Rev.

Confirming Pages

Brief Table of Contents

Chapter 1
Chapter 2
Chapter 3
Chapter 4
Chapter 5
Chapter 6
Chapter 7
Chapter 8
Chapter 9
Chapter 10
Chapter 11
Chapter 12
Chapter 13
Chapter 14
Chapter 15
Chapter 16
Chapter 17
Chapter 18
Chapter 19
Chapter 20
Chapter 21
Chapter 22
Chapter 23

Ancestral Africa (circa 500 B.C.E to 1600)

1
Africans in the Atlantic World (14921800)
22
Establishing North American Slavery (1520s to 1720s)
47
Eighteenth-Century Slave Societies (17001780s)
64
Give Me Liberty (17631787)
84
Building Communities in the Early Republic (17901830)
103
Southern Slavery (17901860)
129
Antebellum Free Blacks (18301860)
159
Abolitionism in Black and White (18201860)
184
Civil War (18611865)
208
Promises and Pitfalls of Reconstruction (18631877)
235
The Color Line (18771917)
260
The Era of Self-Help (18801916)
287
In Pursuit of Democracy (19141919)
327
Voices of Protest (19101928)
351
The Arts at Home and Abroad (1920s to early 1930s)
380
The New Deal Era (19291941)
417
Double V for Victory (19411945)
449
American Dilemmas (19401955)
473
We Shall Overcome (19471967)
510
Black Power (19551980)
549
Progress and Poverty (19802000)
583
Perspectives on the Present (since 2000)
612

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Contents

About the Authors

Preface

1l

2l

iv
xix

Ancestral Africa (circa 500 BCE to1600)

An Ancient Land and People

The Bantu Migration
Iron Technology
Nok Pottery and Sculpture
Copper Technology

2
4
4
4
5

Early Commercial Networks

West African Trade Routes
Interregional Trade
Internal Slave Trade

6
6
7
9

African Slavery
Slavery in European Communities
Slaves in Africa
Slaves and Status
Slaves in the Economy

9
10
10
11
11

The Great Empires

Ghanas Trading Empire
Malis Rise
Mansa Musas Pilgrimage
The Rise of Songhay
Askia Muhammads Reforms
Dichotomy of Sovereignty

12
12
13
13
15
15
16

Other States
The Mossi States
The Hausa States
The Kingdom of Benin
The Christian Kongo
Ndongo-Matamba
Great Zimbabwe
The Swahili Coast

17
17
17
18
19
19
20
20

Africans in the Atlantic World (14921800)

22

Finding New Lands and Labor

Africans and the Conquistadors
Demand for Slave Labor
From Indenture to Slavery

23
23
25
25

Trading in Slaves
Acquiring Slaves

27
28

Africans in the Slave Trade

Slave Trade Challenges
The Trauma of Capture
African Resistance

29
30
32
33

The Middle Passage

A Protable Trade

33
35

Slavery in the Caribbean

The Spanish Monopoly
Loss of Spanish Control
Living Conditions
Slave Codes
Punishment
Slave Revolts
Seasoned Slaves

35
36
36
37
38
38
38
40

Slavery in Mainland Latin America

Mexico
Central America
South America
The Viceroyalty of Peru
Uruguay and Argentina
Brazil
Uprisings and Revolts

41
41
41
41
42
42
42
44

Slave Societies in the Americas

The Catholic Church
Intermarriage

45
45
45

3 l Establishing North American Slavery (1520s to 1720s)

47

Imperial Claims to North America

Early Settlements
Forms of North American Slavery

48
49
50

Before Permanent Bondage

Early Virginia
New Netherland
Massachusetts Bay

51
51
52
54

The Legalization of Slavery

Virginia Slave Codes
New York Slave Codes
New Englands Laws
The Carolinas
Slave Courts
Slave Laws in French Louisiana
The Code Noir
Spanish Louisiana

54
55
57
57
59
60
61
61
62

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C ONTENTS

4l

5l

Eighteenth-Century Slave Societies (17001780s)

