold Frames and Cloches PLANT HEALTH Why Plants Get Sick Preventing Problems Plant Pests. Plant Diseases Plant Disorders Beneficial Predators Other Control Methods 10 12 14 16 18, 20 22 24 26 28 32 34 36 38. 40 a2 45 48. S4 56 58 60 62 64 66 68 70 72 74THE ORNAMENTAL GARDEN The Garden Framework Ornamental Lawns Lawn Maintenance Woody Plants Flowers for Beds and Borders Beds and Borders Containers THE WILDLIFE GARDEN What is a Wildlife Garden? Woodland Gardens Wild Flower Lawns Wildlife Ponds Providing Shelter Plants to Attract Wildlife THE KITCHEN GARDEN Planning a Kitchen Garden Crop Varieties Crop Rotation Growing Methods Companion Planting, Making the Most of Your Space Sowing in the Open Sowing Under Glass Thinning and Transplanting Aftercare Growing Herbs Harvesting and Storing Herbs Growing Fruit Trees and Bushes Supporting Fruit Trees and Shrubs Protecting Fruit Pruning Fruit Trees and Shrubs Harvesting and Storing Fruit CALENDAR OF CARE ‘The Ornamental Garden ‘The Wildlife Garden ‘The Kitchen Garden Index AcknowledgementsINTRODUCTION The aim of this book is to show that organic gardening is gardening at its best. The most successful organic gardeners learn that the use of artifical chemicals for short-term gains leads to long-term losses and also that nature makes the best model. Whether you want to grow organic produce for your table, have a dazzling display of summer colour or create a wildlife paradise, the organic garden is for you. Many techniques may already be familiar to you and the change will be less difficult than you think. Going organic may not change the world immediately, but being an organic gardener means that you can make a difference to the wellbeing of the world Let: A well-maintained ornamental garcen will reward the keen organic gardener with a wealth of dazzling colour. Above: Organic gardens are highly ‘Above: The organic garden isthe ideal ‘Above: Ornamental plants and flowers ae beneficial to wildlife because they mimic place in which to growe selection of fresh perfectly at home and thrive in a garden that hatural environments. ‘healthy vegetables. uses organic principles.WHAT IS ORGANIC GARDENING? The gan organic means of living origin. When applied to gardening, has come to mean the systematic use of techniques that mirror aly occurring systems. Put simply, itis about finding environmentally iienaly ways to cultivate the land, working with rather than against nature. also to a whole philosophy of ife. THE ORIGINS OF ORGANIC GARDENING the point of view of gardening, the 121840 as a reaction tothe inereasac) of pesticides and synthetic feriizers in 122 eter the Second Werle Wer. In y/respects, however, the principles of nie gardening have been practised for centuries. Anciant wters, among them and Virgil, commented on the tance of “good husbandry tothe saith of the lanc?, Thomas Tusser, in his rk of 1580 entitled Five Hundred 100 Husbandry, recommends ition to maintain good heath, Tth-century English garden writer ‘elyn begins his Kalendarium ne ground in mid-winter with “horse sheeps dung especialy, that you may ave some of two years preperation’ ganic gardening refers not just to a system of techniques, however, but ‘Above: Many ofthe plants that benefit wildlife also make showy and decorative additions to beds and borders ORGANIC GARDENING IN THE 21ST CENTURY Much of the current interest in organic ‘gardening began in the 1960s, when there was increasing concern about the growing leves of environmental damage caused by Pesticides and other agrochemicals. If they ‘Above: The organio garden uses a range ‘of natural material, including by-products ‘such as chicken manu. ‘were causing so much damage to the Fatural world, then surely they must Ultimately afect human beings? ‘The organic approach aims to reduce the effects that our gardens, farms and cites have upon the wider natural environment Activities such as recycling, using sustainably produced materials and aveiding pesticides and other harmful agrochemicals allhalp inthis, Organic gardening is often described as being a mare natural way to garden. This can make it appear to be ‘Somehow revolutionary. In many ways, however, organic gardening could be said to be counter-revolutionary,Itaimes to avoid artificial inputs and gains, instead it craws from a vast resource of wisdom and fexperienes amassed over 10,000 years, "Much of the so-caled conventional wisdom is, in fact, very recent, We only have to look ‘back as far as our grandparents to see that they were naturally organic gardeners Organic garcering then is the marriage of good horticuitural practice to an awareness ‘of ourimpact upon our surroundings. 1S IT POSSIBLE TO BE WHOLLY ORGANIC? The short anewer to this would probably raveto be... with great cificuty. But the purpose oft Gficuity or set unattainable goals. The aim should always be to aspire to the ideal soluton. Almost all of us face compromise ‘ona cally basis and understand that Practicalities outweigh personal ideas, With perseverance ard practice, however, t is possiole to become less compromised in the confines of your own garden, Simple ing and the observance of good Left: Organic gardens can be beautifully igned and can include a mixture of comamental and oalble plants.Above: A well-designed and propery ‘meintained organic garden can be both attractive and productive. gardening practioa can stezcly improve your ganic credentials and, with time, a natural balance willbe established in your garden, stimatel, the alm of al organic gardeners, be they landscaping acity garden, tending a country estate or growng home- roduced vegetabies, Is to make choices 20propriate to their situation, Its better to move a few steps towards the organic way than to ignore it completely. Above: Vegetables need not be planted in rows. Hero, the bods are arrangediin an attractive geometric pattern. ORGANIC STANDARDS: Organic standards are set out to ‘explain the requraments that farmers, growers, processors and others must ‘meet in order fr ther products or services to be marketed as organic “The standards can be extensive and cover a wide range of farming, growing ‘and food manufacturing practoes, ‘Are organie standards the same worldwide? No. Diferent counties ‘may stiouate their own standards. IFOAMIe the international Federation ‘of Organic Agricultural Movements that represents the worldwide body of ‘organic agriculture and provides a platform forthe global exchange of information and co-operation. ‘re any chemicals allowed in organic ‘production? Yes. n ine withthe egal {ramework ofthe country, a very limites umber of chemicals ae allowed on a restricted basis. Organic standards do not allow the use of artificial herbicides or fungicides. By comparison, in non-organic farming as many as 450 chemicals can be routinely used Introduction 9 Morganie gardening severely restricts ‘the use of artificial chemical fetizers ‘and pesticides, then how do | keep my garden healthy? Organic gardeners rely ‘on developing a healthy tertia sol and growing @ mixture of crops. By folowing these basie practices, organic gardeners Work in harmony with nature anc am to achieve a healthy natural balance within their gardens Do have to achieve any standards to become organic? No. Commercial standards are very strict and not necessarly easy to achieve forthe ‘amateur Everyone must make choices appropriate to their own situation. le the organic movement just concerned ‘with growing food? No. Going oraanic isnot ust about organic food —it should become a way of Ifa. Taday, organic wood, clothing, gardening producis and even reetaurants can all be found. This means ‘that other areas of yourifecan be organic as wells your garden. It does not always mean completely changing your if, butt ‘ean change lives.10 introduc WHY GO ORGANIC? s commonly asked question is easy to answer. The primary reason to embrace the organic approach is health. This means the well-being of the inaividual as well as the health of the environment. Many pesticides an accumulate over time, both in our own bodies and in the wider environment, a poisonous legacy that can persist for decades. Organic gardening seeks to redress this damage by working with and encouraging nature, Its @ fong-term investment n the health and wellbeing of us all. GREEN CUISINE Hardly 2 day seems to go by without some ‘eveation about the benefits or dstrmantal effacts of come food or othor. nt concems about the “gcociness" of ings that we eat have been a maior tive to supormarkets to supply a wing demand for organic procuce re can be litle that equals the faction to be derived trom eating 1 fo00, gathered fresh trom the garden, What better than garden-fresh es that are produced nat and cleanly? A GREENER, SAFER GARDEN Athough we think of our gardens as places fe retreat we have used a cocktail of jesticides and agrochemicals on them that 2s stripped them oftheir natural diversity ry of these poisons no longer contol the beasts that they were intended to Althat fers in this noxious onslaught isthe Above: Organic flower gardens, with their wide range of wilt ‘rendly plants, can provide a balanced habitat for birds and insects thats diverse, interesting and beautitul to look at. the plants. This cycle of pesticide use ‘eventual turns your personal paradise into potential health haz HELPING THE ENVIRONMENT For many of usit can seem that theres litle that we can do to change the cegradation Cofour environment. But the tuth is that the actions of all ofus have bath negative impacts upon the individual reduces his or her own Impact upon the environment, then colectively we can make a difference. By changing the way you garden to a more organic way, you can begin the healing process, iterally in your ovn backyara PROTECTING AND ENCOURAGING WILDLIFE Beit abrd ona feeder or brightly colo bouttefies on a flower, most of us enjoy seeing vistors ftom the wild in our gardens. But many ofthe unsung heroes of our gardens ~ the insects, worrns, amphibians Above: Butterflies ae just one of the many diffrent types of wilalife that can benefit from apestcide-free garden, ‘and mamrmais that cra, slther and ecury out of sight ~are equally important and may even be the reason why some ofthe larger Visitors come, Organic gardening helps ‘mary of these and promotes a balance of wilde 3th interesting anc! beautiful to lookat $0 WHAT IF | DO NOT GO ORGANIC? \While the intention ofthis book isnot to wall upon negative points, the cost of not adopting an organic approach may be seen all around us. This 6 most frequent noticed as fields and open spaces beret of butterflies, bees, bids and other wide wih very litle diversity of plant species. itis Unthinkable that we couid hand this planet ‘0 succassive generations in a denudast and Impoverished state. Perhaps a garden flee of bugs” may sound attractive to some, but the long-term cost to the environment ‘may be felt for generations and in the worst case may even be permanent, ‘Above: Imaginative planting designs can result in beautiful contrasts (of flowers and foliage, while aso providing a wealth of flavour home-grown food for your table.IT'S A SOLUTION AND IT'S FUN! (Organic gardening isnot the solution to al hhurmankind’s problems. However is a positive and valuable step that you as en Incividual can take. What's more, you can contribute positively fo the wellseing of your surroundings and to that of your wider ‘envronment by doing something that is also ‘un and rewarcing WILL “GOING ORGANIC” MEAN THAT MY WHOLE LIFESTYLE HAS TO CHANGE? (Organic gardening is oten presented as part ofa more general “organic movement” ‘Tris movernant owes its orgins toa range Cf social philosophies, some af which are more fundamentalist than others. The aim ‘of organic gardening to change the way ‘that you gardan and not your wola fe People frequenty get contused about the mearing of words that are used as part of the wider organic movernent, Four of these ‘terms are explained below. Of these, three describe a whole phicsophy that affects practioner far beyond the confines of ‘their own gardens. An understanding ofthe philosophies of others can halp inspire your ‘own ifestyle changes and all have thet own points of interest, Inthe end, however, itis a matter of chocs for you alone andit best to decide just how orgarie you (and your family) wish to be. Biodiversity itaraly means “the vaiaty of ie’, Lincludes all the diferent lant, arima, fungus and microscopic species in the wori. Italgo considers the genes they ‘contain and the ecosystems of which they form a part. Bioaversiy has been seen as ‘the total complexity of alfa, including not coniy the great variety of organisms but also their varying behaviour and interactions. fn organic garden alms to maximize all ‘these many different things which are vital to every part ofthe garden, but especially important when considering the soll. Sol biodiversity isthe "ifeblood” ofthe organic garden and demands investment in order to yield a return, Biodynamics is described by its practitoners as a sciencs of life forces, recognizing the basic principles at work in nature and taking into account how our actions can bring balance and healing to ‘the world. tis based upon the work of Fudolf Steiner and is said to offer an account ofthe spiritual history ofthe Earth as a Ihing being. Its enthusiasts advocate a Above: The foliage and form of many types of vegetables can provide striking contrasts In the vegetable garden ‘eoadening of personal perspective that includes an understancing of cosmic rythms, natural healing, arespect for life forces and utimataly a shit away rom centralized economic strategies. Permaculture is a concept that was criginally developed in the 1970s by Australians Bll Molingon and David Holareen. it was concelved as a response tolincreasing concerns over the deteriorating natura envronment. They attempted to answer the question “now do we, as the human species, sustan ourselves and provide for the needs of he tendronment foran incefinite period of time?", The answer to this questions the basis for ereating a permanent culture (Perma-C.iture). This philosophy aims to Unite practical, ecological design philosophies by incorporating natural systems and materials into human habitat. Permaculture rejects short-term gains in favour of ong-erm stabiliy for the environment and those who ve in it. Salf-sufficiency is an ideal rather than 2 reality for most that attempt it, a5 mocern living usually dictates some degree of trade, fevenif tis nites, Advocates ot set sufficiency aim to produce everything that they need in order to support themselves. ‘The oniy imports are those that cannot be produced by an individual Intreduction 11 REASONS FOR coins oncamic Below are just afew ofthe postive benef that organic gardening may bing to you and your environment. Human impact on the earth Organic systems reduce dependence on ‘non-renewable resources. The world has an increasing population, but many cof our resources are in limited supply. Using ronewable resources helps to secure our common future. ‘Traditional methods with modern ‘techniques Organic systems rely ona ‘modecn, ecentfic understanding of ecology and sol science. They also ‘depend on traitional methods of crop rotation to ensure soll frilty 28 well as weed and pest corto. Local solutions to global problems “The organic movement encourages Individuals to act ona local level, while thinking about how tis affects the world Best for biodiversity Organic growing = {tienda to the environment, £0 there is a greater cversty of bias, butterties ‘and piants in organi gardens. [Minimize your waste We produce 2 huge amount of waste inclucing packaging and kitchen and garden waste. Recycing and waste reduction ace key issues for ganic living ‘Mimicking natural systems Organic cardening uses nature as its mods! and. bby working in harmany with nature ‘aims to achieve a natural balance. By ‘maintaining this equliorum, organic ‘gardens become very stabe entities. ‘Amore interesting garden Organic production is more sustainable and felendier tothe environment. By becoming involved in the whole