this soup bubble can be nicely explained by the wave theory of Tight A soap bubble is a very thin spherical fm led with aie, fight relleted from the outer and inner sarfaces of this thin film of soapy ‘water interferes constinetively produce the bright colors. Which ‘olor we se at any point depen on the thickness ofthe soapy water fins av that point and angle We cover fundamental aspects of the wave nature of igh, including interference and difraction, thin-film interference, and polarization. We ako ar many applications, from spectrometry to LCD monitor sreens curren. | The Wave Nature of Light 1ys with « magnifying glass on a piece of paper and burned a hole in it ut how does light travel, and in what form is this enera3 discussion of waves in Chapter T hat light carries energy is obvious to anyone who las focused the Sun’s, tied? In our ‘we noted that energy can be carried from place to place in basically two ways: by particles or by waves In the first ease material objects or particles ean carry energy, such as an avalanche er rushing ‘water: In the second case, water waves and sound waves, for example, can energy over long distances even though the oscillating particles of the medius do not travel these distances. In view of this, what can we say about the nature of light: does light travel as a stream of particles away from ils source, oF does light travel in the form of waves that spread outward from the source? 664Historically this question has turned out to be a difficult one. For one thing, light does not reveal itself in any obvious way as being made up of tiny particles ror do we soe tiny light waves passing by as we do water waves. The evidence seemed to favor first one side and then the other until about 1830, when most physicists had accepted the wave theory. By the end of the nineteenth century light was considered to be an electromagnetic awave (Chapter 22). In the early twentieth century, ight was shown to have a particle nature as well, as we shall discuss in Chapter 27. Nonetheless, the wave theory of light remains valid and has proved very successful, We now investigate the evidence for the wave theory and how it has been used {0 explain a wide range of phenomena, Waves Versus Pai Huygens’ Principle and Diffraction “The Dutch scientist Christin Huygens (1629-1695), a contemporary of Newton, proposed a wave theory’ of light that had much merit Still use today i atch higue Huygens developed for predicting the future positon ofa wave front when {nearer position is known, BY a wave front, we mean al the points slong a to. or three-dimensional wave that form a wave crest—what we simply call a"wave” 4s seen on the ocean, Wave fronts are perpendicular to rays as We discussed in Chapter 11 (Fig. 11-34). Huygens’ prinelpte con be stated a follows: Every sygens princite ‘point on a wave fron can be comsiered asa source of iny wavelet hal spread fut inthe forward direction atthe speed ofthe wace iif The new ware from {he envelope ofall the aeavelets—that iy the tangent o all ofthe ‘As a simple example of the use of Huygens’ principle, consider the wave front AB in Fig, 24-1, whichis traveling away from a source S. We assime the tedium is isotropie—that i the speed » ofthe waves isthe same in all direc tions To find the wave front short time rafter itisat AB,tin etclesaredrawn With dius r = of. The centers ofthese tiny ices ae ue dots onthe orginal wave SM front AB, and the circles represent Huygens’ (imaginary) wavelets The tangent 8 toall these wavelets the curved line CD, s the new positon ofthe wave fron Huygens’ principle is particulary useful for analyzing what happens when waves impinge on an obslale and the wave fronts are partially interrupted Huygens" principle predicts that waves bend in behind an obstacle, as showin in Fig. 24-2. This just what water waves do, as we saw in Chapter 11 (Figs. 1144 , and 11-45). The bending of waves belind obstacles into the "shadow region” is known a8 diffraction, Since ditration cccurs for waves, but not for pails, it can serve as one means (or distinguishing the nature of light 2 FIGURE 24-1 Huygens’ principle, ‘sed 10 determine wave feont CD when wave font AB is given, FIGURE 24-2. Hyyens’ principle i consistent with difvaction {a around the edge of an obstacle, (6) through a large hole (c) through ‘small hole whose sic som the order of the wavelength of the wave mW) Ww @ 6) © SECTION 24-1 Wavos Versus Particles; Huygens’ Principle