64

New England
Slave Populations
Slave Occupations
Negro Election Day
Cotton Mather and Inoculation

66
66
66
67
67

The Mid-Atlantic Colonies

New York Colony
Expansion of Slavery
Pennsylvania Slavery

68
68
69
70

The Chesapeake Region

African Outsiders
Population Growth

70
71
71

The Lower South, Eastern Seaboard

The Slave Population
The Chesapeake and the Lowcountry
Rural and Urban Slave Life
People of Mixed Race
African Traditions
The Stono Rebellion
Menendez and Mose
The War of Jenkins Ear
The End of Mose

72
73
74
75
75
76
77
78
79
80

The Lower Mississippi Valley

French Louisiana
Maroon Societies

80
80
82

Give Me Liberty (17631787)

84

The Paradox of Slavery and Freedom

Freedom in a Slave Society
Birth of the Antislavery Movement
Crispus Attucks
Phillis Wheatley

85
85
87
87
88

Fighting for American Independence

Blacks against the British
The British Appeal
Washingtons Response
The Revolution and Slavery
General Clintons Proclamation
Individual State Policies
Black Military Distinction
Black Loyalists

89
90
91
92
92
92
93
93
96

The Movement to Free the Slaves

Antislavery Advocates
Free North, Slave South

96
96
98

The Conservative Reaction

Shayss Rebellion
The Three-Fifths Compromise
The Slave Trade

99
100
100
101

Fugitive Slaves
The Language of the Constitution

6l

7l

101
101

Building Communities
in the Early Republic (17901830)

103

African Americans in Demographic Perspective

The Mid-Atlantic States and New England
Development of Black Communities
Black Migration to Boston
Blacks in Philadelphia
New York Citys Black Community

104
105
106
107
107
108

Building Community Institutions

Independent Black Churches
The African Methodist Episcopal Church
Separate Black Institutions
White Philanthropy
Black and White Leadership Conicts

108
109
110
110
111
111

Blacks and American Party Politics

Disfranchisement of Blacks
The Haitian Revolution

112
112
113

The Louisiana Purchase

Federalists and Free Blacks

114
114

Black Writing and Art in the New Nation

Pamphlet Literature
Appeals to Readers
The Jones and Allen Pamphlet
The Spiritual Autobiography
Bannekers Almanacs
The Painter Joshua Johnston

116
116
117
118
118
119
120

The War of 1812

Black Military Service
Gallant Service

121
121
122

Black Colonization
Colonization Efforts
Black Opposition

124
125
126

The Contagion of Liberty

Gabriels Rebellion in Virginia
Plots and Rumors

126
126
127

Southern Slavery (17901860)

129

The Domestic Slave Trade

King Cotton
The Interstate Slave Trade
A Capitalist Enterprise
Separation of Families by Sale
Market Prices

130
131
132
134
134
135

Persistence of the African Trade

Extent of the Illegal Trade
The Movement to Reopen the African Trade

136
137
137

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CONT E NT S

8l

The Slave Codes

Enforcement
The Patrol System

137
139
139

On the Plantation
Field Hands
Gender Division of Labor
Overseers and Brutality
The Slave Diet

140
140
142
143
144

Urban and Nonagricultural Slavery

Black Artisans and Inventors
Slave Hiring

144
145
146

Social and Cultural Life

Religious Activity
The Slave Church
Slave Families
Interracial Relationships
Mulatto Slaves

147
148
149
149
150
150

Resistance
Slave Market Gambits
Sabotage and Suicide
Running Away
Violent Resistance
Slave Revolts
Denmark Vesey
Nat Turner

151
151
153
154
155
155
156
157

Antebellum Free Blacks (18301860)

Higher Education

175

Black Convention Movement

The Rochester Convention
Fostering Group Consciousness
Public Image and Behavior
Biblical Imagery

176
176
176
176
177

Black Women
Women Take Public Action
Maria Stewart
Sojourner Truth

177
178
178
179

The Debate on Emigration

Efforts at Mass Colonization
Opposition to the ACS
The National Emigration Convention