natura ‘yete, you will gain greater satisfaction from your own personal Eden. We are what we eat .. Organic systems recognize that our health is Connected to the quality of our food and, uitimately, othe health ofthe solLt ae 12 Introduction UNDERSTANDING YOUR GARDEN Plants, like all living things, flourish when given the right conditions. Certain plants will only thrive in a hot, sunny and dry garden, for example, while others may need cool, moist and shady conditions to prosper. If you are to have healthy plants, you need to choose those that are best suited to your garden and this means understanding exactly what conditions prevail and taking into account a range of environmental factors. CLIMATE The cimate causes a variety of responses, depending upon the plant's locaton, its stage of maturty, the langth of exposure and the intensity ofthe type of weather. Cimate ‘may have a dramatic effect on plant growth ‘and development, especially when extreme weather canditions prevail TEMPERATURE Allplant species have ther own maximum ‘and minimum temperature tolerances, ‘beyond which the fe processes ofthe plant cease. Asa general rule, the maximum temperature that most plants can tolerate is ‘ar0und 35°C (B6), wile the minimum is highly variable. The ar and sot termperatures are also crucial in influencing dormancy within plants and this, in turn, largely dctates tha lenath of the growing season. Ar temperature is effected by the degree of energy received from the sun. A shetterad site that benefits from the warming effects of the sun may be used for growing plants that are indigenous to warmer climates. Sol temperature infuences a pla development and the rate at which water and nutrients can be absorbed. Sandy sols warm up quicker and earlirin the season than clay sols, mainly because they are relatively free draining and do not hold as, much water Stes that receive a lot of sun, Cor witha sight incline towards it, wit also ‘warm up quicker than shady ones. WATER This is the major constituent of all plants. In most gardens, rafal is the principal souice of water for plants and it can be lost through evaporation or surface rur-of, though much of itis soaked up by soll particles. This water may then be absorbed by the root hairs of the plant. A steady supply of water is essential forthe plant to sustain itself and for optimum growth, ‘Water may also be held inthe ar and is. referred to as humiaity The amount of water ‘vapour inthe atmosphere at any one time Is referred to asthe relative humility ands ‘measured 28 a percentage ofthe saturation ppoint (100 per cent humic), In areas that receive heavy rainfl, relative humicty is ‘also higher. Many plants, such as fems and ‘mosses, thrive in such conditions. But high relative humicity cen have undesirable eects on pent, oten encouraging dsease Watertogging refers to the build-up of water that may occur in badly drained soil with poor structure, The reots of plants that are not adapted to these conditions wil suf and probably de through asnhyxiation. Lett: A bog garden provides ideal conditions for range of decorative ‘moisture-loving plants Right: Blossom is both prety and essential for good frlt-set. A sheltered sito will also ‘encourage polinating insects. Above: A hot, sunny spotis ideal for growing pretty summer flowers such as argyranthemums and verbenes. LIGHT LeveLs SSunight enables photosynthesis (the ‘method by which plant food fs mad) 10 cou As a result, itis vital to new growth « wellas sustaining existing growth. Seasona ‘changes in ight levels may also tigger different stages in the plants’ development. AIR CIRCULATION ven moderate winds can Increase a plant ‘ranspiation rate, However, alight wind ca also have beneficial effects, providing elo ‘fom extrame heat and cooling the faliage. It wil iso “change the ar arcuna the plas and thus help to alleviate a stagnant atmosphere that could promote disease, ASSESSING THE CLIMATE ‘Arange of climatic information is ganarally avaliable for your local region. Weather forecasts are an cbvious source, but long term records are sometimes avalabe, Fron these you should be able to get a picture Of the average rainfall, snow, frosty days, \wind airaction ané monty ‘emporaturesATYPICAL GARDEN AND ITS MICROCLIMATES Shrubs cee) peace eee eee Grace peor SS eae eer cratectapentn PET nenn choose the night pants for thenantpiace. Bick wall — cress — Dark ana wo area ¥ A GARDEN'S MICROCLIMATE, The prevailing weather conditions in ‘confined or discrete areas are termed the rmicrooienate. For example, there willbe a range of environments within a small domestic garden that may be very cifferent from thase weather conditions prevaling ‘elsewhere in the locality. Ooserve what is a0ing onin your own garden and keep a Careful record of the position and influence ofthe folowing features. Walls, hedges and fences may cause wind turbulence and dryness, depending pon ther height and density, They may ‘cause cold air o build up on sloping sites by preventing it rom “craining away” onnwards. This can craate frost pockets that may have a crucial effect on the type ‘and range of plants that may be grown. ‘Shadow projections ftom pernanent features, such as buildings, wals, hedges and large trees, may create a range of dense shadow resulting in dark, Gry and ‘ten cool eanaltions that wil only sult certain plant species. Hot spots may occur with aspects that are subject to high and prolonged levels of sunlight Plants may struggle in the dryness created by such strong sunlight. ona Fockery ry stone wal Damp areas may be anticipated where the ground slow ying, especialy on very heavy sols, During heavy rainfall you should aleo ‘ote the direction of water flo, including were necessary the route taken by excess surface water, which may in extreme oases bbe the cause of sal erosion. Soll type and pH play an important roe the ability ofa ste fo support particler plant species. The relative acidity or akalinty can affect the avalabilty of certain essential nutrients, leading to elther shortage cr toxicity in plants not ideally sulted to the pH of a sol. itis always better to choose Plants that thrve in the particular pH of a sol. Attempts to alter the pH by acidving or adding ime are rarely satisfactory and ther are long-term solutions. Existing habitat types on and around the {garden indicate what plants ars ikely to thrive. Notes should be made on the range of species and the likely wilife vale. ‘The garden topography (he shape and aspect ofthe land] may also affect what you are able to do. fa garden slopes toward the Fight: A shady corer ofthe garden provides the perfect place for shade lovers ‘such as these foxgioves (Dita) (oo, damp and dark are Introduction 13 Wire teneing reetion ofthe midday sun, for instance, it willbe warmer than aft site. Sioning Uneven gardens have their own problems. particulary if you wish to site @ areenhou RIGHT PLANT, RIGHT PLACE (Once you have assessed your garden ‘environment, you willbe able t fight plants for your site, Every garden its own unique set of advantages ant limitations, and these take time to eval 80 tal and eror i ultimately the rm reliable mathos.14 Introduction THE ORGANIC CYCLE Plants produce their own food using carbon dioxide from the air, water from the soil and energy from the sun in a process known as photosynthesis, The energy in this sugar powers all the growth, development and life-giving processes within the plant. Plants must also produce a range of other substances, including proteins, fats, olls and cellulose, for which they need nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. These are almost always taken up through the roots. WHAT PLANTS NEED In natural ystems, nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium are repeatedly taken up by ‘the plant, used and retuned to the sod when the plant dles, drops its leaves or s ‘satan by an animal, This process Is known 2s nutrient ycing. Plant nutrients are covered in more depth later, Farnow we peed oniylookat tree ofthe most important ‘cycles: water, carbon and nitrogen, THE WATER CYCLE ‘Ths movement and encless recycling of water between the atmosphere, the surface of the and and under the solliscaled the water oycle ands driven by the energy ot the sun and the force of gravity. Water vapour in the atmosphere condenses into clouds, which fallas snow, ‘ain, sleet or hall. This water may be taken up by plants, stored in lakes, entor the sail ‘low over the surface in streams. The sun causes water to evaporate back into the atmosphere, or gravity may pull down through the pores of the sol to be stored as slow-moving ground water. Water can also ‘return to the atmosphere indirectly through plants" leaves — a process known as Fight: Let to develop wy raturaly grassland will become a rich and diverse habitat fora wealth of both plants and wit. transpiration ~this being highest during periods of high temperatures, wind, dry ar {and sunshine. THE CARBON CYCLE ‘The rmovement of carbon, inits many forms, ‘between ths total living content ofthe earth, the atmosphere, oceans, and the rocks and ‘Above: Plant leaves are remarkable Structures because they are the factories In which a plant makes its food, ‘Above: Plants rely on wator taken up {through the roots, to support their ite ‘processes and facitate growth. sits covering the surface, is termed the ‘carbon cycte. tis complex and far reaching, ‘The same carbon atomsin your body today heve been used in countless ather molecules sinoo time began. Plants absorb ‘carbon dioxide from the atmosphere during pphotasynthesis food production) and release it back into the atmosphere during respiration food use). This process is the great natural recycter of carbon atoms THE NITROGEN CYCLE Nirogan is used by ving organisms to produce a number of complex organic molecules such as amino acids, protsins _and nucteic acids, the "building blocks” of Ie, The largest sire of nitrogen isin the almosohere, were it exists as a gas, This storais about one milion times larger than the total nitrogen contaned ining organs,AUTRIENT CYCLES IN A TYPICAL GARDEN, Even smell gardens contain natural cycles. Elements and rutnents are cycled repeatealy both within the environmont ands a result of the complex food chains and webs. This cyole of nature is essential in creating @ balanced and hoalthy habitat. Despite ts abundance inthe atmosphere, plants can only take up nitrogen in two solid forme: ammonium and ritrata. Most plants full theirnéeds using nitrate from the sol, ‘Ammanium is used less frequenty because itis toxic in large concentrations. Most ‘ecosystems have nitrogen stored in iving and dead organic matter, which re-enters the cyole via decomposition. Decomposers 1 the sol, such as bacteria and tung, chemicaly modify the nitrogen found in his ‘organic matter Almost al ofthe nitrogen found in any terrestrial ecosystem originally came from the atmosphere and is biochemically converted (‘fixed’) nto a useful form within the sollby specialized bacteria. Mernbers ofthe bean family (legumes) and some ‘Tah Hedgerog ther kinds of plants form relationships with ntrogen-fixing bacteria, In exchange for nitrogen, the bacteria receive food trom the plants and special root structures (nodules) that provide protection, WHAT ARE ECOSYSTEMS? Short for ecological systems, ecosystems ‘are communities of plants and animals that consist of a given habitat the place where ‘an organism Ives) and its community (athe plants and animals that ive init). Any Group oflving andl non-hving things interacting vith each other (rclucing those found in ‘gardens) can be considered an ecosystem. ‘The chemical materials that are ‘extracted trom tha enwirerment and changed into Iving tissue by plants and Nivates taken up by plots RECN Fence with cimbers NmTROGEN cvCuE Nitrogen in ‘atmosphere ‘cARBON oYCLE Ccarvon side animals are continually recycled within the ‘ecosystem, These nutrient cycles are at their most affciant when an ecosystem has a good diversity of species, Such ‘versity tends to make a community stable ‘and self-perpetuating, FOOD CHAINS AND WEBS ‘The energy necessary for life reaches the earth as eunight, This is made into food and storedin plants. Animals acquire some ‘ofthe stored energy by eating the plans or by eating cther plant-eating animals. Such sequences, called food chains, overiap at many points, forming food webs which show "who ests whom” in an ecosystem one animal or plant is tected, then the ‘entire food web can be changed.SOIL AND SOIL MANAGEMENT Soil is the most precious resource in your garden. Some inherit a well-tended soil, while others, particularly those moving into new homes, inherit a rubble-filled mass. However, any soil can be improved through time and effort. If you regard your soil as a living entity, you will see that essential plant nutrients are cycled by a microscopic army of inhabitants and larger worms, insects and grubs. All these creatures need air, moisture and food. Using manure, garden compost and other sources of organic matter is the key to sustaining this soil life and keeping the soil healthy. Lett: The key to developing a successful ‘organic garden les n the careful management ofthe sol. Above: Newy planted crops must be kept Above: Companion plants can help to ‘Above: Crops that are grown in rows must weed free so that waterand nutrients are protect crops naturaly from pests, thus ‘bp rotated on a regular basis inorder to freely avaliable avoiding damage to the soil ecology. avoid sol-borne pasts and diseases.18 Soil and Soil Management TYPES OF SOIL Soil is probably the most important constituent of any organic garden because itis vital for successful plant growth, Understanding your soi and knowing how this can help you to create a healthy, fertla growing environment for your plants should be a priority. The starting point in this process is an understanaling of the different soil types and how they affect the plants you can grow. Once you understand the soil in your own garden, then you will be able to create a successful organic garden. WHAT ARE SOILS MADE OF? Both natural sols and some potting mixes for container-grown plants usually have five main components. These are mineral particles (the Inorganic fraction), organic matter (the remains of vn organisrns), water (the "sol solution’), a (which fils the spaces between sold particles that are not filed with water and iving organisms. The propertions of these components vary widely aocorcing to the soiltype, or the growing medium. The proportions of water, air and organic matter can be readily changed by sol cultivation and other horticutwal practices, ‘A good topsol will continuously supply plant roots with water, airand nutrents Subsal (he largely inert soll layer that ies beneath the thin layer of “ving” topsoil has less organic matter than topsoil, Plant growth wil sufer when the proportions of water and arin the medium are out of balance. Too much air wil have the same fact upon plant roots as a drought, whereas too much water causes waterlooging Growth wil also suffer if nuient levels ere 00 low, too high ori there is an imbalance in supply between diferent nutrients. In ‘dation, sol that Is too compacted for roots t0.grow wal also adversaly affect grown, COMMON TYPES OF SOIL sand sit ‘Sand A free-draining sol that is quick ‘owarm up, but hungry and thirsty. Silt Fiver deposits can be sticky, but not as sticky as clay. ich and easy to work. SAND AND SILT Sandy and sity sols originate from rver deposits, windblown sediments or ftom the erosion of sandstone outcrops. Their ‘general properties ae that they do not provide or retain plant nutrients they are not cohesive and therefore possess a ‘weak structure; and in most cases they are rea draining Sits, unless well structured, willbe ‘waterlogged. Sand, on the other hand, is naturally fee draining. The structure and texture of sandy solls means that they are ‘only able to hold a vary smal reserve of ‘water. Organic mater can improve the available water content but the rea ick in avoiding drought stress fes in ensuring that plants root deep into the