FLUID MECHANICS HYDRAULIC MACHINES S.1. UnitsPublished by : LAXMI PUBLICATIONS (P) LTD 113, Golden House, Daryaganj, New Delhi-110002 Phone ; 011-48 58 25 00 Fax : 011-43 58 25 28 www laxmipublieations.com infolexmipublications.com Author : Dr. RK. Bansal Compiled by : Smt. Nirmal Bansal © All rights reserved with Author and the Publishers. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical. photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of the publisher. Price : Rs. 450.00 Only First Edition : Sept. 1983 Ninth Edition : 2005, Rep 2008 2009 OFFICES India USA © Bangalore 080-26 61 15 61 Boston © Chennai 044-24 34 47 26 11, Leavitt Street, Hingham, © Cochin 0484-239 70 04 MA 02043, USA © Guwahati 0361-254 36 69, 251 38 81 © Hyderabad 040-24 65 23 33 © Jalandhar 0181-222 12 72 @ Kolkata 038-22 27 43 84 © Lucknow 0522-220 95 78 © Mumbai 022-24 91 54 15, 24 92 78 69 © Ranehi 0651-221 47 64 EFM.0559-450-FLUID MECHANICS & HM C-812/09/11 ‘Typewet at | Shubham Composer, Delhi, Printed at : Dharmesh Art Process, New DelhiC Chapter Chapter 1. Properties of Fluids Lb Introduction ‘L2. Properties of Fluids 1.2.1, Density or Mass Density 12.2, Specific Weight or Weight Density 12.3, 124, Specific Volume Specific Gravity FE Units of Viscosity Kinematic Viscosity 13.3, Newton's Law of Viscosity 13.4, Variation of Viscosity with Temperature 13.5. Types of Fluids Solved Problems 1.3—119 14, Tiiseaiodynamic Properties ‘5. Compressibility and Bulk Modulus Solved Problems 1,23—1.24 1.6, Surface Te n_and Capillarity Surface Tension on Liquid Droplet Surface Tension ona Hollow Bubble Surface Tension on_a Liquid Jet Solved Problems 1.25—1.27 Capillarity Solved Problems 1.28—1.92 4. ‘LZ. Vapour Pressure and Cavitation Highlights Exercisc—1 Chapter 2. Pressure and Its Measurement pae 2.2. Pascal’s Law 2.3, Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest Solved Problems 2.1—2.7 (i) Pages E BER BBRERE BBE EEBEE K omecus emmmeenen B SHESa \ge, Atmospheric and 2.5. Measurement of Pressure 4.1. Manometers 2.5.2, Mechanical Gauges ae 42 2.6. Simple Manometers is 42 26.2 U-tube Manometer 42 ‘Solved Problema 20-218 - 2.6.8. Single Column Manometer is 47 ess : lem 2.1 221. U-tube Diff Mt ° , Soled Prisma 21002 0 8 Sebel Plans gah : 2.8. Pressure ata a in Cieatecenkanie Fluid 55 : 2.8.3. Temperature at any Point in Compressible Fluid ee 284. ‘Temperature Lapse-Rate (1) ce slale Highlights Exercise 2 00g Chapisr 9, Hydrostatic Forces on Surfaces 7-127 “i... Introduction 87 : ; Pe = Vertical Plane Surface Submerged in Liquid os Si ‘Solved Problems 31-312 St. Horizontal Plane Surface Submerged in Liquid 83 3.5. Inclined Plane Surface Submerged in Liquid Solved Problema 3.22. sm 28. Prosure Distrbution ina Ligid Sijiedig SSCS 3.8.1. Liquid Dartainaes Subject to Constant ae io “ uid {oats i ubjec to Constant Highlights Sn Sues 123 Copyrighted materialGi) Chapter 4. Buoyancy and Floatation 129-159 Ae. Introdmetion 0 4.2. Buoyancy =p 128 4.3. Centre of Buoyancy i 128 Solved Problems 4.1—4.6 0. TB 44. Meta-centre 133 4.5. Meta-centric Height o 133 4.6. Analytical Method for Meta-centric Height - 134 Solved Problems 4.7—4.11 a SSB 4.7. Conditions of Equilibrium of a Floating and ‘Submerged Bodies 140 4.7.1. _ Stability of a Submerged Body 140 4.7.2. Stability of a Floating Body ass 140 Solved Problems 4.12—4.18 00 4.8. Experimental Method of Determination of Meta-centrie Height ais 151 Solved Problems 4.19—4.20 000, 1 4.9. Oscillation (Rolling) of a Floating Body ee 153 Solved Problems 4.21—4.22 a, SN Highlights is 156 Exercise—40 Chapter 5. Kinematics of Flow and Ideal Flow 160-255 (AMINE §.L_Introduetion 2.1 5.2, Methods of Describing Fluid Motion 160 5.3._‘Types of Fluid Flow 160 5.3.1, Steady and Unsteady Flows 160 5.3.4. Compressible and Incompressible Flows 161 5.3.6. One, two and Three-Dimensional Flows 162 5.4. Rate of Flow or Discharge (Q) 162 5.5. Continuity Equation 162 5.6. Continuity Equation in Three-Dimensions i 167 5.6.1. Continuity Equation in Cylindrical Solved Problems 6.5A —170 a, TO 5.7. Velocity and Acceleration am i ive ‘Acceleration " 172 Solved Problems 6.6—5.9 a SS«SAT 5.8. Velocity Potential Function and Stream Function __... 178 5.8.1. Velocity Potential Function as 178 5.8.2 Stream Function 179 5.8.3. Equipotential Line 180 5.8.4. Line of Constant Stream Function 20... BO(xii) 5.8.5. Flow Net 181 Velocity Potential Function From Equation (5.9) ee 181 Solved Problems 5.10—5.27 94.4.4. AT . ‘Types of Motion - 188 6.9.1. Linear Translation 20, 1B 6.9.2. Linear Deformation 2.92228 a 5.9.3. Angular Deformation 5.9.4. Rotation 189 5.9.5. Vorticity sat 189 Solved Problems 5.18—5.19 RD 5.10. Vertex Flow a 190 5.10.1. Foreed Vortex Flow J“ 190 5.10.2, Free Vortex Flow 191 5.10.3. Equation of Motion for Vortex Flow 192 5.10.4. Equation of Forced Vortex Flow 193 Solved Problems 5.20—5.25 a 194 5.10.5. Closed Cylindrical Vessels ais 199 Solved Problems 5.26—5.3) 2.4... 9 5.10.6. Equation of Free Vortex Flow zi 206 Solved Problem 5.32 ||... 207 In ‘ 5.12. Important Cases of Potential Flow ee 208 5.18.1. Uniform Flow Parallel to_x-Axis _.., __208 5.13.2. Uniform Potential Flow Parallel to y-Axis ... 210 5.14, Source Flow 211 ma 213 Solved Problems 5.38—5.85 2... 5.16. Free-Vortex Flow 216 5.17. Super-Imposed Flow 218 5.17.1. Source and Sink Pair 218 Solved Problems 5.36—5.37 222 5.17.2. Doublet ae 225 Solved Problem 5.38 oe 228 5.17.3. A Plane Source in a Uniform Flow (Flow Past a Half-Body) eee 230 Solved Problems 5.39—5.41 @ 234 5.17.4. A Source and Sink Pair in a Uniform Flow (Flow Past a Rankine Oval Body) = 238 Solved Problem 5.42 a 5.17.5. A Doublet in a Uniform Flow (Flow Past a Circular Cylinder) Ee 243 Solved Problems 5.43—5.44 2 247 Highlights : 249 Exercise—5 251(ziti) Chapter 6, Dynamics of Fluid Flow §.L. Introduction 82. Equations of Motion 6.8, Euler's Equation of Motion 6&4. Bernoulli's Equation from Euler's Equation 2585 6.5, Assumptioi 28 a eae S186 ana 6.6. Bernoulli's Equation for Real Fluid 262 Solved Problems 6.7—6.9 263 6.7. Practical Applications of Bernoulli's Equation 265 6.7.1, Venturimeter 265 Solved Problems 6.10—6.21 267 6.7.2. Orifice Meter or Orifice Plate 278 Solved Problems 6.22 —6.23 280 6.7.3. Pitot-tube 282 Solved Problems 6.24—6.28 283 &8. The Momentum Equation 285 Solved Problems 6.29—6.35 286 ‘Moment of Momentum Equation 295 Solved Problems 6.36—6.37 295 G10. Free Liquid Jets 298 300 Highlights 804 Exercise—6 306 Chapter 7. Orifices and Mouthpieces 313-350 Introduction 313 Classifications of Orifices 313 Flow Through an Orifice 313 Hydraulic Co-efficients Bi 7.4.1. Co-efficient of Velocity (C,) 314 7.4.2. Co-efficient of Contraction (C,) 315 7.4.3. Co-efficient of Discharge «C,) Solved Problems 7.1—7.2 7.6. Experimental Determination of Hydraulic Co-efficients 7.5.1. Determination of Cy 7.5.2. Determination of Co-efficient of Velocity C, ... 