179
180
180
182

Abolitionism in Black and White (18201860)

184

Black Abolitionists
Black Antislavery Societies
Women Abolitionists
Black Agents
Newspapers

186
186
187
188
189

159

Antislavery Agendas
The Abolitionist Argument
The Crusade
The American Anti-Slavery Society
Black vs. White Abolitionists
Black-White Cooperation

190
191
191
192
193
193

Freedoms Boundaries
Black Laws
Migration West
Disfranchisement
Demographics

160
161
161
162
163

Proslavery Backlash
The Proslavery Argument
Defending the Institution
Persecution and Violence
Changing Attitudes

194
194
195
196
197

In a Culture of Racism
Minstrel Shows
Ethnology
Bigotry and Prejudice
Mob Violence
South vs. North

163
163
164
164
165
166

The Black Response

Black Counterarguments
Black Narratives
Black Literature

197
198
198
198

Economic and Social Life

Trades and Professions
Property Ownership
Urban Life in the North
Boston
New York
Philadelphia
Mutual Aid Organizations
Cultural Contributions

168
168
169
169
170
170
171
172
172

The Underground Railroad

Origins
Railroad Operations
Resources
Black Conductors
Harriet Tubman
Jermain Loguen

199
199
201
201
202
202
203

Education
Opportunities in the North
Opportunities in the South

173
173
174

The Path to Civil War

The Compromise of 1850
The Christiana Riot
The Sectional Truce Unravels
The Dred Scott Decision
The Appeal of Force
John Browns Raid

203
204
204
205
205
206
207

9l

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C ONTENTS

10 l

Civil War (18611865)

The Pivotal Role of Education

Educators, Black and White
Black Churches

208

250
250
251

Inconsistent Federal Policies

Opposition to Lincolns Policies
The Conscation Acts
Lincolns Plan
Preliminary Proclamation
The Emancipation Proclamation
The Thirteenth Amendment

209
210
211
212
212
213
214

Economic Adjustment
The Desire for Land
Women in the Labor Market
Changing Conditions of Farm Labor
Sharecropping
The Freedmens Bank

251
252
253
254
255
255

Aiding the Contrabands

General Saxtons Plan
Challenges to Effective Relief
Private Relief
Education

215
215
215
216
216

Reconstructions End
The Reign of Violence
Corruption in Republican Governments
Supreme Court Decisions
The Campaign of 1876

256
256
258
258
259

Black Troops
Challenges to Black Recruitment
A Change in Policy
The First Black Soldiers
The Success of Black Enlistment
Black Ofcers
Blacks as Spies and Scouts
Womens Service
Black Soldiers Service
Treatment of Black Prisoners
Unequal Treatment

218
218
219
219
220
222
222
222
223
226
227

Slave Disruption
Stronger Patrol Laws
Running the Negroes
Insubordination
Fear of Uprisings

228
228
229
229
230

The Confederate Dilemma

Impressment
Enlisting and Arming Blacks

231
231
232

Victory

233

11 l Promises and Pitfalls of Reconstruction (18631877)

235

Presidential Reconstruction
Lincolns Ten Percent Plan
Andrew Johnsons Policies
Black Codes
Congress Takes Charge
The Black Conventions
Black Mobilization

236
237
237
238
238
240
242

Radical Reconstruction
New National Ofcials
Blacks as State Legislators
The Union League
Black Women and the Black Community

242
243
245
246
247

The Social Consequences of the War

The Freedmens Bureau

247
248

12 l

The Color Line (18771917)

260

The Path to Disfranchisement

Preventing Black Voting Legally
Black Reappearance in Politics
The Radical Agrarian Movement
Successful Coalitions
Complete Disfranchisement
The Black Response
Effective Disfranchisement
Back to Slavery

261
261
263
264
265
265
267
268
268

Legalizing Segregation
Plessy v. Ferguson
White Mans Country

270
270
271

Confronting the Urban

Color Line
Employment and Unions
Housing
Transportation

273
273
274
274

Americas Empire of Color

The United States Expands
The Caribbean
The Spanish American War
Garrison Duty and Pacic Service
The United States as a Great Power
Puerto Rico
The Virgin Islands
Haiti
Liberia