soll. Nutrient shortage can also be a problem on sangy soils which have a tendency to become acidic overtime, Liming and the reguar dalton of organic matter wil help alleviate these problems. Sandy sos do have the advantage of ‘warming up" quickyin spring due to theic lower water content anc are easier to work early in the year This means that you can {grow wider range of plants in a sandy sol ranting or wansplanting is also easier in the autumn id Clay A heavy soll thats often cific to ‘work. Slow to warm up, but aly rich. Loam Amoisture-etentive call that warms Up quickly and works perfectly. ‘Above: Al soil types benefit greatly from the ‘dultion of organic matter such as this green manure. (Organic materials broken down very ‘quickly in sandy sols due to goad aeration and a temperature that favours rapid bacterial action, Many ight sols naturally have less than two per cent organic matter and itis vital that organic matter be added ragulay to sustain healthy plant growth, PLANTS SUITABLE FOR DIFFERENT SOIL TYPES: Many plants havea type of soln which they grow best. The lst below gives a few examples of the soll preferences of ‘some common species. Plants eultable for acid soils Fnedodencron (all species) Camelia (al cutivars) | Buttery bush ucalefa spp.) ‘Sage (Salvia) Plants suitable for hot dry sols in sun Yucca all species) Broom (Oytisus) Lavender lavanduia) Plants suitable for damp or wet soils Wilow (Sala) Dogwood (Cornus) Panta ly (Hosta) Pants suitable for heavy clay Wieigta (ll cultvars) Crocosmia (a cultivars) Datfodl (Narcissus) Plants suitable for dry shaded solls Flowering curant (Ribes sanguineur) Pactysandra terminalis Elephants ear (Bergenia cociola)HAND-TEXTURING METHOD @ = Se clay ‘ay loam Finding out what type of soll you have is fasy and does not require any specials equipment. Tis test suitimately a matter of judgement and wil only give you a relative picture of the sort of soll you have. However itis surprisingly accurate, Simply take a small amount af sol ~ about a teaspoonful willdo~ in the palm of your hand, Moisten with itle water (net too ‘much but enough to makeit just workabe). Once moistened, try to form the «ol nto one ofthe shapes shown above. cLay 2 particles found in clay are extremely small and are able to interact with, and ectly affect, the chemistry ofthe soll. The vidual olay particles are so tiny that they, actually bonded together by electrical 1s wrich produoe the characteristo astcty ofthis type of sol. Ciay is both ter retentive and rich in nutrients thas pore spaces and those that are there aye a tendency to become waterlogged. Clays prone to sweling when wateriogged d shrinkage when dry. AS a resut, jays heave (swell outward and upward) when wet and crack when cry. They can ‘soe subject to frost action which causes 7) nerease in tiny, almost microscopic, spaces (micro pores). Pure clay sols are ‘are, athiough some sails may be very rich i clay. They have the potential to be real fertie 98 they ee well managed, LOAMS Loams are a mixture of sand, sit and clay nat resuits in a blend ofthe characteristics * each constituent part, They are usually haracterized by their ay content. Heavy sms are about 24-80% clay, whereas at loams contain about 12-18% clay. Heavy loams behave and should be ated lke olay sols, Light oams should gated Ike sendy soll. Medium joams are potently the ideal mixture, exhibiting ‘advantages of both heavy and light sols without many of the disadvantages of ether 1 Begin by forming a ball tit stays togethe then proceed tothe next shape, iit does not form a bal, then you have a sandy sol 2 fyoucan flatten the bal without it breaking up, then you have asity sand ora loamy sand. If you can rol the lattened ball into a thick ‘sausage shape, then you have aloam. 4A sollthat can be rlledinto a thin sausage” saclay loam. Sif you can bend the soll into a horseshoo crring shape, then you have a cay sol HuMUS ‘Trisis a stable form of partially decomposed plant material that gives topsol its characterstcaly dark colour Humus has a high nutvient-eserve potential ‘SOmL PROFILE A yplcal sol profile usually consists of three main elemants: an upper layer of darts fertile topsoil a midle layer of lighter infertile subsoil; anc a lower layer lof bedrock, which ranges from a few to hundreds of metres (yards) deep, ‘opsoi Ite ck yor taal that ‘conta organic aia. Keep as ep a possbo, ‘ough usualy ‘nyene spt _(opado) op. Subsolis usualy Sher neaiour ite er no ‘ane mato! rnubint, fehoued be broken tone spk doth but fot ned th the tepsot Bodo s ‘sual below thateetot cubation ‘Above: Plants such as alfums and ‘eryngiums ike well-drained soll and so wil thrive together in the sare site (2 xbestter than clay, retains water, increases the fiabilty (sitabilty for Cultivation) of heavy sols and its darker ‘colour encourages sols to wai up move rapialy MANAGING Your SOIL ‘Any soll has the potential to bea fer growing medium in which plants wil thrive fit is managed correctly Management of ight/sandy soils ‘= Maintain levels of organic matter + Lime when required. (NB. Its often ‘easier to select species tolerant ofthe site conditions inthe ong term.) + Fertlize well as light sols are usually infetie.(N.8. Some exotic and native plant species actually thrive under relatively poor nutrient conditions) *Irigate frequently inthe frst year after planting, less s0 once deeper roots are established Management of clay soils, * Disinage is essential ‘Maintain ie status. ‘Maintain levels of erganic matter and ferilze when needed. * Wise eutivation i needed to ‘coneerve winter or summer tith produced by natural weathering, = cracking due to wetting/drying cycle ‘and breakciown by frost action.20 Soil and Scil Management SOIL STRUCTURE Solis are made up of mineral and rock particles that give them their natural properties. The character of the mineral fraction cannot be changed but the way that these building blocks are organized within the soil can, Creating and maintaining soll structure is a key aspect of maintaining the fertility of the soil and supporting heatthy plant growth. Even the most difficult soils can be modified to create a fertile growing medium for plants. WHAT IS MEANT BY SOIL. STRUCTURE? Soil structure is quite simply the way sols are organized, To use a simple analogy: if ve see the sol particles (sand, sit or clay ~ the mineral fraction) as the building materials -Ike the bricks and mortar ofa house, for instance ~ then the structure is the architecture, The bullding materials vemselves cannot be altered, but the ‘architecture can vary considerably from home to home, This is the key. Itis possible improve a sos structure even ifthe mineral raction remains unchanged. is perfectly foasole to have a well-structured lay sal or instance, tall depends upon now well you manage it. WHY IS SOIL STRUCTURE IMPORTANT FOR PLANT GROWTH? In order to survive, plant roots need water, hutvients and air Pant roots breathe in the sol, taking in oxygen and expeling carbon dioxide. A poorly structured soll may have too litle airspace. This can have two negative effects. Fresh air containing ‘oxygen may not be able to penetrate the soll very easily and the sol wil tend to become waterlogged following rain. \Waterlogging wil also reduce the air avaliable inthe sol Below: A rotavatoris a useful and labour. reducing method of breaking up the soil to prepare it for planting. ‘Above: Even ‘aficut” soils can be transformed into a good growing medium by careful cutvation, Structure is therefore very important in terms of maintaining the health of plant roots, Plant shoot development is directly linked to root heath. A heathy root system ensures healthy shoots and will ultimately result in better growth and crop viel, HOW DOES SOIL STRUCTURE DEVELOP IN NATURAL SYSTEMS? Soil structure naturally develops in sols through the effect of weather cycles. Wetting causes sols to swoll while drying causes shrinkage, This naturally causes sos to crack. The action of freezing and theming is also important on clay sols In ‘areas where frosts occur, They form particles known commonly as crumbs. The “crumb structure” of any soil develops over time and is important in terms of allowing the free passege of water through the soi tnd ai thet must be able to movein andi ‘out ofthe sol In this way sais do nt become habitually wateriogged and natural rutvient cycles ~ oxygen, cartoon and ritrogen, for example ~ are not impeded, Paant roots end sol organisms, such as ‘worms, naturally help to maintain sol structure, as does the natural addition of ‘decaying plant material each autumn, HOW TO ALTER SOIL STRUCTURE Humans have leamed overtime that even an infettic area can be wrked ~ and the structure of the sollimproved - by calvation. This is covered in more detal lator but it's essential to understand now that cultivation isa way of rapaly accslrating the ‘tural cycles that promote goad structure. Digging and breaking down ‘clods" helps to introduce air and creates new pores nthe sol, Adling organic matter helps to mantain these pore spaces, retains moisture (n dry sols) and encourages the action of so dwoling creatures such as worms. No-digSECTION THROUGH A LAND DRAIN This cross-section of Soil and Soil Management 21 a typical land drain Teneo Caienes cman fees ees a foment cee trate pes erect perforated plastic Pearaiarh amt oes ie Roemer ae al eee ca Sele pescsveadataiabmi irae | enter ple pacted and its structure destroyed. —— = aim to hamess this natural cycle closely, but the goals the same ~a 2 and wal-structured sol MPROVING DRAINAGE at tond te become waterlogged ren do So as a result of poor structure and se there is nowhere forthe water to vast ajty of sails do not actualy or benef from) the instalation of land (fen itis enough to dig over a sita se much of the drainage problem -2 dus to surface compaction. Surface ion severely reduces the passage nto the soll and cen resulta ky surface thats prone to “pudcing’ land drains is usually only done 18 the water table is very near to the IMPROVING SOIL STRUCTURE surface or the consequences of flooding are severe ff they threaten housing or use of the area for instance). Land drainage using plpes or "ils" is a complex undertaking and may be best lft to a contractor. It youhave a sloping ste you can dig a ‘soak away" drain atthe base of the slope and impxove the structure of the sol to ‘encourage the rapid dispersal of water following rain. if youhave a fairy at se, then you should consider making a raised bad for growing crops. Raised beds are ‘easy to manage and avoid the Inconvenience of instaling (and maintaining) a drainage system. 41 One of the best ways to improve the structure of the soils to add as much 2if the soll has already boon dug, then ‘Above: A wellprepared sol that is kept free Wwell-roted organic material can be worked of weeds and dug regularly wil suit in organic material as you can, preferably into the surface ofthe sol witha fork. The healthier, more vigorous crops throughout when the solis dug. For heavy soils, this's worms wll complete the task of working it the growing season. A heaithir crop will be best done inthe autumn. into the so. ‘more resistant to pest and dlsease attack22 Soil and Soil Management SOIL CHEMISTRY While for many of us the word chemistry can be extremely off-putting, the truth of the matter is that everything in ife is made up of chemicals. White the pure science of chemistry can be very complex, the chemistry of soil that organic gardeners must master is mercifully simple. A ruaimentary knowledge of the chemicals that affect plant growth and how soil chemistry can be controlled and managed is all you need to. grow healthy plants in an organic garden. OXYGEN, The amount of oxygen in a heathy sol Ccontros the typeof ie it wil support, Neatly all oganisms need oxygen to survive, Soils without oxygen are dascribed as aneerobie, ‘Most organisms can surdive for short periods ‘under anaerobic conditions, but this causes the accumulation of poisons that ean become toxic at igh concentrations Atypical sol hes about 50 per cent ofits ‘pot® space filed by ar and 60 per cent by ‘water. Only cartan bacteria can remain in ‘anaerobic conditions for long periods of time, though some species of bacteria can reedly switch ftom oxygen-rich to oxygen [poor conditions quickly to adapt to focal condltions, Microbes use about 70 per cent of the oxygen in the sal and plant roots use ‘the remaining 90 per cent. Under anaorobic Cconcitions, the efficiency of microbes is poor {and decomposition rates are much slower WATER Soll waters vital forall sl fe, Without, microbes cannot arow or remain active and many will go into “hibernation* untl water TAKING A pH TEST 1 Place the sol in a test tube until it reaches the markon the side. For the most accurate results, ty tho sample fist, grind it into a powder and ensure itis ee fom stones. retums, Fungi on the other hand, are more resistant to water stress than bacteria, With too much water, oxygen levels drop and the lack of a tands to slow down the nutrient ‘cycles driven by microbes. Water is also the ‘medium by which essential nuttients aro ‘able to enter the pant SOIL pH The pHi scales an abbreviated form of “Potential of Hydrogen’. tis ameasure of the degree of acicity or the alkalinity of a solution as measured on a scale (oH scale) (00 to 14, The midpoint of 7.0 0n the pH ‘cole represents neutralty. A neutral” solution is, therefore, nether acid nor akaline, Numbers below 7.0 indicate accity; ‘numbers greeter than 7,0 indicate alkalinity The level of acct or alkalinity (pH) of a ‘ol can significantly affect the nutrient avaiiebiity. Meny nutrients become “unavaliale”to plants when the sol is tither to0 acid or too akaline, Microbial activtyin solis also largely controfed by pH. Fungi tend to predominate in acid sols, ‘bacteria in neutral or alkalne sols, 2 Puta layer of barium sulphate powder ‘nto the tube level withthe mark. This ‘compound helps the solution to clear rapidly and makes the pH reacing clearer ‘Above: You can reduce the actaity ofthe so by adatng ime some weoks before planting. Test the sol frst to see how much is needed, Soll pH is essntialy a measure of the acidity ofthe sol water, although the sol itso isthe deciding factor in respect of ‘what this wil be, ‘Most plants preter o are tolerant ofa specific pHrange, Some plants, such as the hycrangea, exhibit a diferent ower ‘colour dapencing upon the prevaing pH. ‘Most garden plants, especialy vegetables, thrive within a range of 6-7 which happens to ba where the majority of rutionts are avallabe, itis best to maintain this pH in ‘order to optimize the availabilty of nutrients. Many garden plants, however, are not 100 fussy about the pH levels, sof you choose plants carefully it wil nt usually be necessary to alter the sol acy. ACIDIFYING SOIL Lowering the pH of @ naturally imy solis dificult because the sol often contains @ reserve of calcium that i released immediately upon acidification. Lowering the pH involves the use of flowers of suphur andis only usually successful over a short period of time. 8 Pourin a itl ofthe indicator solution up tothe mark shown on the tube. Be careful ‘not to put in too much because this ean ‘make the solution dark and difficult to read.MAKING A NUTRIENT TEST ‘Soil and Soil Management 23 1 Paace a smal sample ofthe soil into the ‘upto the mark on the side, 2Adda test solution fn tis case one for ‘itrogen) up to the mark on the test tube. 3 Filter the solution to remove soil particles and leave juste liquid solution. 