7.5.3. Determination of Co-efficient of Contraction C, Solved Problems 7.3—7.10 7.6. Flow Through Large Orifices 7.6.1, Discharge Through Large Rectangular Orifice Solved Problems 7.11—-7.13 7.7. Discharge Through Fully Submerged Orifice Solved Problems 7.14—7.15 7.8. Discharge Through Partially Submerged Orifice Solved Problem 7.16iv) 7.8, Time of Emptying a Tank Through an Orifice at its Bottom 328 Solved Problems 7.17—7.18 329 ‘Li, Time of Emptying a Hemispherical Tank ast Solved Problems 7.19—7.21 432 7.14, Time of Emptying a Circular Horizontal Tank 334 Solved Problems 7.22—7.23 335 Classification of Mouthpieces 337 . Flow Through an External Cylindrical Mouthpiece 337 Solved Problems 7.24—7.25 338 7.14. Flow Through a Convergent-Divergent Mouthpiece 340 Solved Problems 7.26—7.28 341 7.15. Flow Through Internal or Re-entrant on Borda’s Mouthpiece 343 Solved Problem 7.29 345 Highlights 346 Exercise—7 348 Chapter 8, Notches and Weirs 351-381 + Introduction 351 . Classification of Notches and Weirs 351 . Discharge Over a Rectangular Notch or Weir 352 Solved Problems 8.1—8.3 352 . Discharge Over a Triangular Notch or Weir 384 Solved problems 8.4—8.6 355 8.5. Advantages of Triangular Notch or Weir over Rectangular Noteh or Weir 367 8.6. Discharge Over a Trapezoidal Notch or Weir 357 Solved Problem 8.7 358 8.7. Discharge Over a Stepped Notch 358 Solved Problem 8.8 359 8.8, Effeet on Discharge Over a Notch or Weir Due to Error in the Measurement of Head 360 8.8.1. For Rectangular Weir or Notch 360 8.8.2. For Triangular Weir or Notch 360 Solved Problems 8.9—8.11 361 8.9. (a) Time Required to Empty a Reservoir or a Tank with a Rectangular Weir or Notch 362 (6) Time Required to Empty a Reservoir or a ‘Tank with a Triangular Weir or Notch 363 Solved Problems 8.12—8.14 364 8.10. Velocity of Approach 366 Solved Problems 8.15—8.19 366 8.01. Empirical Formulae for Discharge Over Rectangular Weir 370 Solved Problems 8.20—8.22 370 8.12. Cipolletti Weir or Notch 372 Solved Problems 8,23—8.24 378 8.13. Discharge Over a Broad-Crested Weir 374Ga) 8.14, Discharge Over a Narrow-Crested Weir 375 8.15, Discharge Over an Ogee Weir 37 8.16, Discharge Over Submerged or Drowned Weir 875 Solved Problems 8,25—827 376 Highlights 377 Exercise—8 379 Chapter 9. Viscous Flow 382-427 9.1, Introduction 382 9.2, Flow of Viscous Fluid Through Circular Pipe 382 Solved Problems 9.1—9.6 386 9.8. Flow of Viscous Fluid between Two Parallel Plates 392 Solved Problems 9.7—9.12 395 9.4, Kinetic Energy Correction and Momentum Correction Factors 399 Solved Problem 9.13 399 9.5, Power Absorbed in Viscous Flow 402 9.5.1. Viscous Resistance of Journal Bearings 402 Solved Problems 9,14—9.18 403, 9.5.2. Viscous Resistance of Foot-step Bearing 406 Solved Problems 9.19—9.20 407 9.5.3. Viscous Resistance of Collar Bearing 407 Solved Problems 9,219.22 408 9.6, Loss of Head Due to Friction in Viscous Flow 409 Solved Problems 9.23—9.24 410 9.7, Movement of Piston in Dash-pot 412 Solved Problem 9.25 ve 413 9.8, Methods of Determination of Co-efficient of Viscosity . aid 9.8.1. Capillary Tube Method 4 44 9.8.2. Falling Sphere Resistance Method 415 9.8.3. Rotating Cylinder Method 416 9.84. Orifice Type Viscometer 417 Solved Problems 9.26—9.32 418 Highlights 422 Exercise—9 424 Chapter 10, Turbulent Flow 428-459 10.1. Introduction 428 10.2. Reynolds Experiment 428 10.3. Frictional Loss in Pipe Flow 429 10.9.1. Expression for Loss of Head Due to Friction in Pipes 429 10.3.2. Expression for Co-efficient of Friction in Terms of Shear Stress 431 10.4. Shear Stress in Turbulent Flow 432 10.4.1, Reynold Expression for Turbulent Shear Stress 432 10.4.2. Prandtl Mixing Length Theory for Turbulent Shear Stress 433(xvi) 10.5, Velocity Distribution in Turbulent Flow in Pipes... 433 10.5.1. Hydrodynamically Smooth and Rough Boundaries a 435 10.5.2. Velocity Distribution for Turbulent Flow in Smooth Pipes a 436 10.5.3. Velocity Distribution for Turbulent Flow in Rough Pipes @ 437 Solved Problems 10.1—10.4 a 437 10.5.4. Velocity Distribution for Turbulent Flow in Terms of Average Velocity Pa 441 Solved Problems 10.5—10.6 oo 443 10.5.5. Velocity Distribution for Turbulent Flow in Smooth Pipes by Power Law 10.6. Resistance of Smooth and Rough Pipes Solved Problems 10.7—10,13 Highlights Exercise—10 Chapter IL Flow Through Pipes UW 1 in Pipes 460 ul (or head) Due to Friction 460 Solved Problems 11.1—1.7 462 114, Minor Energy (Head) Losses 466 11.4.1. Loss of Head Due to Sudden Enlargement 466 11.4.2. Loss of Head Due to Sudden Contraction 468 Solved Problems 11.8—11.14 469 11.4.3. Loss of Head at the Entrance of a Pipe 477 11.4.4. Loss of Head at the Exit of Pipe we 477 11.4.5. Loss of Head Due to an Obstruction in a Pipe & 4m7 11.4.6. Loss of Head Due to Bend in Pipe 478 11.4.7. Loss of Head in Various Pipe Fittings 478 Solved Problems 11.15—11.21 478 11.5. Hydraulic Gradient and Total Energy Line 486 11.5.1. Hydraulic Gradient Line * 486 11.5.2. Total Energy Line 2 486 Solved Probloms 11.22—11.26 486 11.6. Flow Through Syphon 493 Solved Problems 11.27—11.29 ‘as 493 117. Flow Through Pipes in Series or Flow Through . Compound Pipes 497 Solved Problems 11.80—11.30A 498 11.8. Equivalent Pipe 502 Solved Problem 11.31 503 11.9. Flow Through Parallel Pipes 503 Solved Problems 11.82—1141 B04 11.19. Flow Through Branched Pipes 519 Solved Problems 11.42-~11.44 si 520(xvii) 11.11, Power Transmission Through Pipes 525 11.111. Condition for Maximum ‘Transmission of Power 526 11,11.2. Maximum Efficiency of Transmission of Power 526 Solved Problems 11.45—11.47 526 11.12. Flow Through Nozzles 530 11.12.1. Power Transmitted Through Nozzle 532 11.12.2. Condition for Maximum Power Transmitted Through Nozzle 532 11.12.38. Diameter of Nozzle for Maximum ‘Transmission of Power Through Nozzle 533 Solved Problems 11.48—11.51 534 11.18. Water Hammer in Pipes 536 11.13.1. Gradual Closure of Valve 537 11.18.2, Sudden Closure of Valve and Pipe is Rigid. 537 11.18.3, Sudden Closure of Valve and Pipe is Elastic .. 