and Diffraction 665Does light exhibit diffraction? In the mid-seventeenth century, the Jesuit priest Francesco Grimaldi (1618-1663) had observed that when sunlight entered a darkened room through tiny hole in a sereen, the spot on the oppo: site wall was larger than would be expected from geometric rays. Te also observed that the border of the imay colored fringes. Grimaldi attributed th ‘The wave model of light nicely accounts for diffraction, But the ray model (Chapter 23) cannot account for difraction, and itis important to be aware of such limitations to the ray model. Geometric optics using rays is successful in a wide range ‘of situations only because normal openings and obstacles are much larger than the ‘wavelength ofthe Fight, and so relaively ite diffraction or beading occurs. * Huygen: ple and the Law of Refraction ‘The laws of reflection and refraction were well known in Newton's time. The Jaw of reflection could not distinguish between the two theories we just discussed: waves versus particles. For when waves reflect from nn obstacle, the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection (Fig, 11-35). The same is true ‘of partcles—think of a tennis ball without spin striking flat surface, ‘The law of refraction is another matter. Consider a ray of light entering a medium where its bent toward the normal, as when traveling from ar into water ‘As shown in Fig, 24-3, this hending can be constructed using Huygens principle if we FIGURE 24-3. Refraction expined, ‘using Hygens’ principle Wave fronts are perpendicular to the rays assume the speed of light is less inthe second medium (; < 0). In time & point B fon wave front AB (perpendicular co the incoming ray) travels a distance 2,1 to reach point D, Point A on the wave front, traveling in the second medium, goes a distance vr to reach point C, and v1 < 0,4. Huygens’ principle is applied to points A and B to obiain the eurved wavelets showin at C and D.The wave front is tangent to these two wavelets so the new wave froat isthe line CD. Hence the rays, ‘which are perpendicular to the wave fronts bend toward the normal if awn, (This is basically the same discussion we used around Fig, 11-43), "Newton favored 1 particle theory of light which predicted the opposite result, thatthe speed of light would he greater in the second medium (» >, Thus the ‘wave theory predicts thatthe speed of light in water, for example, is less than in ait: and Newton's particle theory predicts the reverse. An experiment to actually ‘measure the speed of light in water was performed in 1880 by the French physicist, Jean Foucault, and it confirmed the wave-theory prediction, By then, however, the ‘wave theory was already fully aecepted, a we shall se in the next Section, 665 CHAPTER 24 Tho Wave Naturo of LightSnell's law of refraction follows directly from Huygens’ principle, given that the speed of light » in any medium is related to the speed in a vacuum, c, and the index of refraction, n, by Eq. 23-4: that i, v = c/n, From the Huygens construction of Fig. 24-3, angle ADC is equal to}, and angle BAD is equal to 6, ‘Then for the two triangles that have the common side AD, we have a oe sing = sina, = ‘We divide these two equations and obtain sing ty Sad) ‘Then, since w = c/m and vy = e/ns nysin = nin which is Snells law of refraction, Fa. 2 from Huygens’ principle in a similar way.) When a light wave travels from one medium to another its frequency does not change, but its wavelength does This can be seen from Fig, 24-3, where each of the Wyle depen ou blue lines representing a wave front corresponds toa eres (peak) of the wave, Then (The law of reflection can be derived Amt mm Ar where, in the list step, we used Eq. 25-4, # = c/n, 1 medium 1 isa vacuum {or ai), 20. m= 1, = ¢, and we call}, simply , then the wavelength in another medium of index of refraction m(— 1) will be ne ern Mane ont can be wed explain how miages reproduced by teraction REMY SiS APPLIED of ign For example ona hot day motors sometimes sv amage of water on igienr raza the highway ahead of thom, wil aan! hile sceminglyfeteted (Fig 2ieta) Ona hot day thre ean be a hve of very ot sit neat the oud de hoy he Sum eating en the soud. Tt a ken dense han Coole aio the index of eftaction is sghly omer ia the hot ai fa Fp. 24-4 ‘ee seu a dagam of Ight coming from one point on ada ea (on the ak) coding et tovard the observer Wane trons and ry are show Ra heads del aun obvervr and follows straight-line path and represen the oval vw of the distant ear. Ray Bs ayia reed sighly dow trrd: butt bend tightly a it moves through layers of a eiflerent index o teltation The wavefront shown in ein Fig 2-4, move alighlly faster in the ipo alenearer he sroed (ania Fig 24% and a te aie analog it Fig. 11-43). Thus ray B is bent as shown, and seems to the observer to be coming. Ir blew (shed ln) ected a In od Hence the mage FIGURE 24-4 (3) A highway miego.