44 Decant the resulting fitered solution into other container for the final stage of the LIMING SOIL erally easier to raise the sol pH then cone it, Lime neutralizes sol acidty and -mmonly applied as ground limestone, ak or dolomtc limestone (dolodus}. requrement cannot be determined pH because tis influenced by sol 11d organic matter content. Clay 3 humus act as a “buffer” because of -ompiex chemistry soll is known to ragularlight application is ¥erabie to heavier, more infrequent, doses 4 Ace alstited water to the mark on the and shake the container vigorously for bout a minute, Ensure the contents are xed thoroughly and leave to sete. 65 Add a small amount of indicator powder Tis willreact withthe solution and enable a colour reading to be taken, HIGHLY ALKALINE SOILS Soils that are too alkaline sue race element leficiancias of manganese, cope fon, nc ‘and boron, Phosphates ae also less avalable, their maximum avalabilty being bbetwean pH 6-7, Olsoase organisms can be ‘more ofa problem in calciumich sols, as ‘many disease-causing fungal agents prefer alkaline corcitions. Some plants, such as rhododendlons, ae intolerant of high pH {and only grow on acid sols, while others, he helanthemume, thrive in highly alkane sols 5 Once sufficiently cleared, compare the ccolouragains those on the chart, choosing the one that most elosely matches that of the solution, 6 Shake for about 10 seconds andl compare withthe chart. Hee, the low reecing inicates that ntrogen-rch fertizer wil beneft tis sol GROWTH RESTRICTIONS IN EXTREMES OF PH ‘Many vital nutrients that are essertiat for heathy piant growth become Lnavallable in extremes of soil pH Nitrogen deficiency Most ritates are released from organic matter and alow sol pH limits the rate of decomposition severely. Phosphate deficienoy Phosphate becomes unavailable outside the 6.5-7.5 pH range. Some plants form relationships wth sol-borne fungi that release phosphates in acid conations. ‘Trace-clomont toxielty and deficiency Trace elements, especialy atrium, ron ‘and manganese, are generaly more Soluble In acidic conditions, Extreme acicity can lead to excessive quantities of trace elements and to plant death, (ther trace elements, such as copper, ‘boron and moiyienum, become less. available at ow soll pH. Molybdenum. deficiency affects legumes, which will not grow in acid sols,24 Soil and Soil Management DIGGING AND CULTIVATION Every organic gardener’s goal should be a healthy soil to sypport plant growth and development. Digging is one of the commonest ways to create a rich, fertile and ultimately productive soil. It can be hard work at the outset, particularly on sites not cultivated for some time, but the results ~ in the form of healthier, more productive plants ~ are worth it, Quite simply, what you get out of your soil will depend upon what you put into it. ‘THE BENEFITS OF DIGGING Winter is the commonest time to cig, but soll can be dug at any time ofthe year i the Concitions are right. Avois working the sol when itis oo dry and impenetrable, or 190 ‘wet and sticking to your tools and boots. ‘Clay sols may be best dug in mid to late ‘autumn to allow the action of frost to make the soil more suitable for final cutivation, LUghter sos are best dug inthe spring or immediately prior to planting the sta. Done propery, clgging increases the amount of ‘a space in the sol, which in turn benefits sai-dwling organisms end plant roots due tothe increase in oxygen avalabl. I also lets you ada organic matter that wal feed these vital denizens ofthe soll and aid ‘utvient cycling, Calculate how much ‘organic matter you wil need botore you srt. You should aim to add about 20 per cent of the volume outtvated. A 20m (220 plot cutivated to one spade's depth vil need 2.5 cubic metres (88 cubic feet) of ‘manure or garden compost. SINGLE DIGGING ‘Single dgging isthe simplest method of cultivation. tis wall suited to ight sols or those sols that have been wel worked fora SINGLE DIGGING This method involves cfgging down to the depth of one spade [this is called a spit) Single digging sutices on light free-craining soll as long as there ro layer of compacted! stones in the topsoil. Much ofthe procedure '8 the same as for doube digging, but the ‘subellis left undistured. Mark out the positon of the bed. Remove any taf or ‘vegetation from the eurface, put to one side ‘and then bury in the bottom of tre bed.as ‘you procead. Work across the bed, digging ‘outa trench that I two spits wide and a single spit deep, and place the soll to one side. Remove stones and perennial weeds ‘as you go. Fork wellrotted manure or compost into the trench, Begin digging a new trench behind the frst Throw the sol forward into the fst trench, burying the Organic matter Repeat this process of trenching down the bed unt the las trench has been dug. Add organic matter to the ‘base and fil the trench with the soll dug ‘rom the fst trench, ‘numberof years t simply ‘Above: After a winter exposed to the weather, mast sals can be easly broken Intoa fre tit with a rake. DOUBLE DIGGING ‘This s a method for deeply claging the sol, in which the sols broken up to a depth of ‘approximately 70cm (28in) ox more, The ‘method usually involves digging a quantity of soll and setting it aside while aerating and sometimes adding an amendment to the ssubsoi below, then returning the topsoil “There are several methods of double , a8 well as an understanding of ' growth habs and tolerances, ch taking alte time over this ana 3 what you are going to do before Above: Up toa third of the old wood should = ,removed to encourage the climber to ocluce new growth. possible, cut some of this out to the base; also remove some of ne upper stems, cutting them back toa ong growing point 2 Thin out al ofthe dead wood thatthe climber has produced, removing it very carefully in sections, it tis ks necessary, ‘50 that the remaining stems are not damaged when the dead stems are eventually pulled out. staring, Acting too hasty now can easy spol the job. Pruning is one of afew tasks in the garden that are best viewed intermittent from a distance. Remember, you ean only cut a branch once. fyou cut the wrong branch, you cannot rejoin it teffectvely tothe plant from whence it came. ‘Always check that you know the full extent cof @ branch and what effect ts removal wil have prior to making the cut, ‘Above: Fiemove any wood that has become diseased, cutting it back toa point on the ‘stem where the wood of the climbers heathy ifthe cut end shows that tne wood Js sti s2ased on the inside ofthe stom, cout back further stil PRUNING EQUIPMENT ‘Theres a range of tools that can ba used for pruning, itis advisable to use the correct tool ora specific task because it will make the process both easier and more efficient Pruning knife Using a pruning knife requires both skit and a sharp blade. ‘Ablunt nite can easly damage the plant, Gut away from you and keep hands clear ofthe dlreetion of te cut Secateurs (hand pruners) When smal branches are to be removed, tis easiest to use secateurs and remove the branch in one go. Secateurs are the ‘commonest type of pruning tool and are best used on twiggy material up to about the wieth ofa pena Loppers Use these on branches up to 2.5em (tn) thick. Loppers are useful in situations where secatours may not easly reach, such as in dense tangled shrubs. Loppers should not be used for vory thick branches or they may easily be damaged, Extension loppers [deal for cutting fut-of-reach branches up to 2.5em (tn) thick. They are a useful tool but they ‘can be ting to use and require some practice. Ratchet and snap cut shears These hhave three times the power of ‘conventional shears, Used for branches Lup to 4em (1) n dame, Narrow curved Grecian saw Use on branches upto Som (2in) in diameter ‘where the branche are vey crowded. Hteuts on 2 puling cut, making is use above shoulder height very easy Extension saws These ae similar to ‘Grecian pruning but they have an extended handle. They are very usaful ‘whore larger branches need removing ‘rom smallor garden tres. Bow saw Used for cutting larger branches. Available in various sizes. They cut with a pushing cu, making their use above shoulder height in.PLANT PROPAGATION Despite the large variety of methods employed, there are really only two basic types of plant propagation: vegetative — taking cuttings, for example - and sowing seed. All of the techniques used fal into one or other of these categories, Raising your own plants is one of the most rewarding activities that any gardener can do. It can also be particularly beneficial for the organic gardener because, unlike with bought-in plants, you can be assured that self-raised stock will be pesticide-ree. POTTING MIX FOR PROPAGATION ‘Seed and cuiting potting mix should be ‘almost fee of nutrients — the plants do not need sc-cerved nutients unt they haves rooted. Numetous proprietary brands are Avaliable for organic propagation. ‘Alternatively you can make your own potting mix using finely sited compost or leat mould mixed with equal parts of sharp sand or git, Mixing this is comparatively ‘easy but problems can aroe ifthe organic ‘matter isnot thorough sterlized, Unless YoU are able to do ths, there is always the possibilty of 'ungal diseases affeting the Plants. Worm compost can be good for making potting mix but the easiest way to ‘ge steniized poting mix Isto use compost that was made in ahot ple. Use material ‘rom near the midcle of the ple to gat the ‘most steriizec matter, PROPAGATION FROM SEED Seeds are nature's way of introducing varity into plant material, Fertizng the fernale part ofa ower with pollen from the male part produces a seod. Sood are a resting and survival stage in the plant's ie that hp it survive adverse concitions in nature, Seeds can survive conditions that kal plants. A seed consists of three things an embryo fa young pant a its most immature stage); a food supply (to maintain the embryo and provide energy ator germination); anda protective seed coat. The embryo consists of a young root system (radia; the young shoot system (plumule), which carres the seed leaves (cotyledons); anc the hypocotyl, which isthe Junction between the oot and shoot systams. ‘Some seeds need special treatment to ‘germinate. One such treatment is statfioaton. To stratty seeds, cover them In some damp material, such as damp ‘compost, and keep them in a refrigerator at about 4.5°C (40°F for up to three months. After this treatment, the seeds are raady 10 germinate, Seeds thet germinate better alter stratification are oaks and hellebores, Seeds requite moisture, warmth end ‘oxygen to germinate, Because a seed needs oxygen as well as moisture, tis important not to keep the seeds too wet, MAKING ORGANIC PROPAGATION POTTING MIX 1 Toke equal quantities ofan organic ‘material, such as cor or fhaly sieved leat ‘mould, and a free-craining material such as vermioulte or perite. 2 Mix the organic material and vermiculite or perite together thorough ensuring that there are no lumps and thatthe mixture is ‘open and “ree running ‘Above: Collecting your own saed can be very rewarding and ensures that your new lanis are free of any pesticide residues, On the other hand, the seeds must not cy ‘ut. Most seeds germinate best between 18.5-24°0 (65-75°F), Most seeds will ‘germinate wellin ight; however, some ‘Seeds, such as those.of periwinkle, pansy ‘and verbena, germinate best the dark Many seeds have specitic gorrination requirements that require knowledge of the particular species, Certain generalizations are possible and although tis always ‘achisable to follow the instructions on packets you buy, sel-collected seed may Fequite a bit of quesswork, itis a small ‘ust-Ike seed (thyme and bas, for ‘example, it probably needs ight to germinate, Make sure the seed is wel pressed into the moist mixture, but do not ‘cover, Larger seed should be covered to twice its thickness inthe soles moxture, ifthe seed packet says to scarty, make a ‘ar in the Seed by nicking the seed coat in some way, Light rubbing the seeds wth sandpaper usualy accomplishes this, ‘The reason for scatifation Is to speed Up the lengthy process of ting the water past the waterproof seed coat, 8 This organic potting mix for propagation is now ready for use and does not need any _adftiona ertilzer.Itcan be used to propagate seeds and cuttingsSOWING SEEDS IN CONTAINERS SRR ees Conese +1 Fst gather together the basic equipment. You willneed pots, potting mix, labels, a ‘eenol, a firming board and a plastic bag. 2Fillthe container withthe potting mix, _gently tapping the pot to ensure that there are no air spaces in the mi, ‘3 Gently firm and flatten the potting mix with the firming board, Take care not to overt the potting mix +4 Sow the seed evenly over the potting mi serfece, Large seed can be placed, but sraler seed must be scattered. ‘5 With larger seed, lightly cover the seed with finely sieved potting mix. Sieved vermiculite or perfite can also be used. {6 Water the pot using afne rose on ‘watering can. I the seed is small, water the potting mix prior to sowing, VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION ee vegetative parts ofthe plant (stem, root an also be used to produce a nev Most fruit trees are propagated Sealy, using a bud or a twig ftom a tree rod.ices exceptionally good fut. bud or tg becomes an adult as the same qualties as the * tree, By propagating asexually we reproduc the “mother plant PROPAGATING PLANTS FROM SPECIALIZED ORGANS may be propagated from many =nt plant parts. Specialized roots, leavas that occur naturlly make sexual propagation easy consists of swollen leaves on sm. Bulbs can be propagated by 19 snl ulblets or offsets that form base ofthe parent bulb. These small ‘bulbs take two or three years to mature into plants tha flower Place offsets in rich light ‘ol, Certain bulbs, such ass, can be propagated by removing individual scalos ‘om the dormant utp and placing them in ‘bag of damp moss. After a few months ‘the scale vill develop into a small bub (a bull, which can be potted as iit were a largo seed and grown on, Certain iles tiger lies, for Instance) produce bulbs in their leat axl (where the bulb leat joins the stem) that can also be propagated. Examples of bulbs ae tulips, onions and les Corm This's similar toa bulb and often confused with one, Structurally, however, 2 ccormis ciferent, consisting ofa stem that is ‘swollen 2s a food store. Itis shorter and broader than a bulb. The leaves ofthe stem ‘are modified as thin dry membranes that enclose the corm and protect it against Injury and crying. Examples of corms are crocus and gladiolis. The procedure for propagating these is the same as for taking oftets from bulbs, Rhizome Ths is a stem that grows horizontaly naar the sol surface. A rhizome Usually stores food, but, asitarows, it develops buds along its length, Rhizomes ‘can be cut into sections with at least one eye or bud. Plants propagated inthis way Include is. Runner Thisis aster that arises froma ‘crown bucl and creeps over the ground. The planet that formes atthe tipis east rooted and forms a new plant. Pants with runners inotude strawborios and spicier plants “Tuber This sa swollen underground stem cor root tat stores food, Tuberous plants, such as potatoes and dahias, can be dug Up and the tubers separated, Each section must have a segment ofthe crown that Contains atleast one eye oF bud,50 Basic Techniques PROPAGATING TUBERS x 1 Take a sharp knife and cut the tuber (inthis case a begonia tuber through the ‘mide so that each part has a shoot ROOT CUTTINGS To proctice a new: plant om a root cutting, there must be a shoot bud present or it ‘Must be possible forthe cutting to form ‘one, The abilty of root cuttings to for these buds depends on the time of year The dormant (resting) season is usually the ‘best time to take root cuttings anditis best totake them from newer oot growth, ‘Make cuttings 3-10em (1-din) long. from roots that are 1=1.5em clameter Ensure the roots are from the chosen plant and not neighbouring plants, Cuttings are best taken during the winter, hen roots have large carbohydrate supplies, but they may also be taken throughout the growing season. Cut straight through the end of the root closest tothe stem. Cut the other end on a stant, (in in TAKING ROOT CUTTINGS 2.Dust the open cuts with fungicide such as sulphur or Bordeaux mixture. Prepare ‘two small pots with moist poting mix. This wit help you to remember which end is, the top {the straight cut) and which is the bottom (the dlagonal cut) Store cuttings from dormant roots for three weeks in moist rooting medium at °C (41°F), tor his, amove from storage {and plant upright in the growing medium, Koep moist and warm ina