538 11.18.4. Time Taken by Pressure Wave to Travel from the Valve to the Tank and from Tank to the Valve 540 Solved Problems 11.52—11.55 540 11.14, Pipe Network 542 11.14.1, Hardy Cross Method 543 Solved Problem 11.56 544 Highlights 547 Exercise— 11 549 Chapter 12. Dimensional and Model Analysis 554-605 12.1, Introduction BB4 Secondary or Derived Quantities 54 Solved Problem 12.1 555 Dimensional Homogeneity 556 Methods of Dimensional Analysis 556 32.4.1. Rayleigh’s Method 556 3 Solved Problems 12.2—12.7 557 12.4.2, Buckingham’s n-Theorem 560 12.4.3. Method of Selecting Repeating Variables 561 12.4.4, Procedure for Solving Problems by Buckingham’s 1-Theorem 861 Solved Problems 12.8—12.14 563 12.5. Model Analysis 573 12.6, Similitude-Types of Similarities 574 ‘Types of Forces Acting in Moving Fluid 575 Dimensionless Numbers 576 12.8.1. Reynold’s Number (R,) 576 Froude's Number (F,) 577 Euler's Number (E,) 877 Weber's Number (W,) 877 Mach’s Number (M) 877(xviii) 12.9. Model Laws or Similarity Laws 678 12.9.1, Reynold’s Model Law 578 Solved Problems 12.15—12.18 579 12.9.2. Froude Model Law 582 Solved Problems 12,19—12.27 585 12.9.8. Euler’s Model Law 590 12.9.4. Weber Model Law 591 12.9.5. Mach Model Law 591 Solved Problem 12.28 592 12.10, Model Testing of Partially Submerged Bodies 593 Solved Problems 12.29—12.32 595 12.11. Classification of Models 599 12,11.1, Undistorted Models 599 12.11.2. Distorted Models 600 12.11.3, Seale Ratios for Distorted Models 600 Solved Problem 12.33 601 Highlights 601 Exercise—12 602 Chapter 13. Boundary Layer Flow 606-650 13.1. Introduetion 608 . Definitions 607 13.2.1, Laminar Boundary Layer 607 13.2.2. Turbulent Boundary Layer 608 13.2.3, Laminar Sub-layer 608 13.2.4. Boundary Layer Thickness (8) 608 13.2.5. Displacement Thickness (6*) 608 13.2.6. Momentum Thickness (0) 610 13.2.7. Energy Thickness (5**) 610 Solved Problems 13,1—13.2 611 . Drag Force on a Flat Plate Due to Boundary Layer 614 13.3.1. Local Co-efficient of Drag ICp*] 617 13.3.2. Average Co-efficiont of Drag [Cp] 617 13.3.3. Boundary Conditions for the Velocity Profiles 617 Solved Problems 13.3—13.12 617 18.4, Turbulent Boundary Layer on a Flat Plate 633 Solved Problem 13.13 633 13.5. Analysis of Turbulent Boundary Layer 636 13.6. Total Drag on a Flat Plate Due to Laminar and Turbulent Boundary Layer 636 Solved Problems 13.14—18.17 637 13.7. Separation of Boundary Layer 643 13.7.1. Effect of Pressure Gradient on Boundary Layer Separation 643 13.7.2. Location of Separation Point 644 Solved Problem 13.18 645(xix) 13.7.3. Methods of Preventing the Separation of Boundary Layer ee 646 Highlights 646 Exercise—13 648 Chapter 14, Forces on Submerged Bodies 651-686 14.1, Introduction a 651 14.2. Force Exerted by a Flowing Fluid on a Stationary Body 651 14.2.1. Drag 652 14.2.2. Lift 652 Expression for Drag and Lift 652 14.3.1. Dimensional Analysis of Drag and Lift 653 Solved Problems 14.1—14.15 654 14.3.2. Pressure Drag and Friction Drag 664 14.3.3, Stream-lined Body 665 14.3.4. Bluff Body 665 144, Drag on a Sphere 665 Solved Problem 14.16 666 14.5. Terminal Velocity of a Body 667 Solved Problems 14.17—14.20 667 14.6. Drag on a Cylinder 671 44.7, Development of Lift on a Circular Cylinder 671 14.7.1. Flow of Ideal Fluid Over Stationary Cylinder tes 672 14.7.2. Flow Pattern Around the Cylinder when a Constant Circulation Tis Imparted to the Cylinder ie 672 14.7.8. Expression for Lift Force Acting on Rotating Cylinder 674 14.7.4. Drag Force Acting on a Rotating Cylinder 676 14.7.5. Expression for Lift Co-efficient for Rotating Cylinder a 676 14.7.6. Location of Stagnation Points for a Rotating Cylinder in a Uniform low-field... 677 14.7.7, Magnus Effect 677 Solved Problems 14.21—14.23 677 14.8. Development of Lift on an Airfoil 680 14.8.1. Steady-state of a Flying Object 681 Solved Problems 14.24—14.25 681 Highlights 683 Exercise—14 ee 684 15, Compressible Flow 687-730 . Introduetion oe 687 . Thermodynamic Relations 687 15.2.1. Equation of State 687 16.2.2. Expansion and Compression of Perfect Gas ... 688tx) 15.3. Basic Equations of Compressible Flow 15.3.1. Continuity Equation 16.3.2. Bernoulli's Equation Solved Problems 15.1—15.3 15.3.3. Momentum Equations 15.4. Velocity of Sound or Pressure Wave in a Fluid 15.4.1, Expression for Velocity of Sound Wave in a Fluid 15.4.2. Velocity of Sound in Terms of Bulk Modulus 15.4.3. Velocity of Sound for Isothermal Process 15.4.4. Velocity of Sound for Adiabatic Process 15.5. Mach Number Solved Problems 15.4—15,7 15.6. Propagation of Pressure Waves (or Disturbances ) in a Compressible Fluid 15.6.1. Mach Angle 15.6.2. Zone of Action 15.6.3. Zone of Silence Solved Problems 15.8—15.10 15.7, Stagnation Properties 15.7.1. Expression for Stagnation Pressure (p,) 15.7.2, Expression for Stagnation Density (p,) 15.7.3. Expression for Stagnation Temperature (7, Solved Problems 15.11—15.12 . Area Velocity Relationship for Compressible Flow |. Flow of Compressible Fluid Through Orifices and Nozzles Fitted to a Large Tank 15.9.1. Value of n or 24 for Maximum Value Pa of Mass Rate of Flow 15.9.2. Value of V, for Maximum Rate of Flow of Fluid 15.9.3. Maximum Rate of Flow of Fluid Through Nozzle ase 15.9.4. Variation of Mass Rate of Flow of Compressible Fluid with Pressure ratio (2) 16.9.5. Velocity at Outlet of Nozzle for Maximum Rate of Flow is Equal to Sonic Velocity Solved Problems 15.13—1.15 15.10. Mass Rate of Flow of Compressible Fluid Through Venturimeter Solved Problem 15.16 15.11, Pitot-Static Tube in a Compressible Flow Solved Problem 15.17 Highlights Exercise—15 689 691 696 696 696 699 699 799 700 702 703 704 704 704 705 705 709 709 710 n2 m3 715 15 716 nr nT n8 721 722 ‘124 125 728(xi) Chapter 16. Flow in Open Channels 731-796 16.1. Introduetion s 731 16.2. Classification of Flow in Channels 731 16.2.1. Steady Flow and Unsteady Flow 731 16.2.2. Uniform Flow and Non-uniform Flow Tal 16.2.3. Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow 732 16.2.4. Sub-eritical, Critical and Super-Critical Flow x 132 16.3. Discharge Through Open Channel by Chezy’s Formula * 733 Solved Problems 16.1—16.7 ae 734 16.4. Empirical Formulae for the Value of Chezy’s Constant 738 Solved Problems 16.8—16.12 739 16.5. Most Economical Section of Channels 743 16.5.1. Most Economical Rectangular Channel 743 Solved Problems 16.13—16.15 144 16.5.2. Most Economical Trapezoidal Channel 746 Solved Problems 16.16—16.22 748 16.5.3. Best Side Slope for Most Economical ‘Trapezoidal Seetion os 756 Solved Problems 16.23—16.24 z 17 16.5.4. Flow Through Circular Channel 760 Solved Problems 16.25—-16.29 760 16.5.5. Most Economical Circular Section 165 Solved Problems 16.30—16.32 769 16.6. Non-Uniform Flow through Open Channels m7 16.7. Specific Energy and Specific Energy Curve 7 16.7.1. Critical Depth (h,) 173 16.7.2. Critical Velocity (V,) os 173 16.7.3. Minimum Specific Energy in Items of Critical Depth 174 Solved Problems 16.33—16.36 Ta 16.7.4. Critical Flow 16.7.5. Streaming Flow or Sub-critical Flow or Tranquil Flow ee 716 16.7.6. Super-Gritical Flow or Shooting Flow or : Torrential Flow Alternate Depths Condition for Maximum Discharge for a Given Value of Specific Energy si 176 175 1716 116 16.7.7. 16.7.8. Solved Problems 16.36—16.37 116 16.8. Hydraulic Jump or Standing Wave 77 16.8.1. Expression for Depth of Hydraulic Jump 778 16.8.2. Expression for Loss of Energy Due to Hydraulic Jump a 780 16.8.3. Expression for Depth of Hydraulic Jump in Terms or Up-stream Froude Number... 781(xxii) 16.8.4. Length of Hydraulic Jump zs 781 Solved Problems 16.38—16.42 5 781 16.9. Gradually Varied Flow (G.V.F.) . 