(b) Drawing (greatly exaggertod) showing wave fonts and eays to explain Iishway mirage Note haw seetons ofthe wae fronts ner the sxound move fstr and so are father apa. Piece sy Ray dinected slighily dovenwand “SECTION 24-2 Huygens’ Principle and the Law of Refraction 667‘Viewing seen ® — oy Vierng seen (pete say peaition a = i — ce) at Viewing sreen (actly FIGURE 24-5 (a) Young's double slit experiment (b)Iflight consists ‘of particles, we would expect 1 see two bright ines on the sereen hehind the slits (c) In fact, many lines are served EZBE] interference—Young’s Double-Slit Experiment Im 1801, the Englishman Thomas Young (1773-1829) obtained convincing tevidence for the wave mature of light and was even able to mensure wave: lengths for visible light. Figure 24-Sa shows a schematic diagram of Young's Famous double-slt experiment. Light from a single source (Young used the Sun) falls on a sereen containing two closely spaced slits §, and Ss. If ight consists of tiny particles, we might expect to see two bright lines on a sereen placed behind the slits as in (b). But instead a series of bright lines are seen, as in (c). Young, was able to explain this result as a wave-interference phenomenon. To see this, imagine plane waves of fight of a single wavelength —called monochromatic, ‘meaning “one color" falling on the two slits as shown in Fig, 24-6, Because of diffraction, the waves leaving the two small slits spread out as shown. This is equivalent to the interference pattern produced when two rocks are thrown into lake (Fig. 11-37), or when sound from two loudspeakers interferes (Fig. 12-16). Recall Section I-12 on wave interference, ays Screen Wine fons FIGURE 24-6 If vt iso wave, ish passing {through one of two sits should interfere with light passing through the other si ‘To see how an interference pattern is produced om the sereen, we make use of Fig, 24-7. Waves of wavelengih 2 are shown entering the slits and S3, Which are a distance d apart. The waves spread out in all diretions after passing through the sits buL they are showa only for three diferent angles &. In Tig, 24-Ta, the waves reaching the center ofthe sereea are shown (0 = 0°). The ‘waves from the two slits travel the same distance, s0 they ae in phase:a crest of ‘one wave arrives atthe same time asa erest of the other wave. Hence the ampli tudes ofthe two waves add to form a larger amplitude as show in Fig. 24-8 This is constructive interference, and thete i a bright area atthe center of the screen. Constructive interference also occurs when the paths of the {wo rays differ by one wavelength (or any whole number of wavelengths), as shown in Fig. 24-7h; also here there will be brightness on the sereen. But if one ray travels an exira distance of one-half wavelength (or 3A, $2. and soon, the two waves are exactly out of phase when they reach the sereen: the crests of one ‘wave arrive at the same time as the rougs ofthe other wave, and so they adel to produve zero amplitude (Fig 24-8), This is destrctive interference, andthe sereen is dark, Fig. 24-7e. Thus there will he « series of bright and dak lines (oF fringes) on the viewing sereen 668 CHAPTER 24 The Wave Naturo of LightBright p Duk Coste erate ‘nertrenc) interes, Bright (contracting intrteceace) bet bea [a © : FIGURE 24-7 How the wave theory explains the pattern of lines seen in the doubles experiment. (a) Atte center of the sereen the waves from each lit iavel the same distance and are in hase (b) At thi angle, the lower wave travels an oxra distance of one whole wavelength and the ‘waves are in phase: note from the shade triangle thatthe path difference equal d sin () For this angle 8, the lower wave travels an extra distance equal to one-half wavelength, so the two waves larnive at the seen Tully out of phase (d) A more detailed diagram showing the geometry for parts (b) and (). Extra distance a ‘Seve aee oO) To determine exactly where the bright lines fall, frst note that Fig. 24~7 is FIGURE 24-8 ‘Two