bright location Lntl the plant has grown large enough to pot on or plant out. This wil, of course, vary depending upon the vigour ofthe plant and slow-growing plants may be best potted up and grown on fora season before finaly planting out the folowing spring If root cuttings ar taken during active ‘growth, miss cut the perio of storage and place the cuttings directly inthe rooting ‘medium, Phlox and euphorbias ara propagated from root cuttings. {3 Plant both halves so that they sit frmly on top ofthe potting mix. Keep the potting mix ‘moist and plant on when new growth appears. STEM CUTTINGS AND LAYERING Mary trees, shrubs and herbaceous plants ‘are propagated from stem cuttings. A root system must be formed on a stem either before or after the stem is removed. Roots ‘can be formed on stems in two ways: by layering and by taking stem cuttings. With layering, the stern is alowed to produce roots before itis cut from the parent plant. Stem cuttings form roots after the stern Is removed. The main dificuty with stam ‘autings is keeping the stems alve while they form new roots. Some plant stems root better when the wood is soft and actively ‘growing, others root best from mature ‘wood. Cuttings taken trom plants that are actively growing are called softwood ‘utings, while those taken ater the wood is ‘mature are known as hardwood cuttings 1 Dig up a small section of oot from 2 suitable species with thick fleshy roots. The section must ether have a shoot bud or be capable of forming one — in which case the cutting should be taken in the dormant season - fit isto be successful 2 Remove a3 much of the sol as possible from the root cutting before slicing off the small side roots. Using a sharp knife, remove these 2s well as dead and damaged portions and any side shoots to leave a section of heathy root. 3Cut the remaining sections of the root into ‘smal pieces, approximately 5cm (Zin) Inlengta, cutting the bottom end at an ‘angle. insert the root euting into ‘propagation potting mix, withthe angled fend pointing down.Pe ee TAKING HARDWOOD CUTTINGS * Select heathy, blomish-tree pieces of 2.Siand the cut stems in ajar of water until 8 Diga narrow trench that is deep enough about the thickness of @ pencil. Cut you are ready to plant them out. Ideal, for the cuttings. About 2.5-Scm (1-2in) ofthese into sections about 20-25cm stand the jarin a coot moist place out of should emerge above ground. The length of the row wi depend on the numberof cuttings. “<.cosely fil the trench to about two-thirds insert the cuttings about 10-16cm (4-6in) 6 Gently frm the sol, making sure thatthe seth sharp sand or fine gn. This is ‘apart; making sure thatthe angied cutis cuttings are frm but that the sof surface Is sential as twill allow the passage ofr uppermost. ityou place any cuttings in not over-compactad. Leave the cuttings for seed the bases and prevent roting off Upside down ie. with the buds facing the whole ofthe growing season before ‘also encourage rooting. downward - rooting will not occur iting and plenting out next winter TAKING STEM TIP CUTTINGS 2.7m the cuttings to ust 3 Place up to twelve cuttings in 4 Water wel, and cover withthe Se stems and put them ina below a leat joint and then pot of potting mix thats cut-off base of a soft-drinks ebag. Thelengthofthe __removemost ofthe leaves and specially formulated for cuttings ote, aperfect substitute fora side shoots, leaving ust two or a50:50 mixture of sharp sand propagator A heated propagator at the top. This wil help to ‘and peat substitute such as colr will speed up the rooting process. prevent ster rot co feat mouid i Place several pots inthe same unit.52 Basic Techniques Layering s 2 useful way of incroasing some shrubs and climbers that cannot readily be propagated from cuttings. Simple layering is amethod of geting a growing shoot 10 produce roots we iis stil attached to the ‘parent’ plant, There are several variations ‘on the technique, and the one you use will ‘depend on the plant and the type of growth It produces, ‘Softwood cuttings are taken form frst year branchas that have nat yet become ‘woody. Flowering shrubs are often [propagated by softwood cuttings. Late ‘pring and early summer are the best times for success with this method. Take cuttings 5-10cm (2-4in) long, Larger cuttings Produce larger plants sooner, but they are prone to more rapid water loss. Make cuts LAYERING SHRUBS sightly below a leaf node, Remove any leaves on the lower section and insert them Into potting mix, aking sure that no leaves ‘are touching each other or the patting mix Remove any cuttings immediately from the tray or pot if they de or appear diseased. Pot heathy cuttings up promptly once they recomrance growth following rooting, Hardwood cuttings are taken onos the tissue becomes woody and the plant is. dormant, Cuttings can be taken two weoks after ea fall and before bud burst, Slect healtry wood that was produced the previous summer. The wood shouldbe about pencil thickness and cut into sections cf approximately 20-250m (6-10in), Several cuttings can be made from the same branch of some shrubs, To take hardwood cultings, make basal cats ust below a node, and upper cuts sightly above a bud, The upper cut should be slanted and the lower cut straight, so that 2 cutting isles key tobe inserted into the potting mix upside down. Once inserted all the tons ofthe cuttings should be slanted cuts. Bury cuttings vertically in ‘moist sandy topsol or sand. ‘The exttings should not freeze, but must remain coo|. In spring, remove the cuttings from storage and plant ina hotbed or other protected site with exposure to morning ‘sun orfitered light, Leave 2.6-5om (1-2in) of cutting above ground. Keep cuttings ‘moist unti a root syster forms, Transplant the cuttings the fllowing spring while they are stil dormant. 1 Choose a stem that wil reach the ground without breaking and prepare the soi ‘beneath it. In most cases, the native sol wil ‘be satisfactory, but fits heavy clay, add ‘some potting mix to improve its texture. 2 Tim off any side shoots or leaves. Diga ‘shallow hole and bend the shoot down into it ‘3 To help hold the shoot in place, peg it down with apiece of bent wire. 4Filin the hole and cover it with a stone. In ‘many cases, the stane willbe sufficient to ‘hold the layer in place and a peg willnot be required. The stone willalso help to keep the area beneath it mois. it may take several mnths or even yoars {or shrubs that are hard to propagate to layer but, eventual new shoots will appear and the layer wil have rooted. Sever it from its parent and pot itup into @ container 6 ifthe roots are wel developed, transfor the layer arecty to its new steBasic Techniques 53 SIMPLE DIVISION * Water the plant thats tobe Insert two garden forks 3 The pieces of the plant can 4 Alternatively, small pieces of eee dung the previous back-to-back into the plantand then bereplanted in the bad, the plant can be potted up Se Carefully dig upa clump of lever apart by pushing the ‘but dig over the soi fst, Individual. After watering, Se plntusinga soade, inthis handles together. Keep on ‘removing any weeds and place these in a closed cold ase 2 Michaoimas daisy ‘lviaing until the pleces are of adding some well-rotted frame fora few days before ater novi-belil the required size, organic material ‘hardening off Oevision CHIP BUDDING s the cutting or breaking up of a A eaeet ocd Boa) Pe pemove the bee) emp of suckers into segments. Weal hea) ica! segment ust have a bud and some banner atiee ar fla-edged tai, te successfully, These ‘obvious damage, Cutout the bud ‘are replanted and grow into new eae iastion wath athin shaving tical tothe parent. Most Myouare doing this of the wood should be lifted and divided Pe eeranta ls) babi ie bark end ome overgrown and begin to (vol relat at leave a "shape ana rous growth in most remove the leaves. atthe base. Sererrsis 00018 0 the outer Segments of Se cero Ol6 growth in the centre ofthe c 0, wetuty do up the plant, loosening the mons from the sol. Split apart ‘3 Propare the stock 4 Place te bud into ean cup with two spades or forks, or plant oy cutting a the notch, fing See eh a shove or large knife i the “church window" the *V"-shaped arc massed. It fs advisable to shaped notch base into the notch ace 2 swerng perennials in spring, from the stom that atthe base of the pte ese that fower in spring end is the same ‘window cut" eer are best dived in autumn, thickness asthe chipped bud and GRAFTING AND BUDDING fave. small notch a ng involve inserting or cut into the base. oe 3 plant on to another seth parts continue to grow. attach a short twig toma 5 Make sure that 6 Secure the graft 2 or more buds the bud fits sno, fem with rating oa seeding. Tis seeding with the edges of tape to ensure that tees the stock and forms the oot the bud-woodin the join does not Jar, whi the scion contact with the ddr out. The graft —t th. Budding involves edge of the 5 wilesualy tke in rer na Gesiable variety “window” noted. about 4-6 weoks fect or siti the bark of the stock. The inthe summer but sec whole top ofthe winter rafts can — d buds take longer.54 Basic Techniques THE GREENHOUSE ENVIRONMENT Greenhouses provide an environment in which levels of ight and shade, temperature and moisture, and protection from the elements can be closely controlled and monitored. You can propagate plants to grow outside, protect tencier plants from frosts and grow certain craps out of season. A basic understanding of the ways that the greenhouse environment can be controlled wil help you on your way to a bumper harvest. LIGHT INTENSITY [Natural ight has all the right wavelengths that plants need to function and grow ‘successfully. Light intensities vary ‘considerably during the year and gardeners, often try to compensate for this by ging extra light tothe plant. The quailty ofthis light must be correct for he growth of plants, and light bulbs used to supplement natural ight must be ofa sutable daylight quality. Natural winter ght intensity is often insufficient for certain crops, Conversely, summer light combined with elevated temperatures, cause problems for other crops. Bala growth requires good greenhouse design and proper planning forthe light requirements of the crop. As a general ne, the ridge that runs along the middle of your Js, especialy when Above: A maximum/minimum thermometer fan essental too! n helping you to judge the conettions in your greenhouse, greenhouse (f yours isa traditional *A"-shaped one) should always be rientatad so thet itruns east to west LIGHT READINGS WITH A METER These should be taken inside the (greenhouse and then compared with an ‘outside reading. The diference between the two raadings willindicate the percentage of available light transmitted into the ‘greenhouse, A good to here for those without a professional ight meter isto use the automatic aperture reading on an SLR camera or a photographic ight meter. t will not give actual figures, but wit indicate toa certain extent ust how much of the avaliale ight is getting through. ADDITIONAL LIGHTING Supplementary ighting can be used 10 "top-up" existing dayiant, especially in Winter. You should alvays buy bulbs that ‘give a full spectrum of light the same quality ‘as daylight often sold or described as ‘grow lights"). Almost all bubs for household use are short ofthe particular light wavelengths that plants need to produce food and grow successfully. Grow lights tend to use a lot of eectilty and it may be cheaper to provide adcitional ight for ust apart ofthe greenhouse, ‘suspenaling the ights above a crop that relly reeds the light, Grow ights are avalable as ‘bulbs or strip lights and can sometimes be ‘bought as special enclosed units. SHADING ‘This controls temperature and! taht. ‘Shading is usualy ut in placein order to reduce summer temperatures ff they are ‘excessive or to protact young plants and shade-oving ones from vary intense sunlight. Binds, netting or white shade paint can al be effective ‘Above: Shading helps to keep temperatures down in the summer and also protects the plants trom sun scorch, ‘TEMPERATURE ‘Almost al plants Uke a fain night-time. temperature of about 4-6°C (7-10°F) bbolow that in the day, Many commonly {grown species have a relatively wide range Cf tolerances, but most grow best between about 16-24°C (60-76"F). Al plants have ‘maximum and minimum temperature tolerances that should never be exceeded You can take an average temperature reading inside the greenhouse using a ‘maximum and minimum thermometer. ‘Compare with one taken outside. You should note, however, that more than just ‘tha outside temperature influences that ‘fa greenhouse. The action of the sun, ‘even on a relatively cold day, can resut in ‘temperatures boing much higher neice than ‘out, Wind is also a factor to consiger that can cause a ching effect far bolow the ‘temperature average, rapidly cooling the lass and air nearby, HEATING SYSTEMS, Most heaters depend upon a hotbox or burner. These work by heating the air rectly. They are mere generally used ‘Above: Same automated systerns measure air temperature, and then turn on heat and ‘open vents as necessarythere imo need to provide heat on a 2x basis - in cold greenhouses, for orn palytunnels used fr raising hardy stock, Some enterprising ners link hot water pipes to their peating systems to provide eating forthe greenhouse. The centage here i that the heat tends 10 dat times to suit the housenld the plants within the greenhouse, INSULATION le to inaulate a greanhiouse by ding adcltionallyers within the cure to trap alr, Bubble-wrap plastics ‘pula method as tis easy to place in ion and allows forthe transmission of Such methods always reduce the 1 of ight transmitted, but wil save heating costs. in addition to this, 19 of the greenhouse can help to chiling effects of high winds. HUMIDITY Most plants thrive in abou 40 to 60 per cent secity, Plants that are grouped together + up thalr own small microcimate humidity is higher in the vicinity Much of the humicity ent fora plant depends upon where rom, Rainforest plants often need cant or more humaity, wheteas cacti seed as ile as 15 per cant (h cultvaton) umicty is also affected by other =, notably temperature. Warm air can ich more moisture than cooler a ‘The need to increase humidity rises during the hatter months when tis harder ‘to keep down the temperature in protected structures, nereasing the humidty also. haps to slow down the water loss from. leaves and may also help to prevent witing (or scorch, Huricty should be raised by damping down praying a hose on hard surfaces, pats or under benches} on hot dry days. there are only oertaln plants, such as young seedings, thal require elevated humicity, then these are best covered with a thin layer of clear plastic AIR CIRCULATION Allplants need a constant supply of clean ‘fesh ar around them in order to grow healthy, Outdoors, normal wind moverants ‘would supply this, butin a areenhouse you ‘wll ngad to make provision for this. \Ventlators help control temperature and al flow, Roof vents should normally occupy the equivalent of 15 per cant ofthe floor space in order to be ful effective. They are normally a single structure that opens “window fashion” witha safety catch to keep them panto the required wiath. As with greenhouse design in gant, there fre many designs, most being snple \varations on a theme. Side ventlators ‘are elso occasionally eon In some ‘greenhouses. These are usually arranged in "louvre type" feshion, with several ‘overlapping strips that can be opened or ‘losed with a smal iver. Left: Even a relatively small greenhouse can vastly increase the range of plants that you can grow in your garden. CHECKING THE CONDITIONS ‘The geonhouse microclimate differs trom the garden chiely because the iohtintansky Is lower, the temperature is higher and ar turbulence is less. How you mody the cervrorment largely depends on what you intend to grow. Winter salad crops need ‘some addtional heat, particularly on cold ‘winter rights, Signy tender, overwintering perennials may not need any haat unless the ‘temperature crops very lw, You must know hat the environment wil