784 16.9.1. Equation of Gradually Varied Flow 784 Solved Problems 16.43—16.44 wa 786 16.9.2. Back Water Curve and Affux a 787 16.9.3. Expression for the Length of Back Water Curve os 788 Solved Problem 16.45 i 739 Highlights 790 Exercise—16 793 Chapter 17. Impact of Jets and Jet Propulsion 797-846 . Introduction os 191 . Force Exerted by the Jet on a Stationary Vertical Plate a 797 17.2.1, Force Exerted by a Jet on Stationary Inclined Flat Plate = 798 17.2.2. Force Exerted by a Jet on Stationary Curved Plate 799 Solved Problems 17.1—17.6 801 17.3. Force Exerted by a Jet on a Hinged Plate 803 Solved Problems 17.7—1710 (a) 804 17.4. Foree Exerted by a Jet on Moving Plates 808 17.4.1, Force on Flat Vertical Plate Moving in the Direction of Jet roy 809 17.4.2. Force on the Inclined Plate Moving in the Direction of the Jet re 809 Solved Problems 17.11—17.13 ais 810 17.4.3. Force on the Curved Plate when the Plate is Moving in the Direction of Jet... 812 Solved Problems 17.14—17.17 is 813 17.4.4, Force Exerted by a Jet of Water on an Un-symmetrical Moving Curved Plate when + Jet Strikes Tangentially at one of the Tips ... 817 Soived Problems 17.18—1723 x 820 17.4.5. Force Exerted by a Jet of Water on a Series of Vanes a 827 17.4.6. Force Exerted on a Series of Radial Curved Vanes 828 Solved Problems 17.24—17.26 831 17.5, Jet Propulsion 834 17.5.1. Jet Propulsion of a Tank with an Orifice 835 Solved Probloms 17.27—17.28 837 17.5.2. Jet Propulsion of Ships 837 Solved Problems 17,29—17.33 838 Highlights : 843 Exercise—17 os 844(axctii) Chapter 18, Hydraulic Machines—Turbines 847-937 18.1, Introduction ai 847 Turbines 847 General Layout of a Hydro-electric Power Plant... 847 Definitions of Heads and Efficiencies of a Turbine 847 Classification of Hydraulic Turbines zi 850 Pelton Wheel (or Turbine) ne 851 18.6.1. Velocity Triangles and Work Done for Pelton Wheel = 853 18.6.2. Points to be Remembered for Pelton Wheel 855 Solved Problems 18,1—18.10 a 856 18.6.3. Design of Pelton Whee! 867 Solved Problems 18.11—18.13 a 868 18.7, Radial Flow Reaction Turbines 871 18.7.1. Main Parts of a Radial Flow Reaction Turbine oe 871 18.7.2. Inward Radial Flow Turbine 872 18.7.3. Degree of Reactions 4 874 18.7.4. Definitions - 878 Solved Problems 18,14—18.20 . 878 18.7.5. Outward Radial Flow Reaction Turbine... 886 Solved Problems 18.21—18.22 887 18,8, Francis Turbine ° 889 18.8.1, Important Relations for Francis Turbines... 890 Solved Problems 18,23—18.26 . 890 18.9. Axial Flow Reaction Turbine i 897 18.9.1. Some Important Point for Propeller (Kaplan Turbine) ig 899 Solved Problems 18.27—18.33 899 18.10. Draft Tube 909 18.10.1. Types of Draft Tubes 909 18.10,2. Draft Tube Theory . 910 18.10.3. Efficiency of Draft Tube : 910 Solved Problems 18.33 (a)-~18,35 - 911 18.11. Specifie Speed ve 914 18.11.1. Derivation of the Specific Speed 914 18.11.2. Significance of Specific Speed ot 915 Solved Problems 18,36—18.41 . 915 18.12. Unit Quantities y 921 18.12.1. Unit Speed : 921 18.12.2. Unit Discharge ‘ 921 18.12.3. Unit Power 922 18.12.4. Use of Unit Quantities (VQ, P,) : 922 Solved Problems 18.41 (a)—18.45 923 18.18, Characteristic Curves of Hydraulic Turbines o- 927 18.18.1. Main Characteristic Curves or Constant Head Curves 927 18.13.2. Operating Characteristic Curves or Constant Speed Curves 928(xxiv) 18.13.3. Constant Efficiency Curves or Muschel Curves or Iso-Efficiency Curves oe 929 18.14. Governing of Turbines wu 930 Highlights oo 931 Exercise—18 ci 933 19. Centrifugal Pumps 938-984, Introduction 2s 938 Main Parts of a Centrifugal Pump ts 938 . Work Done by the Centrifugal Pump (or by Impfller) on Water oa 940 19.4, Definitions of Heads and Efficiencies of a Centrifugal Pump we 941 Solved Problems 19.1—19.12 , 944 19,5. Minimum Speed for Starting a Centrifugal Pump 958 Solved Problems 19.13—19.15 959 19.6, Multistage Centrifugal Pumps 961 19.6.1. Multistage Centrifugal Pumps for High Heads “ 961 19.6.2. Multistage Centrifugal Pumps for High Discharge oe 962 Solved Problems 19.16—19.17 “ 962 19.7, Specifie Speed of a Centrifugal Pump (N,) one 964 19.7.1. Expression for Specific Speed fora Pump 964 19.8. Model Testing of Centrifugal Pumps ie 965 Solved Problems 19.18—19.22 966 19.9. Priming of a Centrifugal Pump 971 19.10, Characteristic Curves of Centrifugal Pumps’ 971 19.10.1. Main Characteristic Curves 971 19.10,2. Operating Characteristic Curves . 972 19.10.3. Constant Efficiency Curves - 972 19,11, Cavitation ae 973 19.1.1. Precaution Against Cavitation : 973 19,11.2, Effects of Cavitation a 974 19.11.3. Hydraulic Machines Subjected to Cavitation 974 19.11.4, Cavitation in Turbines 974 19.11.5, Cavitation in Centrifugal Pumps 974 Solved Problem 19.23 o 975 19.12, Maximum Suction Lift (or Suction Height) 976 19.13, Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) oe 978 19.14. Cavitation in Centrifugal Pump 978 Solved Problem 19.24 a 979 Highlights 4 980 Exercise—19 ia 982 Chapter 20, Reciprocating Pumps 985-1032 20.1, Introduetion . Bes 20.2. Main Parts of a Reciprocating Pump 985 20.3. Working of a Reciprocating Pump ” 98620.4, 20.5. 20.7. 20.8. 20.9. 20.10, Chapter 211. 21.8, 21.4, 21.5, Gu) 20.3.1. Discharge Through a Reciprocating Pump 20.3.2. Work Done by Reciprocating Pump 20.3.3. Discharge, Work Done and Power Required to Drive a Double-acting Pump Slip of Reciprocating Pump 20.4.1. Negative Slip of the Reciprocating Pump Classification of Reciprocating Pumps Solved Problems 20.1—20.2 . Variation of Velocity and Acceleration in the Suction and Delivery Pipes Due to Acceleration of the Piston Effect of Variation of Velocity on Friction in the Suction and Delivery Pipes Solved Problem 20.3 Indicator Diagram 20.8.1. Ideal Indicator Diagram 20.8.2. Effect of Acceleration in Suction and Delivery Pipes on Indicator Diagram Solved Problems 20.4—20.9 20.8.3. Effect of Friction in Suction and Delivery Pipes on Indicator Diagram 20.8.4, Effect of Acceleration and Friction in Suetion and Delivery Pipes on Indicator Diagram Solved Problems 20.10—-20.12 20.8.5. Maximum Speed of a Reciprocating Pump Solved Problem 20.13 Air Vessels Solved Problems 20.14—20.18 Comparison between Centrifugal Pumps and Reciprocating Pumps Highlights Exercise—20 2i. Fluid System Introduction . The Hydraulic Press 21.2.1. Mechanical Advantage 21.2.2. Leverage of the Hydraulic Press 21.2.3. Actual Heavy Hydraulic Press Solved Problems 21.1—21.5 ‘The Hydraulic Accumulator 21.3.1. Capacity of Hydraulic Accumulator Solved Problems 21.6—21.11 21.3.2. Differential Hydraulic Accumulator ‘The Hydraulic Intensifier Solved Problems 21.12—21.13 The Hydraulic Ram Solved Problems 21.14—21.15 986 987 987 988 989 989 989 993 993, 995 995 996 996 1004 1005 1007 1011 1012 1013 1022 1029 1029 1030 1033-1061 1033 1033 1034 1034 1034 1035 1037 1038 1039 1043 1043 1045 1045 1047(xvi) 21.6. The Hydraulic Lift 1048 21.6.1. Direct Acting Hydraulic Lift 1049 21.6.2, Suspended Hydraulic Lift 1049 Solved Problems 21.16—21.17 1050 21.7, The Hydraulic Crane 1052 Solved Problems 21.18—21.20 1052 . The Fluid or Hydraulic Coupling 1055 |. The Hydraulic Torque Converter 5 . The Air Lift Pump 1057 21.11. The Gear-Wheel Pump 1058 Highlights 1059 Exercise—21 1060 Objective Type