275
275
276
277
280
280
281
282
282
282

The Pattern of Violence

Lynch Law
Race Riots
The Atlanta Riot
Brownsville, Texas
Violence in the North
The Springeld Riot

282
283
283
284
285
285
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13 l

The Era of Self-Help (18801916)

Self-Help and Philanthropy

Supporting Education
Black Self-Determination
White Philanthropy
Educational Inequality in the South
Higher Education
The Talented Tenth

288
289
290
291
293
293
295

Divergent Paths to Racial Equality

Booker T. Washington
Opposition: T. Thomas Fortune
Ida B. Wells
William Monroe Trotter
W. E. B. Du Bois
Washingtons Revenge
The Niagara Movement
Bookerites and Niagarites
Two Classes of Negroes

295
295
298
299
300
300
302
303
304
306

Economic and Social Striving

The Black Exodus
The New South
Innovation and Enterprise
Combating Old South Images
Black Women Entrepreneurs
Establishment of Black Banks
The Role of the Churches
The Social Gospel and Black Separatism
Mutual Benet Societies

306
307
308
308
311
312
313
313
315
316

The Womans Era

Gender-Specic Discrimination
The NACW
Urban Settlement Houses

317
317
319
320

Intellectual and Cultural Endeavors

Pan-Negroism
Scholarly and Literary Works
Sports Heroes

322
322
323
324

14 l

In Pursuit of Democracy (19141919)

Slander Campaigns
Cultural Experiences
Coming Home
Wilsons Contradictory Positions

339
340
342
344

On the Home Front

African Americans Support the War
Curtailing Civil Liberties
Silencing Dissent
Black Exodus
New Opportunities
The National Urban League
Employment in Industry
Riots and Lynchings

344
345
345
345
347
347
348
349
349

287

327

Answering the Call to Fight

The Selective Service Act
The NAACP
Emmett J. Scott

329
329
330
332

Jim Crow Military Camps

Locating Training Camps
Rampant Discrimination
African Americans Fight Back

332
332
333
333

Service Overseas
The 369 th U.S. Infantry
Other African American Combat Units
German Propaganda

334
335
337
339

15 l

Voices of Protest (19101928)

351

Progressive Voices
The Work of the NAACP
The 1912 Election
Wilson Disappoints
African Americans Protest Racial Policies
The Amenia Conference

352
353
354
354
357
357

Violent Times
The Resurgent Ku Klux Klan
Race Riots
The Chicago Riot of 1919
More Riots
Outside Agitation

357
357
358
359
359
362

Civil Rights Vanguard

The Persistence of Lynching
NAACP Legal Efforts

362
363
364

Protesting with Their Feet

The Leaderless Migration
Migration from the Caribbean
Afro-Caribbeans in New York

364
365
366
366

New Negroes
Race and Class Politics: Civil Rights, Black Nationalism
Du Bois and Close Ranks
Marcus Garvey
Garveys Decline
Father Divine

368
368
369
370
372
374

New Women
Black Feminism
Black Women Voters
Growing Political Involvement

374
375
377
377

16 l The Arts at Home and Abroad (1920s to early 1930s)

Recorded Music and Radio
Classic Blues
Black Swan Records
National and Live Broadcast Radio

380
381
382
383
385

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Jazz Roots and Routes

The Evolution of Jazz: New Orleans to Chicago
Jazz in New York: Ragtime to Stride
The James Reese Europe Orchestra
Louis Armstrong Transforms Big Band Jazz
Duke Ellington and the Big Band Era

387
388
389
389
391
393

Motion Pictures
Black Talent in White Studios

393
395

Black Theater
Postwar Theater
Black Musicals
The Charleston

395
396
396
396

The Harlem Renaissance

The Tenderloin
The Marshall Hotel
Black Periodicals
Before the Civic Club
Countee Cullen
Langston Hughes
Harlem Renaissance Women