trveting somewhat exaggerated in real situations the distance d between the sits is WAVES ase waves shown undergoing very small compared to the distance L to the sereen. The rays from each slit for (2) constmetive imterference cach case will therefore be essentially parallel, and 0 is the angle they make (0) destuctve interference with the horizontal as shown in Fig, 24~7d. From the shaded right triangles (Seals Seaton 11-12.) shown in Figs. 24-7b and c, we can see that the extra distance traveled by the Ione ay sdaina (en more detnyin 24-20, Comiactve nteteeace 7 will occur, and a bright fringe will appear on the screen, when the path difference, d sin8, equals a whole number of wavelengths: DAAr dsind = md m= 0.1, interference | (24-20) (bright) ‘The value of mn ig called the order of the interference fringe, The frst order (m = 1), for example, is the first fringe on each side of the central fringe @) (ovhich isat # = 0, me = 0), Destructive interference occurs when the path difference din is $A, 3A, and so on: dsin = (m+ 9.1.2. | interference | (24-26) + (dark) The bright fringes are peaks or maxima of light intensity, the dark fringes are TTX minima, The intensity of the bright fringes is greatest far the central fringe (im = 0) and decteases for higher orders, as shown in Fig, 24-9, How much the intensity decreases with increasing order depends on the width of the to slits 0) Constructive interference FIGURE 24-9 (a) Inieriorence fringes produced by a doubleslit, experiment and detected by jphowoeraphic film placed en the viewing sereen. The arrow marks {he central fing. (b) Graph of the Intensity of ight inthe interference pattern Als shown are values of for Eg. 24-2a (constructive Iimterferenee) and Eq. 24-26 (destructive interference). SECTION 24-3 Interforence—Young’s Double-Slit Exporiment 669 Destructive interference "~ ©Line spacing for double-sit interference. A. screen containing two slits 0.18)mm apart 120m from the viewing screen. Light of ‘wavelength A = Si nm fall on the slits from a distant source. Approximately have fa apart wil adjacent briaht interference fringes be on the Seen? [APPROACH The angular position of bright (constructive interference) fringes is found using Fq, 24-28, The distance between the first two fringes (sy) can be found using right triangles as shown in Fig. 24-10, SOLUTION Given = 0.100mm = 1.00 x 10m, 4 = $00% 10m, and = 120m, the fitsorder fringe (m = 1) occurs at an angle & given by ma _ (Uy{S00 10° m) @ 100% 1m @cavtion | Thisiva very small angle, so we can take sind ~ 0 with Bin radians The fist Temeapncinuiy | order fringe will oecur a distance x, above the center of the sereen (see gona Sn | Rig 24-10) given by ay/E = tan, = 8, $0 onty if @is anal : (1.20m)(5.00 % 103) 0 10-8, ‘ad radians a8 Lo “The second-order fringe (om 2) will occur at nel 120mm shove the center, and so on, Thus the lower order fringes are 6.00 mm apa. FIGURE 24-10 Examples 24-1 and 24-2. For small aoe the coner tinge (me ~ 0}-8, and x, a forthe Srs-order fringe (wt = 1), and [CONCEPTUAL EXAMPLE 252] Changing the wavelength. (2) What ‘happens tothe inerference pattern how in Fig 24-10, vample 24-1, i the inc ont ight (500 nm) replaced by ight of wavelength TOM? (b) What happens instoad if Use wavelength stays at $00 but the slits are moved farther apart? RESPONSE (0) When A increases in Eq, 24~2a but d stays the same, then the angle 0 for bright Iringes increases and the interference paltern spreads out (®) Increasing the slit spacing reduces # for each order, so the lines ane closer together. From Fys. 24-2 we ean see that, except for the rerolhrorder fringe at the center the position ofthe fringes depends on wavelength. Consequently: when White Ht falls onthe two sits as Young found én his experiments, the central Wineloh or fringe i white, but the fist (and higher} order fringes contain a spectrum of sso) colors ike a rainbows 6 was found to be smallest for volet ght and largest for 0A 0 (Fig 24-A1). By measuring the postion of these fringes, Young. Was the first FIGURE 24-11 Fitordor fringes (© determine the wavelengths of visible Hh (osing Fas 24-2). In doing so, he fies tulspovttum lites raabon. shoved that what distinguishes different colors physically i their wavelength ‘sso Example 24-3 (or frequency), an iden pt forward earier by Grimaldi in 1665, write Wavelongths trom double-sit interference. White In oar Tight passes through tv sits 050mm apart, and an interference pattern is observed on a screen 25m away. The firs-order fringe resembles a rainbow with violet and red light at oppesite ends The violet light falls about 207mm rom and the red 35mm from the center of the central white Iringe (Fie. 24-11). —ssmm—a1_| Estimate the wavelengths for the violet and ted light. 