Questions 1062-1084 Answers to Objective Type Questions 1085 Appendix 1086. of > 1.1 INTRODUCTION Fluid mechanics is that branch of science which deals with the behaviour of the fluids (liquids or gases) at rest as well as in motion. Thus this branch of science deals with the static, kinematics and dynamic aspects of fluids. The study of fluids at rest is called fluid statics. The study of fluids in motion, where pressure forces are not considered, is called fluid kinematics and if the pressure forces are also considered for the fluids in motion, that branch of science is called fluid dynamics. > 1.2. PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS 1.2.1 Density or Mass Density. Density or mass density of a fluid is defined as the ratio of the mass of a fluid to its volume. Thus mass per unit volume of a fluid is called density. It is denoted the symbol p (rho). The unit of mass density in SI unit is kg per cubic metre, i.e., kg/m’. The density of liquids may be considered as constant while that of gases changes with the variation of pressure and temperature. Mathematically, mass density is written as = Mass of flu P Volume of fh The value of density of water is 1 gm/em* or 1000 kg/m’. 1.2.2 Specific Weight or Weight Density. Specific weight or weight density of a fluid is the ratio between the weight of a fluid to its volume. Thus weight per unit volume of a fluid is called weight density and it is denoted by the symbol w: ‘Thus mathematically, w= VClghtof fluid _ Gvisss of fluid) x Acceleration due to gravity Volume of fluid — Volume of fluid _ Mass of fluid x g _ olume of fluid Mass of fluid : oes Volume of fluid os w=pg wl),‘The value of specific weight or weight density (w) for water is 9.81 x 1000 Newton/m! in SI units. 1.2.3. Specific Volume. Specific volume of a fluid is defined as the volume of a fluid occupied by a unit mass or volume per unit mass of g fluid is called specific volume. Mathematically, it is expressed os . . Specific volume Volume ‘Thus specific volume is the reciprocal of mass density. It is expressed as m* hs. It is commonly applied to gases. 1.2.4 Specific Gravity. Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the weight density (or density) of a fluid to the weight density (or density) of a standard fluid, For liquids, the standard fluid is taken water and for gases, the standard fluid is taken air. Specific gravity is also called relative density. It is dimensionless quantity and is denoted by the symbol S. Mathematically, (for liquids) = Weight density (density) of liquid Weight density (density) of water Weight density (density) of gas Weight density (density) of air ‘Thus weight density of a liquid = S x Weight dénsity of water = Sx 1000 x 9.81 Nim? ‘The density of a liquid = 5x Density of water = 5x 1000 kg/m’. L.A) If the specific gravity of a fluid is known, then the density of the fluid will be equal to specific gravity of fluid multiplied by the density of water. For example the specific gravity of mercury is 13.6, hence density of mercury = 13.6 x 1000 = 13600 kg/m’. Problem 1.1 Calculate the specific weight, density and specific gravity of one litre of a liquid which weighs 7 N. - Solution. Given : Sfor gases) = Volume] tre = in! 1000 Weight = 7 N Weight ___7N Volume (Fao) ™ —— | mi (i) Specific weight(w) = 1000 (i) Density (p) ots a 000 gin = = 713.5 kg/m’. Ans. 8 (iii) Specific gravity = Density of liquid _ 7135 5. Dedsity of water'='1000 kgita’) Density of water 1000 = 0.7135. Ans.Problem 1.21 Calculate the density, specific weight and weight of one litre of petrol of specific gravity = 0.7 Solution. Given: Volume = 1 litre = 1 x 1000 cm’ a m? = 0.001 m? Sp. gravity S=07 (i) Density (p) Using equation (1.1.A), Density (p) = Sx 1000 kg/m? = 0.7 x 1000 = 700 kg/m®. Ans. (ii) Specific weight (w) Using equation (1.1), w= px g=700 x 9.81 N/m? = 6867 N/m*. Ans, (iii) Weight (W) ‘We know that specific weight = eight Volume or w= Yor 6867 = 0.001 0.001 W = 6867 x 0.001 = 6.867 N. Ans. b> 1.3 VISCOSITY Viscosity is defined as the property of a fluid which offers resistance to the movement of one layer of fluid over another adjacent layer of the fluid. When two layers of a fluid, a distance ‘dy’ apart, move one over the other at different velocities, say u and u + du as shown in Fig. 1.1, the viscosity together with relative velocity causes a shear stress acting between the fluid layers. : The top layer causes a shear stress on the adjacent lower layer while the lower layer causes a shear stress on the adjacent top layer. This shear stress is proportional to the rate of change of veloc- ity with respect to y. It is denoted by symbol ott ‘tcalled Tau. Mathematically, te “ y av ‘du Fig. 1.1 Velocity variation near a solid boundary. or top (1.2) where} (called mus the constant of proportionality and is known as the co-efficient of dynamic viscosity or only viscosity. a represents the rate of shearstrain or rate of shear deformation or velocity gradient. ry From equation (1.2), we have t= Tay wn(.3) 1 E ) _ Thus visepsity is also defined as the shear stress required to produce unit rate of shear strain. 1.3.1. Units of Viscosity. The units of viscosity is obtained by putting the dimensions of the quantities in equation (1.3)Shear stress Force/ Area Change of velocity )e =I Change of distance Length Force/(length)* = Force x Time 1 (Length)* Time InMKS system, force is represented by kgf and length by metre (mm), inCGS system, force is represented by () Shear force, F= 1X area = 266.66 x 1.5 = 400 N. Ans. (ii) Power* required to move the plate at the speed 0.4 m/sec = FX u= 400 x 0.4 = 160 W. Ans. Problem 1.6 Determine the intensity of shear of an oil having viscosity = 1 poise. The oil is used for lubricating the clearance between a shaft of diameter 10 cm and its journal bearing. The clear- ance is 1.5 mm and the shaft rotates at 150 r.p.m. Solutiori. Given : [= | poise Dia. of shaft, D=10cm Distance between shaft and journal bearing, dy =1,5mm=15x 10m Speed of shaft, N=150rp.m. Tangential speed of shaft is given by _ RDN _x0.1x150 _ = EN OI = 0.785 mis Using equation(1.2, t= o . where du = change of velocity between shaft and bearing = u—0 = u 1, 0785 _ 52.33 Ném?. Ans. * 1015x107 Problem 1.7 Calculate the dynamic viscosity of an oil, which is used for lubrication between a square plate of size 0.8 m x 0.8 m and an inclined plane with angle of inclination 30° as shown in Fig. 1.4. The weight of the square plate is 300 N and it slides down the inclined plane with a uniform velocity of 0.3 m/s. The thickness of oil film is 1.5 mm. Solution. Given : ag a Area of plate, A=0.8x0.8 = 0.64 m? ‘ Angle of plane, 8 = 30° Weight of plate, 300N Velocity of plate, u=03 m/s * Power=Fx uN m/s =F xu WC: Nmis = Watt)Thickness of oil film, tedy=15mm=15x10%m Let the viscosity of fluid between plate and inclined plane is [. Component of weight W, along the plane = W cos 60° = 300 cos 60° = 150 N Thus the shear force, F , on the bottom surface of the plate = 150 N and shear stress, 12 ee : ‘Area 064 Now using equation (1.2), we have top dy . where du = change of velocity = «- 0 =u =0.3 m/s dy LSx10%m P 250) 8 ~ 0.64 15x10° . 