be evan on cole \Winter nights. The only ealy accurate way {o.assess the suitably of en environment {or plant growth sto take requar readings. ‘Many devices exist to monitor the internal ‘conditions within protected structures. ‘These include thermostats for heating and ‘automatic ventiaiors,atthough a seerringly endless array of humidification, automatic shading and watering devices are now available for small greenhouses. GREENHOUSE HYGIENE Practising good hygiene is important in maintairing the health of the plants. Dead leaves and debris left ying about can harbour pests and diseases, as can badly affected piansif they are not removed promptly. Once a year, thoroughly clean al surfaces, including glass and glazing bars, with not soapy water. This il pay cMidends ung the growing season by reducing the number of annually re-occurring pests and diseases. Where plants are grovinin open ‘borders, rotate crops or replace the sol wth fresh topsoll every two or three years, Above: Bubble-wvrap plastic isan ideal ‘material with which to insulate the greenhouse in the winter56 Basic Techniques GREENHOUSE CULTIVATION Ina greenhouse you can hasten the arrival of spring by forcing hyacinths, tullps, azaleas and @ whole variety of spring crops. You can also lengthen summer, with roses that bloom far into the autumn, and brighten winter with camations, camelias and rare tropical flowers. You may also harvest tomatoes in mid-winter and vegetables or greens at any time of the year. METHODS OF GROWING “Think carefully about how you plan to use ‘your greenhouse and what plants you WOU Ike to grow there. The true art of greenhouse gardening lesin using every avaliable area of space, This will invove Planning the layout of the growing areas in the greenhouse and making a cropaing plan to ensure that you not only use allot the avallable space, but also every “time space" within the growing calendar. GROWING IN OPEN GROUND Many greenhouse plants will cow well in ‘pen sol borders. The soll can be prepared inasimilar way to that used for borders outside. Remember that much of what benefits outdoor sol (digging and adding ‘organic matte) is leo goad for indoor sol The advantage is thatthe system is sustainable over a long petiod andi can even bbe serviced as a small raised bed system to help maintain steady sol temperatures, Taler crops, such as tomatoes, are particularly well suited to growing in open ‘eorders in the greennouse, but a whole range of both omamentals and ectble ‘ops can also be grown in this way. Flemamber that you intend to arow certain ‘raps indoors ~ salad crops, tomatoes, legumes or cucumbers, for example = then you may need to rotate these, or in smeler ‘spaces avoid growing them in open ‘ground every second or third year This is done for the same reasons that outdoor crops are rotated. ‘Above: Staging can provide extra space inthe greenhouse aswell asa ‘comfortable surface ‘on which to work. Left: You can grow cropsin sol beds ‘as walls in pots in the greenhouse. Above: Early crops and flowers cen be raised in pots ready for planting out when the weathor is warmer GROWING IN POTS ON STAGING Staging is essentially a shot or shelves on ‘which plants in pots are arranged. It enables the gardener to work at a comfortable height and is particulary useful {or those who wish to raise seedlings and ‘propagate plants. The area beneeth the staging is somewhat shaded but by no ‘means wasted as it can be used for overwintering dormant plants, growing ferns ‘and other shade-fovers, and for some forms ‘of propagation fites propagated from scales, for instance). also provides the pperect place for propagators and can easly 'be adapted to become a propagating tent USING GROW BAGS ‘Grow bags offer a good alterative o open beds in smaller greenhouses, where space islinited and no open beds exist. These can be purchased or you can easly ‘make your own by filing a large plastic potting-mix bag with a mixture of garden ‘compost and alittle grt. Each bag wit support four tomato plants and even greater numbers of smaller plants, Grow bags are ideal for raising sweet pas (Lathyrus odoratus) for use on patios or root ‘gardens where the rich deep sol in which ‘they thrive fs unavaliable, They can equelly 99 used to raise garden peas or beans. GROWING CLIMBING PLANTS ‘The last dimension inthe greenhouse isthe vertical one, ukimately to the oof, Lean-to greenhouses are especialy usofu for this, their back walls being well suited tor (growing such things as vines or kivd. Even freestancing "apex" houses (those shaped Ike an "A" with @ central idge) can be used to raise climbing crops, such as cucumbers ‘or melons, to say nothing ofthe thousands Cf delighttul and colourtl ornamental Climbers thet thrive inthe greechouse.A YEARLY GREENHOUSE CROPPING PLAN ‘The plan shown below is a sample of ow a greenhouse can be “eto be productive al year round. The essantal point i that you plan what you want to grow. Once you have decided on this itis & relatively elle matter to make your greenhouse a productive space. CREENHOUSE TASK MID-WINTER LATE WINTER EARLY SPRING ip.sPRING swie crops ‘Sowesedsforeary crops. Sow broad bears. Poton early Sow thegeeds ofBrucsols ‘Sow sen of cutdoortomatoes, Irtaplentwth adshes Sow vogetablescedings. Redice | sprouts. Sowindoer tomato eben celorias, melons and tary caboage andeauifowor young shoots ofvnesto one seedand make sowngs of cucumbers, Harden of ery Inpois. Bring trawbomesin foto per spurancrase olen tagotesorsimilr _Yoplable plants. Tlenew grouth fromframesTaprdessvines _fowered rods backto the harder to encouregs ‘fom ves to wires. Remove fh ting cimbers ‘reerhouse ie enefoaisand polnstor. sia shoots of ary tomatoes Prk out soedings. ‘ornamentals Tako cutingsoplatesuch Stato dala cuttings. Harden off wal est peas, Fishsowing halt hardy bed. Tsotysaninomums Bing’ Culbackand e-potfucrelas-Potupeutingsandeowsoed Potuputings an prick aut Bulb pot infor fron, ‘nd pelagoniime. Sow svest of hal-ardy annual sedis. Make up summer Potonautimmsou sweet poss (Lats odcratu) Take cutings Prick cut tube ana hanging basket or ‘eat into “ong” pols. Potun euttngs of meeceous seodings Potup summer gringo. plants, Sow netacecus. ‘bedcng tubers aed corms ‘0d and begh coving ‘edeng plan's ‘General ‘Wash lass panos of Keep an oye on entiation Damp down on hot caysand__Damp down at east wice daly (greenhouse anaes. Wien forpestsanddiseases, venta, Watch fr pests and whan hot and ventlte.Continve Keep condions onthe dry Keep carters onthe dy se. enasos.Begntofeed plants to waten{or pests and diseases. ‘de, Be vant for winter Remove deadordyinjméteral a8 growth increases. Da. ig Borders and manure you peste andcissases Provide fromplants Provide iealas_-manureand op-cress borders havent aoady done so. Feat as necessary. necessary and entat, ready or planing. GREENHOUSE TASK LATESSPRING EARLY SUMMER, Mio-summer Lave SUMMER. Eee crops Plant greenhouse tomatoes Trin grapetrusse using vine Handpolinatemelonsand Remove lower aves ofomatoes Intopreparedbordersorlatge soaeors Thin ultifnaoossary cucumbors. Perform lst ‘srl pens. Suppor melee, Potscfiowniused pottng, enpoaches growing Unser tinning en grape russes. removing leaves that rade he fa teplant with enone glass Pik tomatoes reulty Fed tomatoes with {rut Harvest cucumbers Sow tnd tagots to encourage [they pen, Pinch oul wd te fad bloc to develop 2 of teal eps and Bessinto recep. Picket mens and vcurbers 2s uppermost uss, ‘companion pats. celetyand eaeriag outings. they each tne ilsnded sie. ramentale Harden off beddingplants. -Takecutngsof deciduous «Tak cuttings of evergreen Take cutings of palrgonums and Place wnisrowering subs. Propagate sibs and deciduous fucheias te act "mother plants" ‘yclamenin shade ancsiow houseplants. Sow seeds species. Propagate forcuaing tarnext season, {opal ry cut Of spring beding plants ouseplents, Sow seeds of in ramos Donnas rams Re-start tested cytomen comms. coverat Provide shade over sensitive Weterregary. Continue Woter regis twice daly in Cantus poting on devloning ropa Feed panisregulay _pottngen developing cutings hot weather and damp down cutings and seedings. Continue Sitteliquidtee'"Wstchfor and seadingeofaapiants. two or twestimes dalyro wath or pests and isoases, pasts ancciseaes and ‘malta hry. Aandinreduce bidogial contol Irocie blogic conto, inecessany. ‘GREENHOUSE TASK EARLY AUTUMN mip-auruwn Lave AUTUMN EARLY WINTER sole cops CCutmeionsssscon they -_-Plantupwintrlesfandaiad _Ltrowrsof rhubarb for ‘Sow sae of ea enon arieos, Sipe Cesrtomatoes ac ropa nterplaning these wits forangand|eave terion the Litfunercrowns of par for thay ish fnappropriatecompenion—_surfacofora week. forcing. Pune peach wes hat are panting. ‘roulng under oass ornamentals Toke laat samp cuttings Harden off ping bedng Move bubs fr forcing into ting bulbs for ore Honors ‘an eotvood outings plants read fr parting. framoto oncourage top ‘Stool ek "mother plants or ‘goth. Lit ena pot upiy-ot- ary cuttings the-valoy for spring play enerat Decrease wateingas ays Patonanyrerairing cutings Keep conltons on ery Repel sny damage to glass panes Shotlen:Potondavelaprg snd acedngs Pick over ‘ie Boviglontforwiner immediate it'snoeed Order Eutingeandsoodings ofall plansonareguarbasien posts and diseasos, a plants sed forthe coming season you plants, Remove shaging Ger toremove dead ordyng become more siressed uate have not done so shady. and provide geil eat on a ih Ista Provide gan heat on cold its. lou tgrt ives Previce neat senececsay,58 Basic Techniques COLD FRAMES AND GEO CHES Indlvidual and multiple plant protectors are useful for covering the transplants or seedlings of warm-weather vegetables or flowers that are sot out ahead of the normal planting season. These usually take the form of low plastic tunnels, cloches or individual bell jars. The colder the area in which you five, the greater their usefulness because they affectively extend the length of the normal growing season. COLD FRAMES These enable you to sow summer flowers ‘and vegetables come weeks before outdoor planting and may even allow for an axtra Crop within a season. They are relatively inexpensive, simple structures, providing a favourable environment for growing ‘coo)-weather crops in the vary early spring, the autumn and even into the winter Gold frames have no outside energy requirements, relying on the sun as a source ‘of heat, They colect heat when the sun's rays panetrate the light [the top cover) which Is made from plastic, glass or fibreglass. The Idea lacation fora cold frame is facing the irection ofthe sun witha sight slope to ensure good drainage and maximum solar absorption. A sheltered spot against a wall ‘or hedge Is est. Sink the frame into the ‘round to provide extra protection, using the earth for insulation. Put a walkway to the front and adequate snace behind the frame to help when remowing the light Designs for col frames vary. For ‘example, sore contain barrels that are painted black and filed with water, These ‘absorb heat during the day and release it at right. Some cold frarnes are buit with a very high back and a steep glass slope. ‘Others are insulated very well and may also include moveable insulation. A simple method of providing Insulation isto use sacks filed with leaves over the top ofthe frame and bales of straw or hay stacked against the sides at nightin order to protect against freezing, There is no standard-szed cold frame The inside depth ofthe freme shoud be determined by the height ofthe plants that you plan to grow. Spring annuals, perennial seedlings or low over-wintering stock may eed as ile as a 30em (12ir) backboard ‘and a 200m (Bin) front board, Potted plants ‘may need a 380m (15i) front board and a 45cm (18in) back board, A standard glass frame lignt is usually about 1 x 1.8m @ x. ‘Above: This is a sturdy brick cold frame with ‘a soll bed for rowing wintar and early spring vegetabies. 64), Donot make the structure too wide for weeding and harvesting; @ width of 1.2-1.6m, (4-58) is convenient toreach across. Cold frarmes are useful for hardning-off ‘seedings that were started indoors or in a ‘greenhouse, This hardening, of period is Important because seedings can suffer serious setbacks I they are moved directly ‘rom the warmth and protection of the ‘greenhouse to the garden. Its also possible to start cool-weather crops in the cold frame and either grow them to maturity or transplant them in the gardan. Cold frames. ‘may aso be useful for rooting the cuttings of deciduous and evergreen shrubs and trees, and the softwood cuttings of chyysanthemums, geraniums and fuchsias dduting the warmer months. Ventilation is, ‘most critica in late winter, early spring, and early auturnn on clear, sunny days when temperatures may ise above 45°C (1 12°F}, The light should be reised partially 10 prevent the build-up of extreme temperatures inside the frame. Lower or replace the light early each day n order to ‘conserva some heat for the evaring In summer, extreme heat and intensive ‘sunlight can damage plants. You can avoid this by shading witha ath (a slatted wooden framo| or od bamboo window blinds. Water plants early 80 that they dry before dark this helps to reduce disease problems, CLOCHES ‘Traditionally a bel-shaped ajass cover, 2 cloche is 2 moveable structure that serves, ‘as min-greenhouse. Coches can be used to.protect transplanted tender plants from soning frosts. They also help o warm up the sol for crops sown clscty inthe eal Left: When the seectings are fully acclimatized and ready to be planted out, the lights or ids can be et off altogetherAbove: A rigid plastic cloche is easy to use. The sections butt up st each other and can be pegged into the sol. Endpleces are so available, The traditional or European cloche is built in 800m (24in} sections that i height from 20-B0om (8-24in) and 1m (16-26in) in with. itis made of panes of glass held together with heavy zed wie tings It has @ handle for in carrying are! for operating the entlation system. Several loches placed nd make a miniatixe greenhouse, tic botles with the bottoms cut out provide protection for small incivdual ants, These wil last a season oF two, but become brit over time. Flaxilo raglass sheets held in an inverted *U~ ape by stiff wre hoops or small wooden 2kes can be used to cover rows of plants. attractive, ‘Atunnel-tke plant protector can be mace with a. .5m (ft) strip of plastic or floece laid over 1.8m (Gt) wire hoops placed 1m (af epar. Elastic tledowns over the top near each hoop wil hold the plastic, Temporary clochas can also be made by arching black, semi-igid, plastic ploing over the row or bed and sticking it into the {round on each side. Lay cleer plastic over the arches. Ifthe beds are enclosed with Wood, attach brackets tothe inside edges: Of the boxes or sink short pieces of pipe ‘wth a larger inside diameter along the sides to hold the arches, The arches can be used to support fleece or shade cloth to ward off both fost and bright sunlight. When this Above: Glass bel jars are simple cloches for covering one pier. ‘They are expensive, but large plastic ars make a good, if not as ternative. clache is no longer needed, simply remove the plastic sheet and pipe ribs and store. them unt the folowing season, THE BOTTLE RADIATOR In areas prone to late air frost, this simple ‘method can protect outdoor crops such as bush tomatoes, Filla glass or pastic bottle with water and place t next tothe plant The sunight will warm the water inthe bottle, which willin tum release a gentle heat at night. Ths is sufficient to prevent ‘cold shock to the plant and will ensure ‘900d growth and cropping. Itcan also be used in conjunction with a fleece covering ‘to enhance the warming eect Left: Ola-fashioned cloches are ppaniculary good for ‘decorative vegetable gardens. However, they are also very expensive, Far left: Upturned, clear plastic bores with the bottoms ‘cutout ere ideal for using as mini- Cloches, protecting Individual plants. Thisis also an environmentally ‘lenaly technique.PLANT HEALTH The main concern for new organic gardeners is that their plants will be attacked by pests