610 CHAPTER 24 The Wave Nature of LightAPPROACH We find the angles for violet and red light from the distances, given and the diagram of Fig. 24-10. Then we use Eq. 24-2a to obtain the ‘wavelengths Because 3.5mm is much less than 2.5m, We ean use the small angle approximation SOLUTION We use Eq. 24-2a with m= 1 and sind = tané ~ 6. Then for violet light, x = 2.0 mm, so (see also Fig. 24-10) dsine a dx. (azn) 20x m\ TN asm 40x 107m, mm mE (or 400 nm. For red light, x= 3.Smm, so 80 19m )(35 = 10m 25m ) = 10 10%m = roam EXERCISE A For tho sotup in Example 24-3, how far from the contral white fringe is or groan ight A = SW0 nm? ‘The two slits in Fig. 24-7 act as if they were two sourees of radiation. They are called coherent sourees because the waves leaving them have the same wave length and frequency, and bear the same phase relationship to each other at all times. This happens because the waves come from a single source to the left of the two slits in Fig. 24-7. An interference pattern is observed only when the sources are coherent, If hwo tiny lightbulbs replaced the two slits, an interfer {ence pattern would not be seen. The light emitted by one lightbulb would have ‘random phase with respect to the second bulb, and the screen would be more fr less uniformly illuminated, Two such sources, whose output waves bear ne fixed phase relationship co each other, are called incoherent sources. EZEZ] The Visible Spectrum and Dispersion ‘The two mast obvious properties of light are readily describable in terms of the wave theory of light: intensity (or brightness) and color. The intensity of light is the enerey it earries per unit area per unit time, and is related to the square of the amplitude of the Wave, just as for any wave (see Section 11-10, or Eqs. 22-7 and 22-8). The eolor of the light is related to the frequency for wavelength A fo the light. (Reeall Ay 30 x 1D'm/s, Eq, 22-4.) Visible light—that to which our eyes are sensitive—consisis of frequencies from 4 % 10""Hz to 15 x 10" Hz, corresponding to wavelengths in air of about 400 nm to 750m." ‘This is known as the visible speetrum, und within it lie the different colors from violet to red, as shown in Fig, 24-12. Light with wavelength shorter than 400 nm is called ultraviolet (UV), and light with wavelength longer than 750.nm is called infrared (IR).* Although human eyes are not sensitive to UV or IR. some !ypes of photographic film and other detectors do respond to them, 'Sometncs he angst (A) unit is sed when ceferng tight: LAL = 1% 10°, Visi ight “The complete eletemagncticsostram i strated in Pip 22-8 uy R a ren 300 am 70) am a 15x10" H GMI He 3x10" He 1 10! He Coherent and Incoherent sources Interference pens occur ‘only if source are coherent FIGURE 24-12 The spectrum of visible light, showing the range of frequencies and waveleng {or the various colors, in si) SECTION 24-4 The Visible Spectrum and Dispersion 671FIGURE 24-24. Diftrction grating. Diffraction graing -maxina (mt = order) @caurion Why more sis yield sharper peaks FIGURE 24-25. Intensisy as a fune- tion of viewing ange @ (oF positon ‘on the sereen) far (a) 40 sis (4) si Sits For diffraction grating. the ‘umber of sie very large (= 10!) se narrower stil and te peak mao « m=O ©) 616 CHAPTER 24 "Difacion grating analyaed ag rf oma ies has m= n Grating ‘A large umber of equally spaced parallel sits is called a difraction grating, {though the (erm ““nferlerence gratins” might be ss appropriate. Gratings can bbe made by precision machining of very fine parallel nes on a glass plate. The "untouched spaces between the lines serve as the sis. Photographie transparen Ges of am original grating serve as inexpensive gratings. Gratings containing 10,000 lines per centimeter are common, and are very useful for previse measurements of wavelengths A diffraction grating containing slits is called a transmission grating. Anothoe type of diffraction grating is the rellection grating, made by ruling fine lines ona metallic or glass surace from which ight fs reflected and analyzed,'The analysis basically the same as fr a transmission ating, which we now discuss ‘The