150x15*107 _ 2 = i Be rgpcog 7 = IT Nsim? = 1.17% 10 = 11.7 polse. Ans. Problem 1.8 Two horizontal plates are placed 1.25 cm apart, the space between them being filled with oil of viscosity 14 poises. Calculate the shear stress in oil if upper plate is moved with a velocity of 2.5 mis. (AMLLE., 1972) Solution. Given : Distance between plates, dy = 1.25 em=0,0125 m Viscosity, = 14 poise = a N sim? Velocity of upper plate, 2.5 m/sec. Shear stress is given by equation (1.2) as, t=. a y where du = Change of velocity between plates = u - 0 = u = 2.5 m/sec. dy =0,0125 m. 4, 25 10.0125 Problem 1.9 The space between two square flat parallel plates is filled with oil. Each side of the plate is 60 cm. The thickness of the oil film is 12.5 mm. The upper plate, which moves at 2.5 metre per sec requires a force of 98.1 N to maintain the speed. Determine : (i) the dynamic viscosity of the oil in poise, and (ii) the kinematic viscosity of the oil in stokes ifthe specific gravity of the oil is 0.95. (AMLLE,, Winter 1977) = 280 Nim”, Ans. Solution. Given : Each side of a square plate = 60 cm = 0,60 m *. Area, 0.6 x 0.6 = 0.36 m* Thickness of oil film, dy = 12.5 mm= 12.5 x 10° m Velocity of upperplate, v= 2.5 m/sec10 Fluid Mechanics el Change of velocity between plates, du = 2.5 m/sec Force required on upper plate, F = 98.1 N Shear stress, t=——=—= 125x107 3s Ns Bent” = 1.3635 25 m = 1.3635 x 10 = 13.635 poise. Ans. (ii) Sp. gr. of oil, § = 0.95 Let v = kinematic viscosity of oil Using equation (1.1 A), Mass density of oil, p= Sx 1000 = 0.95 x 1000 = 950 kg/m? 13635 S) Using the relation, v = Ewe getv= — a 001435 m/sec = 001435 x 10* cm/s p = 14.35 stokes. Ans. (> cm?/s = stoke) Problem 1.10 Find the kinematic viscosity of an oil having density 981 kg/m’. The shear stress at @ point in oil is 0.2452 N/m? and velocity gradient at that point is 0.2 per second. Solution. Given : Mass density, p=981 kg/m* Shear stress, ‘t= 0.2452 Nim? Velocity gradient, “ =028 7 Using the equation (1.2), t it 0 0.2452 = 1x 0.2 y 0.245 2 = = = 1.226 Nei We pp = 1226 Nom Kinematic viscosity v is given by ve Ho 1226 _ 195 x 10°? msec pe 981 = 0.125 x 107? x 10* em*/s = 0.125 x 10? em?/s = 12.5 cms = 12.5 stoke-Ans. (+ cm/s = stoke) Problem 1.11. Determine the specific gravity of a fluid having viscosity 0.05 poise and kinematic viscosity 0.035 stokes. Solution. Given : Viscosity, 1 = 0.05 poise = oes Ns/m?Kinematic viscosity, V = 0.035 stokes = 0.035 cm/s {¢ Stoke = em?/s} = 0.035 x 10° m’/s Using the relation v = *, we get 0.035 x 10-4 = 295 1 Pp Top 005 1 3 * = 28 x +, = 14285 kj P= "0 * a35x104 vm __ Density of liquid _ 14285 2. Sp. gr. of liquid = = Pe oe Density of water 1000 1.4285 = 1.43. Ans. Problem 1,12 Determine the viscosity of a liquid having kinematic viscosity 6 stokes and specific gravity 1.9. Solution. Given : Kinematic viscosity Vv =6 stokes = 6 cm/s = 6 x 10™* m/s Sp. gr. of liquid =19 Let the viscosity of liquid =p Density of the liquid Ne . gr. of a liquid * we eae Density of water - 1.9 = Density of liquid 1000 +. Density of liquid = 1000 x 1.9 = 1900 *8 m +. Using the relation va we get P 6x10%= H=6x 107 x 1900 = 1.14 Ns/m* = 1.14 10 = 11.40 poise. Ans. Problem 1.13 The velocity distribution for flow over a flat plate is given by u = 4 yy" in which w is the velocity in metre per second at a distance y metre above the plate. Determine the shear siress at y = 0.15 m. Take dynamic viscosity of fluid as 8.6 poise. Solution. Given : uniy-y du _3 ge Sg dy 4” du _3 At y=0.15, — == -2x 0.15 =0.75 - 0.30 = 0.45 , dy 4 Viscosity, =8.5 poise = 85 Ns 10 poise =1 +s) 10 m mdu _ 85 mS x dy 10 Problem 1.14 The dynamic viscosity of an oil, used for lubrication between a shaft and sleeve is 6 poise. The shaft is of diameter 0.4 m and rotates at 190 r.p.m. Calculate the power lost in the bearing for a sleeve length of 90 mm. The thickness of the oil film is 1.5 mm. Using equation (1.2), t=p oas §. = 0.3825 N.. ans. m m Solution. Given : 1.5 mm Viscosity 1 =6 poise _ 6 Ns Ns a. “tom Oo ae ae Dia. of shaft, D=04m ze Speed of shaft, N=190r-p.m aR ee Sleeve length, L=90mm=90x 10% m cea Thickness of oil film, t=1.5mm=15x 103m My Taageanlalvelacny taken: y= EON EX OSU 9 op cay 60 60 Using the relation oup dy where du = Change of velocity = u- 0 =u = 3.98 m/s dy = Change of distance =1 = 1.5 10-3 m 3.98 15x10" T= 10x = 1592 N/m? This is shear stress on shaft Shear force on the shaft, F = Shear stress x Area = 1592 x aD x L = 1592 x nx 4x 90 x 10°? = 180,05 N Torque on the shaft, T= Force x 2 = 180.05 x _ 2nNT _ 2x 190X36, = eT Eee Problem 1.15 [f the velocity profile of a fluid over a plate is a parabolic with the vertex 20 cm from the plate, where the velocity is 120 em/sec. Calculate the velocity gradients and shear stresses at a distance of 0, 10 and 20 cm from the plate, if the viscosity of the fluid is 8.5 poise. *Power lost Solution. Given : y Distance of vertex from plate = 20 em Velocity at vertex, u = 120 cmisec = 120 cm/sec : BS Ns Viscosity, = 8.5 poise = — —~ =0.85. * ee Poe TO mt 20cm ' ———— — wu 2nN 2nNT Fig. 1.6 * Power in S.L, unit=T * o=Properties of Fluids 13 The velocity profile is given parabolic and equation of velocity profile is uzay+by+c wi) where a, b and c are constants. Their values are determined from boundary conditions as : (b) aty=20cm, w= 120 cm/sec (©) aty=20¢m, “= a. Substituting boundary condition (a) in equation (i), we get c=0. Boundary condition (6) on substitution in (i) gives 120 = a(20)* + b(20) = 400d + 20b ii) Boundary condition (c) on substitution in equation () gives du , ay =2ay+b (ii) or =2xax20+b=40a+b Solving equations (ii) and (iif) for a and b From equation (iii), b= Substituting this value in equation (ii), we get 120 = 400a + 20 x (- 40a) = 4002 - 800a = - 4004 J 3 2.93 400 ~~ 10 “ b=-40 x (-0.3) = 12.0 Substituting the values of a, b and c in equation (i), u=-0.3y' + 12y. Velocity Gradient du S~ =-03%2y + 12=-0.6y +12 dy at y =0, Velocity eran. (44) =-0.6x0+12= 12s. Ans. VWyeo du at y= 10cm, (#) 0.6 x 10 + 12 =—6 + 12 = 6/s. Ans. dy yao du aty=20em, (# 0.6 204 12=- 12+ 12=0. Ans. - Shear Stresses Shear stress is given by, top 24 dyJ4_ Fluid Mechanics aoe Z| (a). (@),.