and diseases. There is an array of techniques to control these undesirables, although the organic gardener must first learn to recognize signs of distress. However, you are unlikely to experience more than a handful of the problems described, all of which are relatively easy to solve. Pests, for example, are eaten by creatures known as beneficials and so the ecology of the garden, once stabilized, will be enough to keep most problems at bay. There is always a technique to control more persistent problems and so ensure the health of your plants. Left: A scarecrow is a traditional way of protecting your crops from maraualng bis. Itcan also be decorative and amusing. pove: Companion plants suchas these Above: Brightly coloured flowers can Above: Decorative planting in the angolds can provide welcome colourin encourage a variety of beneficial insects vegetable plot can provide adcitional colour e kitchen garden, into your garden. ‘and interest62 Plant Health WHY PLANTS GET SICK Plants are prone to numerous ailments, some of which can be a serious threat to their survival. Pests and aiseases are only one of the potential pitfalls that you will meet during a normal growing season. A basic knowledge of the other main factors that can affect plant health are aif ‘you will need to help your garden to flourish. While the sight of your plants suffering can be alarming, there are, in general, only a few potential health threats that you are likely to encounter. FROST ‘This can cause serious problems end is ‘actualy mote ertical than average minimum temperatures. Most harmf are unexpected frosts that can cause severe damage even to hardy subjects, especialy when they may have produced “soft” new growth, ‘While warm air iss, cold air wil settle ‘and collect in holiows and depressions. CGoid ars aden with water vapour and is theretore heavier Any valley or low-hing area is, therefore, a potential frost pocket (Cold air wil accumulate in a depres then back up the sloping sides as the bul: Up increases. Ary barrier, such as a hedge (oF a al, wil obstruct the passage of the ‘cold air and a frost pocket wil form. Any plants growing inthe vicinity wil be exposed tothe frost and may be damaged by it. When the sols frozen, water is io longer avaliable to the plant and shallow-rooted plants are not able to access any water to replace that which they are losing through ‘rengpiration, The plent will dehydrate and the folage wil brown and shrivel. Ground frosts may also cause the sol to "havo" ‘and plants wil be ified out of the ground, ‘Atornate freezing and thawing is often ‘more damaging to the plant than the intial frost ise, especialy for tender or hal-hardy subjects such as bedding plants. Severe frost can spit the bark on woody subjects and ray also ulstort leaves. “The damage caused by frosts directly ‘elated to its duration, A temperature of -4°C (25°F fer 0 no damage, while the same temperature for four hours may be disastrous. "e hour may cause ite or WATERLOGGING AND DROUGHT The build-up of water in the sol, particularly \yhare this occurs over a prolonged period cf ime, can be highty detrimental to the heath of your plants, This sof greatest concer with plants that are not adapted to ‘such waterlogged conditions, As @ result, the roots of the plants wil suffer anc probably de rom asphyxiation, ‘Above: Large blocks of the same type of plant are easy for pasts to locate and are therefore prane to attack ‘Water shortage or drought only tends to, ‘occur during the summer months when temperatures and light intonsity are at their peak, The most obvious sign ofthe effacts ‘of water shortage on a plant is when it wits and loses its tugilty. Water shortage also ‘causes plant functions to slow down dramatically and prolonged crought can result in permanent cal damage. wind ‘The effects of wind damage to plants, ‘especially woody trees and shrubs, are sometimes only too obvious. Wind often Worsens extremes of temperature and ought. n severe cases of wind damage, trees can be broken and shrubs uprooted. The stronger the wind, the more damaga is Ikety to occur LIGHT IMBALANCES Aplant’s growths always directed towards the avallable light. Pants growing in shade often become drawn and etiolated. Conversely, strong sunlight damages plants by scorching the foliage. To prevent such problems iis best fo select plants that wi {grow wall inthe prevaling site conditions, NUTRIENT IMBALANCES Plants extibit varying symptoms toa ‘uirient imbalance depending, in general 'upon the severty ofthe problem, ‘Symotoms of deficlency may include stunted growth, ciscolouredieaves (reluding motting and intenveinal coloration), the premature death of leaves and parts ofthe plan, twisted and distorted growth and poor ot growth anc development. Left: Planting crops among companion ‘plants will make it more alficut for pests to locate thom,ight: A heathy, flourishing border, which is pests and diseases, isthe utimate ‘all organic gerdeners. 1 symptoms are usually noticed frst ‘ot tps, although problems may -onany part ofthe plant andiin ent stages of growth, Determining a xy nwole an analysis ofthe sol striont can be tox to the plant it in sufcienty high amounts or is jance with other elements in the 3 medium, POLLUTION °c symptoms of pollution may include ning brown atthe tips and s, leaf discoloration or premature leat th may also be stunted, solutant damage can be very © and rapid in ts effects on a plant th. Common probiams that you unter Include extrame sell aciity chemical toxcity, salt toxicity oF se residues. Of these, only sll ty relatively easy to cure, I serious ispected, then ths requires help. Such situations, however, PESTS AND DISEASES ‘portant to bear in mind that a certain vest and lsease invasion is normal ealthy orops. Howevey Its also say that healthy vigorous plants are nt to serious attack than plants yowing under stress. The best est and disease controls prevention. You will need to be 1 and recognize a range of pests sn order to prevent outbreaks your garden end, if necessary, romp action, Loft: Heatthy plants ‘are often the result of careful selection ‘according tothe ste conditions. Right Itis very Important to recognize potential problems before ‘your plants sutfor too much damage.64 Plant Health PREVENTING PROBLEMS Organic gardening is about working with nature to create an environment in which plants can withstand attack from pests and diseases, without you resorting to the use of harmful insecticides, If plants become infested with pests or diseases, they may fall to give a good alsplay and crop yields can suffer: Prevention is better than cure, and a keen eye and regular checks will help you to anticipate and prevent the worst of any potential problems. ‘Above: A planting combination of roses ‘and daisies will help to attract beneficial ‘predators to the garden, GOOD CULTURAL PRACTICE AND HYGIENE Many pests and diseases can surive without a susceptible host even under the ‘most unfavourable conatians, Myriad plant clisoases surive frern one growing season to the next on plant debris, in the soll, on seeds of on alternate hosts (sorne posts and diseases affect diferent plant species at diferent imes of the year €.9, peach: potato aphid). This means tis vital to remove end properly aispose of ary infected plant materials. Its also important forthe ‘organic gardener to be aware ofthe diseases that can threaten an individual crop and recognize the conditions in which these potential threats to plant health ean the, GROW DISEASE-RESISTANT CULTIVARS, Pant varetios and cutivars wore mostly chosen for other reaeons than their clsease-resistant qualtes, Often thay become so commonly grow that their diseases become widespread, Many plants have disease-resistant strains or cultivars, bt this does not necessarily {uarante® that they willbe immune to a isease, However, they willbe better abe to resist the worst ofits ravages, Above: Place straw undlr growing strawberries in order to protect them from rotand sal-dweling pests ‘Above: The regular washing down of the glass panes in a greenhouse can reduce the builo-up of disease-causing organisms. Right: Regular deadheading of old or ‘damaged blooms will help to reduce the ‘spread of some fungal aiseases, AVOID PLANT STRESS plant that is stressed — by drought or an Unfavourable temperature, for example ~ uill be predisposed to pest or disease attack. Plants that are not subjected to higher levels of stress than they can cope ‘with wil remain heathy and better abie to deal wth potential attackers, Stressed plants often show signs of Physical cisorders (e.g, being tal, drawn ‘and pale due to lack of ight). These canbe due to the weather, being wrongly site, Putient imbalance or the presence of a toxic subsiance in the air or sol. Physically stressed plants may become sicker than fa pest: or disease-causing organism actualy had invaded them, Stress can killa plant i the problem isnot quicky remedied, RIGHT PLANT, RIGHT PLACE Plants all have ther preferred locations and the occurrence or lack of a particular lenvronmental factor or factors wil Uimately determine whether 2 plant wil prosper in the position in which thas been Planted. Fems, for example, need a cool moist site, Pacing one ina hot sunny sto will lead to its death as struggles to keep ‘ts moisture, Plants that become stressed wll neither grow as well, nor be as isease-resistant, as they would otherwise, Choosing an appropriate ste inthe fest place will at least help to ensure the intial heath of your plants and wil render them ‘more abie to resist other potential treats to their heath RECOGNIZING THE PROBLEM Organic gardeners who understand pest lMe-cycles and behaviour are bettar able to determine when control wil be most ‘effective. Insocts living in your garden are al par of nature's complex ecosysterns and food chains. Less than one per cent of ‘species that you are likely to encounter are considered pests, Since few insects are ‘actually hermful, organic garceners must learn which are pests, which are beneficial, and which ones wil have na efflact on the {garden whatsoever= espe the fact that they are not atweys, ‘pula, insects play an important rola in jarcens. Beneficial insects, such as 228, are necessary in the organic garcien +0 polnate fruit and some vegotable crops, such as springtalls, also help to ‘ak down dead plant tssue, while wasps nd ground beetles capture and eat other pest insects and are called predators. Wasps and midges have larvae that altack 1p2sis by ling inside ther bodies and are ald parasitoids. Organic gardeners must lear to cherish this “wing army” of helpers er gardens. PEST AND DISEASE CYCLES 1 gardeners believe that thelr plants pave been attacked overnight. This may be rus in the case of damping-off clsease or h larger pests such as rabbits, More ten, however, much has oecurred before ne symptoms are actualy vsibe, The pathogen (the pest- or disease: using organise} must be introduced ‘noculated) to the host plant. Most pathogens elther move by themselves < with most pests) or must be carried to ‘the host plant (as with the vast majority of js283e8), Raln, win, insects, bis and people usually spread plant ciseases. Splashing rain carias spores of apple scab fungus from infected apple leaves to ninfected leaves, Wind blows fungal ‘rom plant to plant, while aphids and fies transmit many common plant a8es. Believe itor not, smokers can ransmit tobacco mosaic ius from a toto tomato plants, ‘Onee the pathogen has been transferred to tha host plan, i begins to multiply, ‘change or grow into a form that can then center the host. In mary fungal ciseases, the pathogen arrives onthe plant as a spore, which must germinate beforeit can begin to grow and invade the plant. Once the fungal spore germinates, it sends out thread-tke tubes called hyphae. These penetrate the plant through wounds or natural pores in the outer skin of leaves, toms and roots. The roots of bedding plants that have been damaged during transplanting are a common entry point for *oot-otting fungl. A single aphid that lands ‘on a plant can give bith to a clone every twelve hours and can eventually form @ small thriving colony within a few cays, leaving the gardener with the impression that it suddenly appeared, ‘Once established, pests or diseases can grow or Incraasa in number and begin damaging piant tissue. As they consume rutvients or lant tissue, evidence of the Plant Health 65 Lett: Always choose plants that are suited to the site. Akalino sols - indicated here by the pink flower ofthis hydrangea — wil not suit certain plant species. damage tothe plant begins to appear ‘Symptoms may be seen on any plant parts and include mating, dwarfing, distortion, discoloration, witing, shriveling or holes. ‘and notching in the margins of leaves. The fist signs of pest infestation may not appear until well ater the insect has laid ts and disappeared. ‘sedis or cuttings from infected plants ase, Certified organic seed guarantees that at the time of sele the seeds are free ofall seasas, Always try tocbtain disease-free stock as this should ‘Quarantee that tne plants not infected and will not introduce disease into y This is particularly important with plants such as roses as well as crop plants like ragpberrles and other smal fruits. Past insects and mites may carry isoases that infect plants, Organic gardeners use the term "pest management" rather than pest contol or pest eradication, Itis impossible to erackcate pests from your garden completely. Te best option is to try to keep pest numbers low in order to ‘minimize the damage that they can cause in your garden, ADOPT AN INTEGRATED STRATEGY (Organic gardeners must learn how to use a range of pest management techniques, such as introducing beneficial predators, into thor gardens (often refered to as biological controls), making gardens less attractive to harmful pests, and ‘encouraging conditions inthe garden that {favour beneficial predators ofall types (cutural contro) Left: Composting is the best way of recycling garden waste, but you ‘mustnever compost material that is olseased.66 Plant Health PLANT PESTS Pests can be described as those creatures that harm your garden plants and, if left unchecked, they can quickly cause a great deal of damage. ‘There is a huge army of these pests, but most organic gardeners are unlikely to encounter the vast majority of them. A basic knowledge of the commonest types that occur in domestic gardens is ail that you should need to be familiar with in order to protect your plants and guarantee their health and successful growth. HOW CAN YOU TELL IF A PEST IS ‘A PROBLEM OR NOT? Deciding whether a pest isa problem or not {vary much a matter of opinion. Commercial growers assess the importance ‘of a pest in terms oftheir nancial osses. Domestic organic gardeners, however, tend to grow fewer pints or crops and mainly ‘row these for thar beauty oF forthe pleasure of eating home-grown produce. The Final decision as to the importance of a pest will ly upon the ckcumstances and experiance of individual gardeners. Al ‘organic gardeners must be willing to accept ‘a certain number of pests in their garden as these form part of the intricate food webs that resultin natural control I there are no pasts then the animals that eat them will tleappear and open the door to future, potentially serous, pest outbreaks, RECOGNIZING PESTS Itisimportant that you are able to ocurataly dently a pest that has been attacking your plants so that you can take ‘he appropriate action. Just because an Incectis seen walking on an affected plant ‘does not mean that tis the one causing the ‘damage. The only real way to control pasts ‘Above: Birds can be serious pests inthe ‘garden, Here, large bites have boon taken out ofa brassica. Invowves gating to know them, Many pests produce characteristic symptoms that ‘make it possible to diagnose the cause with relative certainty. Some have a wide range Cf host plants, and symptoms may not always be as conspicuous on all affected plants, Close examhation ~perhaps with a hand lans ~ may be necessary forthe final clagnosis, With careful observation