analysis ofa diffraction grating is much like that of Young's double-st experiment, We assume parallel rays of light are incident on the geating shown in Fig. 24-24, We also assume thatthe slits are narrow enough so that ditfraction by each of them spreads light over a very wide angle on a distant sercen beyond the grating, and interference can occur with light from all the ther sits Light rays that pase through each sit without deviation (9 ~ 0°) interfere constructively to produce a bvight line at the center of the sereen ‘Constructive interference also occurs at an angle @ such that rays from adjacent slits travel an extra distance of Al = mA, where my is an integer. I'd isthe distance between sits, then we see from Fig, 24-24 that Al = dsina, and md * isthe eriterion to have @ brightness maximum. This is the same equation as for the double-slt situation, and again m i called the order of the patter ‘There is an important difference hetween a double-slit and a multiple slit pattern. The bright maxima are much sharper and narrower for a grating Why? Suppose that the angle o is increased just slightly beyond that required for a maximum. In the case of only two sis, the to waves will be only slighty out of phase, so nearly full constructive interference occurs. Fee eee eee eee toe toh her garatae tae nance fram two adjacent shis Will also not he significantly out af phase. But Waves from one slit and those from a second one a few hundred slits away may be {exactly out of phase: all or nearly all the light ean cancel in pais inthis war. For example, suppose the angled is very slighty different from its firstorder ‘maximum, so that the extra path length for a pair of adjacent sits is not exactly A but rather L00I0A. The wave through one slit and another one 500 slits below will have a path difference of 1A + ($00)(0.0012) = 1.5000, or 15 wavelengths, so the two will cancel. A pair of slits, one below each of these, wll also eancel. That is, the light from slit 1 eancels with that from slit SOL; ight from slit 2 cancels with that from slit $02, and so on. Thus even for a tiny angle! corresponding to an extra path length of ava there is much destructive interference, and so the maxima are Very narrow. The more lines there are in a grating, the sharper will be the peaks (sce ig. 24-25). Because a grating. produces much sharper (and. brighter) lines than two slits alone can, itis a far more precise device for measuring Wavelengths Suppose the light striking a difraction grating is not monochromatic, but consists of (Wo oF more distinct wavelengths. Then for all orders other than ‘m= 0, each wavelength will produce a maximum at a different angle (Fig, 24-26), just as for a double sit. If white light strikes a grating, the central (or ~ 0) maximum will be a sharp white peak. But for all ether orders, there sine 0.12, [principal maxima] (24-8) ‘Depending onthe ttl number a sits here may ot may not be complete cancelation fr such an gle shor wil bowery tiny poke bstwsen the sin mana e80 Fig 24-25) hit they ae ‘ually rch too small o be seen The Wave Nature of LightFIGURE 24-26 Spectra produced by a rating (a) two wavelensths 400m and 700mm: (b) white light. The second order will normally be diromer than the firs order. (Higher forders are nt shown.) I grating spacing is small enough, the second Ad higher orders will he missing Rainbow Rainbow While Rainbow Rainbow timer) © «timer will be a distinct spectrum of colors spread out over a certain angular width, Fig, 24-2hb, Because a diffraction grating spreads out light into its component ‘wavelengths the resulting pattern i called a speetrum, Diffraction grating: lines. Determine the angular posi tions of the first- and sceond-order maxima for light of wavelength 400 nm and 700nm incident on a grating containing 10.000 lines/em. APPROACH First we find the distance «between grating lines: if the grating has N lines in Im. then the distance between lines must be d ~ 1/N meters ‘Then we use E.24-4 to find the angles forthe two wavelengths for m — 1 and 2. SOLUTION ‘The grating contains 1,00 * 10*fines/em = 1.01 X 10? lines/m, Which means the distance between lines isd = (1/1.00 x 10°) m 1.00 10°%m = 1.00 um. In first order (m = 1), the angles are md _ (1)(400 % 10-7 m) Sin ay = oe = e400 __ (1)(7.00 x 107 m) Sint Tam $0 0p) = 226° and By = 44.4%, In second order. 