° ay, y=l0 (# =0.85x0=0. Ans. 49) em .85 x 12.0 = 10.2 N/m?. (i) Shear stress at y .85 x 6.0 = 5.1 Nim? (ii) Shear stress at y = 10, (iii) Shear stress at y = 20, Problem 1.16 A Newtonian fluid is filled in the clearance between a shaft and a concentric sleeve. The sleeve attains a speed of 50 cm/s, when a force of 40 N is applied to the sleeve parallel to the shaft. Determine the speed if a force of 200 N is applied. (A.MLLE., Summer 1980) Solution. Given : Speed of sleeve, u, = 50 cm/s when force, F,=40N. Let speed of sleeve is uy when force, F, = 200 N. Using relation tH=H “ y Force where t = Shear stress = du = Change of velocity = dy Bayt A y P= AM oy A, Wand y are constant} z Ruf uy Substituting values, we get 2° = 200 50 x 200 u, = ———— = 505 = 250 cm/s. Ans. 2 40 Problem 1.17 A 15 cm diameter vertical cylinder rotates concentrically inside another cylinder of diameter 15.10 cm. Both cylinders are 25 cm high. The space between the cylinders is filled with a liquid whose viscosity is unknown. If a torque of 12.0 Nm is required to rotate the inner cylinder at 100 r.p.m., determine the viscosity of the fluid, (AM.LE., Winter 1979) Solution. Given : Diameter of cylinder 15cm=0.15m Dia. of outer cylinder = 15.10em=0.151 m Length of cylinders, L=25em=0.25 m Torque, T=120NmSpeed, N=100rp.m. Let the viscosity = Tangential velocity of cylinder, u = ay = Brae = 0.7854 mis Surface area of cylinder, A=nDxL=nx0.15 x 0.25 =.1178 m? Now using relation rapt dy where du =u—0= w= .7854 m/s = oe m= .0005 m _ wx 7854 0005 © +. Shear force, F = Shear stress x Torque, T=FXx 2 120 = BX 7854 1178 x # 12.0 x,0005x2_ r Me e54x.1178x.15 SON Sim = 0,864 x 10 = 8.64 poise. Ans. Problem 1.18 Two large plane surfaces are 2.4 cm apart. The space between the surfaces is filled with glycerine. What force is required to drag a very thin plate of surface area 0.5 square metre between the two large plane surfaces at a speed of 0.6 m/s, if : (i) the thin plate is in the middle of the two plane surfaces, and (ii) the thin plate is at a distance of 0.8 cm from one of the plane surfaces ? Take the dynamic viscosity of glycerine = 8.10 x 10"! N s/m’. Solution. Given : Distance between two large surfaces = 2.4 cm Area of thin plate, A=05m* Velocity of thin plate, u=0.6 mis Viscosity of glycerine, = 8.10 x 10" N s/m? ‘Case I, When the thin plate is in the middle of the two plane surfaces [Refer to Fig. 1.7 (a)] Let F, = Shear force on the upper side of the thin plate Fig. 1.7 (a) F, = Shear force on the lower side of the thin plate F =Total force required to drag the plate Then FoF\+Fy The shear stress (t,) on the upper side of the thin plate is given by equation,16 Fluid Mechanics ae =p| te 1H ae), where du = Relative velocity between thin plate and upper large plane surface = 0.6 m/sec dy = Distance between thin plate and upper large plane surface = 1.2 m= 0,012 m (plate is a thin one and hence thickness of plate is neglected) 1 =8.10 x 1071 x 26 | «405 Nim? 012 Now shear force, F, = Shear stress x Area = xA=40.5 x 0.5 = 20.25N Similarly shear stress (1,) on the lower side of the thin plate is given by du 1, (06 2 =|] =8.10x 107! x | ——.| =40.5 Nin? a »($), 0x (25) 5 Nim’ Shear force, Fy =X A= 40.5 x 0.5 = 20.25 N Total force, F =F, +F,=20.25 + 20.25 =40.5N. Ans. ‘Case II. When the thin plate is at a distance of 0.8 cm from one of the plane surfaces [Refer to Fig. 1,7 (6)] Let the thin plate is a distance 0.8 cm from the lower plane surface. ‘Then distance of the plate from the upper plane surface os em =24-0.8= 1.6cm=.016m —— (Neglecting thickness of the plate) Oem ‘The shear force on the upper side of the thin plate, roe ere ATT F, = Shear stress x Area = 1, X A Fig. 1.7 @) =u (# xa=8.10x 10x [28] x05 215.18 dy 1016 ‘The shear force on the lower side of the thin plate, scan (4) xA A = 8.10% 10° x {98} x05 =30.36N 08/100 Total force required = F, + F, = 15.18 + 30.36 = 45.54 N. Ans. F. Problem 1.19 A vertical gap 2.2 cm wide of infinite extent contains a fluid of viscosity 2.0 N s/m? and specific gravity 0.9. A metallic plate 1.2 m x 1.2 m x 0,2 cm is 10 be lifted up with a constant velocity of 0.15 m/sec, through the gap. If the plate is in the middle of the gap, find the force required. The weight of the plate is 40 N. Solution. Given : Width of gap =2.2 cm, viscosity, ft = 2.0 N s/m? Sq. gr. of fluid =092. Weight density of fluid F = 0,9 x 1000 = 900 kgf/m® = 900 x 9.81 N/m? t (Cs Lkgf= 9.81 N) Volume of plate =1.2mx1.2mx02cm = 00288 m* ‘Thickness of plate Velocity of plate Weight of plate “Whoa utes i 6 Wake Of i giah ss Miata ci plate of plate from vertical surface, of the gap Fig. 1.8 . (ame of gap~Thickness of pie) " 2 =lem=.01 m. Now the shear force on the left side of the metallic plate, = Shear stress x Area -« (4) xArea= 20x (M48) x1ax12N yh (v Area = 1,2 1.2 m’) =43.2N. Similarly, the shear force on the right side of the metallic plate, 0x (28) xtax12- 43.2.N F = Shear stress x Area = Total shear force =F, +F,=43.2+43.2=864N, In this case the weight of plate (which is acting vertically downward) and upward thrust is also to be taken into account. The upward thrust = Weight of fluid displaced = (Weight density of fluid) Volume of fluid displaced = 9.81 x 900 x 00288 N (Cs Volume of fluid displaced = Volume of plate = 00288) = 25.43 N. ‘The net force acting in the downward direction due to weight of the plate and upward thrust = Weight of plate —- Upward thrust = 40 — 25.43 = 14.57N Total force required to lift the plate up = Total shear force + 14.57 = 86.4 + 14.57 = 100.97 N. Ans. > 1.4 THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES Fluids consist of liquids or gases. But gases are compressible fluids and hence thermodynamic prop- erties play an important role. With the change of pressure and temperature, the gases undergo large[18 Fluid Mechanics | Mechanics ‘ a) variation in density. The relationship between pressure (absolute), specific volume and temperature (absolute) of a gas is given by the equation of state as, pv=RTor 2 = Rr (5) where p = Absolute pressure of a gas in N/m? V = Specific volume = ; Gas constant Absolute temperature in °K Density of a gas. 1.4.1 Dimension of R. The gas constant, R, depends upon the particular gas. The dimension of R is obtained from equation (1.5) as. Roe pr 2 . @InMKS units Ra Aetlm’ _ kef-m (8)-« kg°K a (ii) In SI units, p is expressed in Newton/m? or N/m?. __Nim?__ N-m _ Joule K kek ke-K Uoule = N-m] m * a g-K kgf-m For air, Rin MKS = 293 kg°K RinSt=29.3x9,81 S-™ ~ 297 J ke°K ke-K 1.4.2 Isothermal Process. If the changes in density occurs at constant temperature, then the process is called isothermal and relationship between pressure (p) and density (p) is given by 7 = Constant (1.6) 1.4.3. Adiabatic Process. If the change in density occurs with no heat exchange to and from the gas, the process is called adiabatic. And if no heat is generated within the gas due to friction, the relationship between pressure and density is given by ©. = Constant ALD) P - where k = Ratio of specific heat of a gas at constant pressure and constant volume. = 1.4 for air.1.4.4 Universal Gas Constant. Let Mass of a gas in kg Volume of gas of mass m = Absolute pressure Absolute temperature Then, we have pW =mRT (1.8) where R = Gas constant. Equation (1.8) can be made universal, ie., applicable to all gases if it is expressed in mole-basis. Let = Number of moles in volume of a gas Volume of the gas Mass of the gas