398
398
398
399
400
401
402
403

French Connections

405

Visual Artists
Photographers and Illustrators
Painters

408
409
410

Clashing Artistic Values

Art as Propaganda
Race Literature
Art and Social Change

413
413
414
415

17 l

The New Deal Era (19291941)

417

In the Throes of Economic Depression

The Agricultural Crisis and Black Migration
African American Efforts at Relief

418
419
419

Political Resurgence
The Election of Oscar DePriest
The Shift to the Democrats
A Growing Sense of Political Efcacy
Success at the State and Local Levels

421
422
422
423
424

The Black Cabinet

African Americans in the National Government
Expanding Job Opportunities in the
Federal Government

425
426

New Deal Programs

The Agricultural Programs
The Tuskegee Study

429
429
432

Organized Labor
The CIO
Organizing Activity in Agriculture

433
433
435

On the Left
The Appeal of Communism

436
436

428

Landmark Cases: Scottsboro and Herndon

The National Negro Congress and the Popular Front
The Southern Conference for Human Welfare
A Harvest of Artistic Expression
Augusta Savage
William Johnson
Blacks in Films
Paul Robeson and Lena Horne
Black Musicians and Composers
The Swing Era
Women Vocalists
Marian Anderson at the Lincoln Memorial

18 l

Double V for Victory (19411945)

437
437
440
440
441
441
443
443
444
445
447
448

449

Reframing the Arsenal of Democracy

Blacks in the Armed Forces
The March on Washington 1941
Executive Order 8802
Hastie and Discrimination in the Armed Forces

451
451
454
455
456

In Military Service
Black Women in the Military
Tuskegee: Black Airmen
The Navy, the Marines, and Ofcer Training
Overseas ServiceEurope
Service in the Pacic
Service in the Navy
Service in the Merchant Marine
Racism at Home
Racial Clashes
Recognition for Service

456
458
458
460
461
462
463
463
463
465
465

Keeping the Home Fires Burning

The Work of the FEPC
Support for the War Effort
Black-White Conict at Home
The Problem of Low Morale

466
466
468
469
469

19 l American Dilemmas (19401955)

Intellectual Crosscurrents
An American Dilemma
The Emphasis on Assimilation and Culture
African Survivals
The Popularization of Black History
Abandoning the Culturalist Perspective
Literary and Dramatic Arts
Poets
Prose Writers
Richard Wright and Native Son
Ralph Ellison and Invisible Man
Frank Yerby

473
474
475
477
478
479
480
481
482
482
483
483
484

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Writers in the Postwar Years

Theater

484
485

Black Internationalism
Ethiopia and Spain
The Rising Wind
The United Nations Charter
UNESCOs Work
The Trusteeship Council
The South Africa Resolution
The June 1946 Petition
The Appeal
Black Internationalism

485
486
487
488
489
490
490
490
491
491

Labor Civil Rights

Blacks in the CIO
The Early Civil Rights Struggle
R. J. Reynolds in Winston-Salem
Unionization in Detroit
1947: Pivotal Year
The Failure of Operation Dixie
The Demise of Left-Labor Civil Rights

492
492
493
494
495
497
499
499

Truman and Civil Rights

To Secure These Rights
Freedom to Serve
The 1948 Election
The Howard University Address

500
500
501
501
502

Fighting for Civil Rights in the Courts

Charles Hamilton Houston
Battling Jim Crow in Higher Education
The Battle against Separate but Equal
The Brown Decision
Southern White Opposition

502
503
503
506
507
508

Movement Women
School Desegregation and Constance Baker Motley
Voting Rights Campaigns
Ella Baker and Fannie Lou Hamer
Septima Clark
Strength through Religious Faith

528
529
530
530
531
532

The Northern Side of the Movement

Electoral Power
Battling Discrimination
The Problem of Housing
In Cities: Substandard Housing and Poor Education