2a (2)(4.00 x 107m) sinban = Tog 10m OOO (2)(7.00 1077 m) Sina ee = MAO 531°, But the second order does not exist for A = 700 nm because sin8 cannot exeeed 1. No higher orders will appear. Spectra overlap. White light conning. wavelengths fiom 400 nm to 750nm strikes a patng containing $000 inesjem. Show that the blue at A= 450nm_ of the thickorder spectrum overlaps the red at Sho nm ofthe second ore. APPROACH We use Fa, 24-41 calelte the anlar postions oF the m= 3 tine merimom and the m= 2 ted one SOLUTION Toe grting spicing ® s= (1/4000) sm Bite ofthe third order occurs a an angle 0 given by mm (3450 « 10" m) a” (250% 10%m) OO Red insesond onder ocers at me (C00 10) sn = G50 10m) which ia gromer angle the second order overlap int he begining ofthe third-order spectrum, 50x 10m, The sino = = 0.560, SECTION 24-8 Diffraction Grating 677EXERCISE C How many’ lines per om are in a grating that produces the fistorder ‘maximum of 633-am light at 18°” EXERCISE D You are shown the spectra produced by red light shining through «wo aiferentpeatings. The nes in spectrum Ate farther part than these in spectrum B, ‘Which grating has more lines)? + EZBS] The Spectrometer and Spectroscopy A spectrometer or spectroscope, Fig, 24-27, is a device to measure wavelengths accurately using a diffraction grating (or a prism) to separate different wavelengths of light. Light from a source passes through a narrow slit $ in the “collimator.” The slit is at the focal point of the lens L, so parallel light falls on the grating, The movable telescope can bring the rays to a focus, FIGURE 24-27 Spectrometer or spectroscope. Telescope ey Be Nothing will be seen in the viewing (elescope unless it is positioned at an gle # that corresponds 10 a diffraction peak (litst order is usually used) of a ‘wavelength emitted by the source. The angle @ can be measured to very high accu- racy, so the wavelength of a line can be determined to high accuracy using Eq, 24-4 where m an itoger representing the order, nd ds the distance between grating lines. The line you see in a spectrometer corresponding to each wavelength is actually an image of the sht 8."The narrower the sli, the narrower—but dimmer—the line is, and the more precisely We ean measure sts angular position. Ifthe light contains a continuous range of wavelengths, then a contin "uous spectrum is seen in the spectroscope. Tn many spectrometer, a reflection grating is sed, and sometimes a prism. A prism works because of cispersion Section 244), bending light of differen wave lenis into cilferent angles. (A prism is no a linear deview and must be ealibated) ‘An important use of a spectrometer is for the identification of atoms o ‘molecules. When @ gas is heated or an electric current is passed through it the ‘Linespeara gas emits 0 characteristic Une speetrum. That is, only cortin diserte wave lengths of light are emitted, and these are different for different elements and compounds’ Figure 24-25 shows the line spectra for a number of elements in the gas stat, Line spectra occur only for gases at high temperatures and low pressure and density. The light from heated sold, such asa lightbulb filament, 8nd even from a dense gaseous abject such as the Sun, produecs a continuous spectrum including a wide range of wavelengths, Figure 24-28 also shows the Sun's “continuous spectrum,” which contains 2 number of dark lines (only the most prominent are shown). called absorption lines. Atoms and molecules ean absorb light atthe same wavelengths at which they emit light. The Sun’s absorption lines are due to absorption by atoms and ‘molecules in the cooler outer atmosphere of the Sun, as well as by atoms and molecules in the Earth's atmosphere. careful analysis of all dhese thousands of ‘Why toms and molecules emt line spectra was a gost mystery for many yrs and pled a nll roles the develops of modern quantum tics we shall see in Chapter 2 678 CHAPTER 24 Tho Wave Naturo of LightAtomic hype Mercury Sodium Solar absorption spectrum lines reveals that at least two-thirds of all elements are present in the Sun's uimosphere, The presence of elements in the almosphere of other planets, in inerstellar space, and in stars is also determined by spectroscopy Spectroscopy is useful for determining the presence at certain types of molecules in laboratory specimens where chemical analysis would be difieult For example, biological DNA and different types of protein absorb light in particular regions of the spectrum (such as in the UV). The material to be examined, which is often in