molecules “Mass of a hydrogen atom m = Mass of a gas in kg Then, we have Substituting the value of m in equation (1.8), we get pV =nxMx RT ‘ (1.9) The product M x R is called universal gas constant and is equal to 848 otk MKS units and kg-mok 8314 Jkg-mole K in SI units. One kilogram mole is defined as the product of one kilogram mass of the gas and its molecular weight. Problem 1.20 A gas weighs 16 N/m’ at 25°C and at an absolute pressure of 0.25 N/mm’. Deter- ‘mine the gas constant and density of the gas. Solution. Given : Weight density, w= 16 N/m? 2s°c Temperature, * 73 + 1 = 273 + 25 = 288°K p= 0.25 N/mm? (abs.) = 0.25 x 10° N/m = 25 x 10* N/m? (@ Using relation w = pg, density is obtaindd as ¥ Ans. = © £1.63 kg/m’, Ans. “'g 981 (ii) Using equation (1.5), fe =RT ‘ R= P= 25X10" _ 539.55 Nm ane pT 163x288 kgK Problem 1.21 A cylinder of 0.6 m' in volume contains air at 50°C and 0.3 N/mm? absolute pres- sure, The air is compressed to 0.3 m'. Find (i) pressure inside the cylinder assuming isothermal process and (ii) pressure and temperature assuming adiabatic process. Take k = 1.4. Solution. Given : Initial volume, =0.6 m>‘Temperature if 50°C ‘ = 273 + 50 =323°K Pressure 203 Ni = =0.3 x 10° Nim? = 30 x 10* Nim? Final volume (0 Isothermal process : Using equation (1.6), ey = Constant or p} = Constant. PA = Po ‘ y= PI = 30210" x06 9.6 105 Nm? = 0.6 Nimm?, Ans. Ve 03 (ii) Adiabatic process : Using equation (1.7), 2 = Constant or p V* = Constant Pp Pvt = Pa} vi 06)" =pi—t =30x10'x |—| =30x 10'x2)* Pam Pie aa x =0.791 x 10° Nm? = 0.791 N/mm?, Ans. For temperature, using equation (1.5), we get pW =RT and also p VW" = Constant p= AP and RP s+ = Constant or RTv*" = Constant = Tv! = Constant {+ Ris also constant} ew ; A 14-10 ' y, 06 a T=T| +} =323 = 323 x 2" = 426.2°K ic (cs) ty = 426.2 - 273 = 153.2°C. Ans. Problem 1.22 Caleulate the pressure exerted by 5 kg of nitrogen gas at a temperature of 10°C if the volume is 0.4 m’. Molecular weight of nitrogen is 28. Assume, ideal gas laws are applicable. Solution. Given : Mass of nitrogen =Skg ‘Temperature, 1=10°C ve T=273 + 10 = 283°K Volume of nitrogen, Vv=04m'° Molecular weight =28 Using equation (1.9), we have pV =n x Mx RTN-m kg-mole °K and one kg-mole = (kg-mass) x Molecular weight = (kg-mass) x 28 SM 269 Nm kek ‘The gas laws for nitrogen is p¥ = mRT, where R = Characteristic gas constant or px 0.d =5 x 296.9 x 283 5x 2969 x 283 Se peen 3s where M x R = Universal gas constant = 8314 2 R for nitrogen = 1050283.7 N/m? = 1.05 N/mm?. Ans. D> 1.5 COMPRESSIBILITY AND BULK MODULUS Compressibility is the reciprocal of the bulk modulus of = = ¥ gy elasticity, K which is defined as the ratio of compressive stress . to volumetric strain, \ Consider a cylinder fitted with a piston as shown in Fig. 1.9. +} ASI =P Let V = Volume of a gas enclosed in the cylinder t p= Pressure of gas when volume is ¥ 7 Let the pressure is increased to p + dp, the volume of gas CYUNDER decreases from V to V —d¥V. rig 9 Then increase in pressure ip kgffm? Decrease in volume Ww PISTON ~. Volumetric strain —ve sign means the volume decreases with increase of pressure. Increase of pressure 2. Bulk modulus K= aca ‘Volumetric strain dp _-dp T roa Vv (1.10) v I at Cn = a.) Relationship between Bulk Modulus (K) and Pressure (p) for a Gas The relationship between bulk modulus of elasticity (K) and pressure for a gas for two different processes of compression are as : (® For Isothermal Process. Equation (1.6) gives the relationship between pressure (p) and density (p) of a gas as = Constant por pV = Constant te v= Differentiating this equation, we get (p and V both are variables) pdv+dp=0 or pdV¥=-Ndp or p= Se ‘Substituting this value in equation (1.10), we get K=p (1.12) (ii) For Adiabatic Process. Using equation (1.7) for adiabatic process = Constant or pV" = Constant P Differentiating, we get pd(W*) + V(dp) = 0 pxkx Vd +v'dp=0 o o phd + Vdp =0 [Cancelling ¥*" to both sides] Vadp kd = im = a a me Hence from equation (1.10), we have K=pk (1.13) where K = Bulk modulus and k = Ratio of specific heats. ; Problem 1.23 Determine the bulk modulus of elasticity of a liquid, if the pressure of the liquid is increased from 70 N/cm* to 130 Nécm*. The volume of the liquid decreases by 0.15 per cent. Solution. Given : Initial pressure = 70 Nicm? Final pressure = 130 Nicm? +. dp =Increase in pressure = 130-70 = 60 N/m? Decrease in volume = 0.15% . beg Ot v 100 Bulk modulus, K is given by equation (1.10) as 2 a —#, Ne aoe = 4x10" Néem?. Ans, v 100 Problem 1.24 What is the bulk modulus of elasticity of a liquid which is compressed in a cylinder from a volume of 0.0125 m? at 80 N/cm? pressure to a volume of 0.0124 m? at 150 N/cm? pressure ? Solution. Given : Initial volume, V = 0.0125 m* Final volume = 0.0124 m3 Decrease in volume, dV = .0125 - .0124 = .0001 m*Initial pressure Final pressure Increase in pressure, dp = (150 — 80) = 70 N/cm* Bulk modulus is given by equation (1.10) as = 70x 125 Niem* = 8.75 x 10° Nem’. Ans. > 1.6 SURFACE TENSION AND CAPILLARITY Surface tension is defined as the tensile force acting on the surface of a liquid in contact with a gas or on the surface between two immiscible liquids such that the contact surface behaves like a membrance under tension. The magnitude of this force per unit length of the free surface will have the same value as the surface energy per unit area. It is denoted by Greek letter 6 (called sigma). In MKS units, it is expressed as kgf/m while in SI units as N/m. The phenomenon of surface tension is explained by ree CUR Fig. 1.10. Consider three molecules A, B, C of a liquid in a mass of liquid. The molecule A is attracted in all directions equally by the surrounding molecules of the liquid. Thus the resultant force acting on the molecule A is zero. But the molecule B, which is situated near the free surface, is acted upon by upward and downward forces which are unbalanced. Thus a net resultant force on molecule B is acting in the downward direction. The molecule C, situated on the free surface of liquid, does experience a resultant downward force. All the molecules on the free surface experience a downward force. Thus the free surface of the liquid acts like a very thin film under tension of the surface of the liquid act as though itis an elastic membrance under tension. 1.6.1 Surface Tension on Liquid Droplet. Consider a small spherical droplet of a liquid of radius ‘r’. On the entire surface of the droplet, the tensile force due to surface tension will be acting, Let o = Surface tension of the liquid p = Pressure intensity inside the droplet (in excess of the outside pressure intensity) d= Dia. of droplet. Let the droplet is cut into two halves. The forces acting on one half (say left half) will be (i) tensile force due to surface tension acting around the circumference of the cut portion as shown in Fig. 1.11 (b) and this is equal to =6 x Circumference =oxnd Fig. 1.10 Surface tension.