and experiance, itis possible to keep one step ahead ofthe pestsin your garden. CONTROL OPTIONS Itisimportant to contol pests befor ey become a problem. A single black bean ‘aphid (Aphis fata) that lands on a ‘proas bean atthe start of the summer could theoretically gve rise to 2,000, 000,000,000,000 aphids by the stat Cf the autumn, This would be about a millon tons of aphids. Numbers such as tis ‘ara impossible but it does go to show that ‘aly control's essential. Quantities such as, those cuoted inthe ephid example cannot ‘ecur as the food supply would run out bore this can happen. In adaition, ‘a whole host of predators eat them. In just afew days, however, pests can cause ‘considerable damage and quick action is ‘Above: Rabbits can devastate a garden overnight, leaving nothing but chewed of ‘stumps as a result of their visit. ‘Above: Pests may well be present before symptoms appear Close examination may reveal them before the plans start to suffer: needed if you are to save your plants. Organic gardeners must employ afullrange of control measures fo ensure their pants survive this seasonal invasion, including cultural practoes (erop rotation, good hhygione and encouraging biediversty), ‘physical controls (hand picking, traps, repellents and barriers) and biological ‘contra (using other animals that naturaly at pasts). These are covered more ‘extonsively later in ths section but for now it Is important to stress that pasts can only really be controlled by an integrated strategy that uses a vaiay of techniques. CAN PESTS BE TOLERATED? itis worth pointing out that we tend to be Lundy concemed with pests damaging our plants, Supermarkets have conctioned sto expect blemish-re8 produce, We ‘need to judge the overal health of @ plant rather than react when We see a pest. Ifthere were no pestsin the garden, then there would be no predators, Step back ‘and look at the whole picture and remember that everything, even pests, has Its place in nature, They all ada to the Interest and diversity that isthe most unique ‘qualty of an organic garden. ‘Above: Although fascinating to watch, squires are a garden pest and are closely relied to rats,‘common Pests See beeecr oa ce are of let oer Tat ra Gay eat cay oe ees to 6 how rect aE ‘devour and attack your gardon plants. The most common pests are ‘your garden, bu itisimportant to bear in mina that you wit ary ere most worldwide their cistioution, but they canbe controlled elatvely handful of thee in your gardening career pest PLANTSATRISK TREATMENT pest PLANTSATRISK TREATMENT ots and ‘nts arenotroaly | Few organic restarts but Mealy Trgg Sexi nesan otmany ioogra cons re matte ‘rites esis buthey"lam” ballsbased on Borex ate useful bugs Specloe and produce Cultrsiconra = moe ‘rcbforstcty suse Use aera’ pray of sont Sekckyhoneyaau that dif and inves Serene Tarmtescan attack ol tronela and evence or BFP) surpors tne own ot than organs esse uno sme woody species, ukowarm wate as ropa sooty mous, then nse, Aohids Mostcutvated Encourage benalal insects Milos ‘commen peste! ological controls we wraatie Dans grvng nthe _toveadan them, Organic ‘many plant Fora cutual contrat mre ‘pen, under glass" ecteids soap can also be epecily these hui rsoay fata wae Srindeors seul partly he aphids fronieg nhotery ——_tnergaie soap nian oe ‘are bang armed by ats ondlions ‘hen tee Beas Somes wiletack Bid scarersmay be employed Moles Best controled by rapping oe frutandbrassicasas aga cetonent and rating wil ling smalinenly, using repelrts, Svs roomie wall astrightly ab provide cover fornia Plantedtees, Tuma! devices arerael etecie Galeuedtowss, cps and plans nderavns,releng Removing one mci san Sey Iretung blossom. thamasiouspes “open the door" to snamee cabbage Tre smal maggots Pace ncolaound nowy Nematodes [few spacies cause Regular crop rotations cane fot growanddoveopon planed szoding,snkng into (eelwerms) disease sympters, foredcs damage. rsnors ngwihinthereots thogoundtoprvert bw ey ‘problem wen ho. Bul or plants became tthe davdoping alowed maggot rom reaching ‘same plertsaregonn badly fected, asic weg ‘bog plant the plants Inbesamopac. thostfected spaces carrot ty ‘Thesoreot-feeding Ty companion plentng ans Rabbits gnaw shoots They maybe tapped or vanes maggots feodon™ avoid lrpemonecutures of Mosanduoiesest —ofraplnts ae tabi en core ‘Caos, ec plastic reece ‘Smal aubsand eos anshwubshairs ae sess Barr, spouse (6-200) inwinter they al aganet oie and mice = = igh and 2-8 (8-100 apr. Fngrbark young toes, fencing forradbts an hres cotrilars Many tint ‘ici and chor proctor wit Developing lavas eat Contel stugwarm by apes HA sposesorsin, recicepopdatons,Bistogoal Plantissue Fut Insetcoal soap. Contato SME eecalyncssin tho conto, ung absctera agort Swflosarenctofous, savy ave wih doris. Som abbage any. andpestodes such as ders Slugworm savy rece roctonts recuse rnaroen Hane pk of nd vu pant attack omamertals. of beneficial isect predators Fasobories, Keap the round weed-oo,and Scale Several species, Acura eortrl consists of ftrauborics, potatoes, vellculvatedin order toreduce eects someof wichhave swabbing woody stern wn ibtuce yorrges, the numberof bugs, Ao lawns feheetplants, asong oranc soap souton young poste host Tura aeome = inite song. Srey and remeving hopacenus peer. tected pers Browee on garden Notorious diet o conto ants Nicer often best Kept out by fencing, {leans against” Repalets at avalabl,oated ‘Wee, easing Upon formulae suchas bearer damage to bark, Stentor sropongs. Tiny Mes that feedon Conitl by preventing te pom sal'ingue haters maxbecomng oo wet. thous ‘Mtackthercotsof biological controls! nema Young plants nate ae ao vase. oqged potting mi Frat tes ‘routlesomeon Cover the ft with asa ote nate nam peceof ag, Paper bags are ondona cope 3s 0816 se, but can be Sraisinparicdarcotinng bos Avan ot Goratoos, 7° iat get arin ass gg tausetage and barirs and ceemerts ate stems Geotatonchpans, ssosvalbl. Common pestsofa Often ficult o contra athe ‘rice vartyof pants. fey canbe causit inane at tes ‘These pasteatacta Genarally not problematic ore Thrips Smalincects suckthe Remove serious damaged ses asps Widerangoof tees vesteing, They area. good sipofsoffolinge and foliage Several natura pron Und sirabs copecialy ‘desir ofhanthy bodvery fila fowors Faro (Ucualy mites ar asa akties. inagarden. fprotem aulase!n use against hips. . hole clmates Thewaremary _Difledtto contol Remove dead Weeits Wet acite composts favour feet yon, leaves to reduce ovrntenrg ‘rounding types sch as ne sffecing awiderange 20g8.nc nymprs. Encourage @ fratotarangeot woot, Boonen cons po tplant species redler uth alacewinos, Plante Acts foc.on with prac nematone= = ‘fcc plants. temperatures sutersy Noh ‘Thorearemany ___Hand-pckng of saverely Wiiteios Aoreenhouse pestin Soloicl coils ae mein hunorede of species. alec aves. Boga Cooler crates that” bul the best opton canbe t= ‘hatallhave their contls exit but the pcblem ray eccureutsdsin avoid gong suscopee pretenses! Fare sarave enowgh towarart eS ee Specs ths arfia istic, Canbeanuicance, Can beslfieuto conte. Damp fspecislyoftut —sackrg ver tho col can lure (pi bugs Gan Meylecden themupiothesuraconnere— uMe*) fRetelvetbelowthe they con bahard-pixed or elt Sol sua, ‘er birds to eat. Indoors ofeopsike poor hans tan a pie Cucumbers May. sel. Aig at ona ce Chew trough young _upthe eerhouse Sseaings © Usually a pest Often mere ofan incestPLANT DISEASES The early detection of plant disease can help to halt the widespread infestation of your crop. Try to establish a routine of regularly checking your plants and crops. Look closely for any teltale signs, using a hand lens if necessary. Remember that the first or most obvious symptom may not always be the only one or even the most important. Always check to see if there are other symptoms to ensure that you get the full picture before making your final diagnosis. RECOGNIZING PLANT DISEASES Vigianoo is the key to success in controling plant disease. Carafully inspect eaves, stems, roots, flowers and fruits for any sign cf disease, You may even find tusetu to ct open a branch or stem to look for problems such as discoloration ofthe tissue, which may explain laf or ster ting and sudden witig of a section of ‘or awhole plant ‘Stand back and look at the overall picture. Consider the whole environment This wil include the weather, soll, the stage Cf development of the plant (and any pathogens present), cutural practioes and the condition of other plants inthe area, All of ths information can help to indicate what may be wrong with the plant. Remember that a plant growing inthe wrong location may be stressed, ‘Try to determine when the symptoms became apparent, The onset of a problem may be due to a cutural practice, the seasonal appearance ofa disease or insect, ‘ora woathertelated event. Remember that long-term stress is slow to appear, taking @ yar or more at times. Ty to determine whether the problem is ‘spreacing, as this may indicate that its a disease. Chock whether plants of other species have been affected, as clseases are usualy (but not aivays} species-specifc. Problems caused by erwonmental factors {do not spread, athough the symptoms may become more severe, ‘You must know what the plant should lok tks in order to be abe to recognize any abnorralitis, Reading up a itte on the ‘species that you are growing in your garden ‘can help you to make a mare accurate agnosis ofthe problem Remember that there is usually no single cause ofa disease infestation. The primary cause may be associated with Cultural or environmental corcitions. And just as there is probably no single cause, there is usually no sing symptom, When you are attempting to diagnos the cause of plantliness, always inspect sympioms that appear on parts that are stl ale (or atleast partially alive), Dead plants are often invaded by soconclary infestations ‘of decomposer fung, which may hide the original problem. If possible, make an ‘examination ofthe enti plant, including roots, although this may not be possible for large specimens such as trees, Left: Although a plant may be in obvious distress, closer examination may ba needed to propery determine the cause. Right: Disease-causing organisms can enter plant each time itis cut or pruned, ‘Above: Modem rose varities aro highly susceptible diseases such as blackspot and mildew. CONTROL OPTIONS Utimately, whore a serious disease is suspected, t may be advisable to avoid ‘growing susceptible species altogether, oF in the case of frit and vegetables, to rotate the crop as part of a regular cycle. Moke rotes thet provide details on diesase ‘occurrence the type of csease and when It appeared), the piants affected, the ‘weather and environmental conditions in ‘your garden each year. By dong this you ‘can better anticipate what probiams are likely to ocourin your garden during the ‘growing season, Final, member that aven the best {gardeners lose plans to disease. THis is nly serious when large numbers of plants are affected. A diverse garden will contain ‘other highights, and diseases wil claim only a fraction ofthe panting‘COMMON DISEASES There ar all kinds of aiseases that can affect your plants. Most ofthese are mercituily rare, but every garden wil suffer from its share of <éseases during the growing season. Most ofthese conditions are DISEASE Sacteial canker Bisckopot Bracket fungus ‘Common scab ofacnle coral spot Downy misow Feeohght Fungal canker Honey fungus Mosaic vnss Phytophthora Powdery mildew ‘Severeat TS ULEREE PLANTS AT RISK AND THE SYMPTOMS Many wees and ane. Reauces vigour andthe rate of {gonth of he affected pant. Branches become girdled and Gla back A sticky section wlloozafrom cracks or vals in ‘he bare ‘commen fang disease of roves, whichis most provlent ‘nado rr es and orburda types. Black soots ‘pea pray onthe leaves and sometimes onthe stems ew ‘This disease can affect al types of tes. Bracket fungi arth ruing bodies of ung that ether poraatze Peay ear wood ox more eemmanly, decay heart iced thats slrady dead [A bacterial seas that cause the fomation ota {abot harross) seans on te surtace of tre ares {Common encauneresin dams vesher anda Woes with crowded barehes. ‘commen fungus acting many woody pent speci Bopears a pk or bight raed posts on wocd thal s ‘showing signa o cack ‘group of tung seas that ates a wide range ot pnts. Appears es awhita coating over laaves that play ‘itonded growth, browning and wltng, Tes in warm ‘lt contions ‘tacks plants ofthe Rosacea family, notabty ales pars lure, cherie, pyracanthas,cotoneasters and reaos. The Sfetod plant des back apa rm te branch tp. ‘facts many woody plants Ths bark esue begin o peal ‘nd fake aay ature tho afletod tis h concariic rng A sol-cwsing fungus that parsstizes the rots of woody nts, Leaves tend to scolow ard it and fall to develop ‘he aring. Utnatly tis can weaken and fe plant ‘Ths group of viuses foc a vr largenumbe of species andis charactezec by an regs, angular moting or streaking ot eaves ‘Asoi-tome gal daeose hat fects many specie of woody ants, particularly cons. Branches ack, aftn voy {uekly Sesousinlacton may cause ceath for alae Fropertnofthe oot sytem anc severe eb a2 growth. ‘ects many plant species, with asters being especialy prone Th saves become covered wah te powdory Palchos that may stort growth or even couse leat cr Sever cases, Tras n war, humid or wet conten ‘common ung seas alectng rary species Charactarized bBynsty coloured patches or pots known as pustules, of letves Taave eround te pusiles lows and aes, and his, Int, may citer grown or causelaaf rep in sever casos, ‘fects both tng and omamentalspecos of Prunus. The lemies on somotrancnee gaia very sean, gray ying banka year two att A purple ungal growth appears conte dood tes. ‘tacks trees ana larger woody plats Stems and branches (gadualy besomeholw. Plant Health 69 relatively easy to deal wth, but a correct agnosis Is essential. As always, itis preferable to try to prevent these diseases taking hold and spreading inthe frst place rather than treating them when they occur. ‘TREATMENT ‘ies to contol once a pnt snfcte. Corin the problem to ‘ne specimen by cleaning pring tals beta cuts era blore ‘moving onto another specimen ofthe same yD Prune bush roses int a gob shape, Use cssase-resistant ular. Oust fectodolants with uchur ea andinternitendy throughout the growing seeson. ‘Many fected trees lve for many years andneed only be fale ‘hey present kof caps Fake up and aspose of atected eaves. Prine out cracked or ‘sesboj sront fo remove paces forthe funque fo venue Prune out nectd issue ane destroy. Regular “hygiene priring! can hap to prevent ekng holdin theft place Dus with shure spray with Bordeaux xt to frm a rect barr aga! the spores Note tha these are boty aely washed of by watering ora Remove and clestry al tected material cutng back at east '50em (rbot the pont of faction, Beato remove cocesod pant, rptcing them witha ron-suscoptbe re or ahr, Prune ext the ifected material, about 18em (i) below th pont fecton and bit Clean loos th alaniatat betwown cuts fang especialy between runing indviual pans Dieu to conta rgancaly. may bebest to grow herbaccous lant in afectes areas fo wo to tree yous before aterpting fo roplan weody sans thre, \Wegedinsecs that fed on plans, thon migrate to anther, Can rapalyspreod te ius. Gontolthe pects themectues hore peste ‘There eno cue forts condition ani the removal bly tected pants maybe the aly answer The diseases oten restictod to darp orheayy sols, athough prolonged wet eather Sulphur mixture can provid protection, ba thos frtnal washed of n wet eondtane, Avo growing suaceptible ‘Species condtons favour the spread ofthe dsoase. CComneniy seen on sols ich innittogan. kay havea ntceabla tet on seasonal reps or those grown for therlesves, Gordes mtr can rece fs spread buts ico contol complet ‘Avoid suscepible ops and vate fhe probem ls prsstent. Thealeted wood shovlsbe puned bso he poof Infecion and soposes of late summer star rl aay inleced specie odd rerved Soria and \Ssposed ot preferably by burning, ‘Smaler ros or shrdos may be much mor sri afected and ‘mayb bes reovedifthercorion datorates too mech,