533
533
534
535
536

The Landmarks and Limitations of Government

Civil Rights in the 1950s
Court Victories
The Executive Branch
Congress Drags Its Feet
The Role of Civil Rights Advocates
The Civil Rights Acts of 1957 and 1960
The Kennedy Administration
The Freedom Rides, May 1961
Freedom to the Free, 1963
The Civil Rights Act of 1964
The Voting Rights Act of 1965
Political Revolution in the South

536
536
537
538
539
539
541
541
542
543
543
545
547

21 l

Black Power (19551980)

549

We Shall Overcome (19471967)

510

Introducing Nonviolent Direct Action

CORE Activism
The Journey of Reconciliation

511
512
512

Black Powers Antecedents

The Heritage of Appeals to Self-Reliance
Malcolm X
Activism in the South
Paramilitary Defense Units
Armed Revolution
Internationalizing the Struggle
Bandung 1955
Malcolm and the Dark World
The Assassination of Malcolm X

Anatomy of the Montgomery Movement

The Role of the Boycott
The Arrest of Rosa Parks
The Leadership of Martin Luther King, Jr.
Victory

513
513
515
516
518

Proclaiming Black Power

Stokely Carmichael Makes History
The Black Panther Party
Revolutionary Nationalism versus Cultural Nationalism
Muhammad Ali

557
557
559
562
562

Movement Milestones
New Leaders: James M. Lawson
The Lunch Counter Sit-In
The Albany Movement
Birmingham, 1963
Letter from Birmingham Jail
Victory
Freedom Summer 1964
Tragedy and Triumph
The Importance of Press Coverage

518
518
519
521
522
523
523
524
526
527

A Dissident Youth Culture

Campus Activism
The Afro

563
564
565

Black Artistic Power

Political Activists
The Cultural Side of Black Power
The Black Arts Movement
Blaxploitation Movies
Graphic Arts
Women Writers

566
566
567
567
569
569
571

20 l

550
550
551
552
553
553
554
554
555
557

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Black Feminism
Reaction to the Moynihan Report
Womens Organizations

572
573
573

Social and Political Realities

Riots in the Cities: Watts
Newark and Detroit
The New Black Political Power

577
578
579
579

22 l

Progress and Poverty (19802000)

583

Divergent Realities
Economic Differences
Rise of the Black Underclass
The Million Man March
New Opportunities
The Black Electorate
Jesse Jackson and the Rainbow Coalition
The Reagan-Bush Years
The 1992 Election: The Democrats Return to Ofce

584
584
585
587
588
589
589
590
592

In Conservative Times
Reagans Efforts to Dismantle Civil Rights
George H. W. Bush and the Supreme Court
The Battle over the Clarence Thomas Nomination
Judicial Conservatism
Educational Disparities
Opposition to Afrmative Action
Racial Unrest
Racial Brutality: Abner Louima,
Amadou Diallo, James Byrd

593
593
594
595
596
596
597
597

Artistic Currents
Women Writers
Playwrights, Comedians, Filmmakers, Actors
Blacks on Television
Artists
Hip Hop Rising
Hip Hop Is Born
Hip Hop and the Culture Wars

598
599
599
600
602
602
603
603

Global Concerns
The End of Apartheid

605
606

598

African Americans on the International Stage

The Persian Gulf War
At Centurys End

23 l

Perspectives on the Present (since 2000)

606
607
607
612

Legal Challenges
The 2000 Presidential Election
Challenges to Afrmative Action
Demands for Reparations
Enduring Disparities: Health, Education,
and Incarceration
Socioeconomic Stressors
The AIDS Crisis
Incarceration and Education

614
614
615
616

Forgotten in Hurricane Katrina

622

Hip Hops Global Generation

Hip Hop Abroad
Hip Hop Nation
Remaking American Hip Hop

624
624
626
626

New Great Migrations

Reverse Migration
Afro-Caribbean and African Migrants
Competing Interests and Ethnic Identities
In Search of Origins

627
628
631
633
633

The Politics of Change

A New Campaign Style
The Democratic Primaries
The Election

634
635
637
638

618
618
619
620

Bibliography

640

Credits

677

Index

683

xiv

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