solution, is placed in a monochromatic light beam whose wavelength is selected by placement angle of a diffraction grating or prism. The amount of absorption, as compared (o a standard solution without the specimen, ean reveal not only the presence of a particular type of molecule brat also its concentration, Light emission and absorption also occur outside the visible part of the spectrum, such as in the UV and TR regions Glass absorbs light in these regions, so refleetion gratings and mirrors (in place of lenses) are used, Special types of film or detectors are used for detection, Interference of light gives rise 19 many everyday phenomena such as the bright colors reflected from soap bubbles and from thin oil films on water, Fig. 24~29. In these and other eases the colors are a result of constructive interference between light refleeted irom the to surfaces of the thin film."The effect is present only if the thickness of the film is on the order of the wavelength of the light. Ifthe film thickness is greater than a few wavelengths, the effect gets washed out. ) o) SECTION 24-8 FIGURE 24-28 Line spectia for {he gases indicated, and spectrum the Sun showing absorption @owvsics arpieo Cama end ose Hirdebets FIGURE 24-29 Thin-ilm Itorference patorms sco in (a) soap bubbles (b) «thin film of soapy water, and (e) a thin layer of oll on the water ofa stret puddle Interference by Thin Films 67928, When a compact disk (CD) is eld at an anle in white light the reflected light is fall spectrum (Fig, 24-56) Explain, What would you expect to see if monochromatic Tighe was sod? FIGURE 24-56 Question 2. 24, Why are Newton's rings (Fig. 24-31) closer together farther from the cente:? [Problems 25, Some coated loses appear greenish sellow when seen by reflected light. What wavelengths do. you! suppose the ‘coating is designed to transmit completely? {A drop of cil on a pend appt bright at its edges, where is thickness ie much lest than the wavelenaths of visible High. ‘What ean sou sy about the index of refraction ofthe il? ‘What does polarization tll us about the nature of Fight? Explain the advantage of polarized sunglasses over nora tinted sunglass How can you tell pair of sunglaee is poling or not? Two polarized sheets totaled at an angle of 90" with respect (o ac other will no lot aay light through, Three polarized sheets each rotated at an angle of 4" with respect to each other, will let some Hight through. What ‘will happen to unpolarized light if you align four polarized sheets each rotated stan angle of 30° with respect tothe fone infront of it? What would be the color of the sky ifthe Barth had no. mosphere? e 2” = ». 0 32. I the Earths atmosphere were Stimes denser than it ‘would sunlight sil be white, e7 would the some other colo? 24-3 Double Sit Interference 1. () Monochromatic light falling on two slits 016mm apart produces the fifth-order fringe at an 88° angle What isthe wavelength ofthe light used?” 2. (1) The thieorder fringe of 610m light is observed at fan angle of 18° when the light fall on two narrow sits Horr far apart ave the slits? 3 (1) Monochromatic light falls on two very’ narrow sls {GU48 mm apart, Successive fringes on a sereen 500m way ate 65cm apart near the center of the pattern Determine the wavelength and frequeney ofthe light 4 (I) A parallel beam of High from a He-Ne laser, with Sovelensth 6Sinm. fal on two very narrow slits {060mm apart. How far part age the finges in the center of the paltern on a screen 3 61 awn”? 5. (UD Light of wavelength 680 nm falls on tno slits and produces an interference pattern in which the fourth- border fringe is 38mm trom the central fringe on a sercen 20m away. What is the separation of the to sls? 6. (HD 10 720mm and 660-nm Hight passes through a sls 458mm apart, how far apast ave the second-order fringes For those to wavelengths ona seroen 1.0m aay? 7. (I) Ina double sit experimentit is found that blue light fof wavelength Jol nm gives a second-order maximum ata Certain location on the screen, What wavelength of Visible Tight would have a minimum atthe same location? 8. (I Water waves having parallel erests 2 Sem apart pass through two openings Sem apart ina board. At a point 2.0m beyond the board, at what angle relative to the stanjghithroush” diestion would there be lie or ne 682 CHAPTER 24 The Wave Naturo of Light, 9. (ID) Suppose a thin piece of alas is place in front of the Tower slit in Fig. 24-7 so that the tseo waves enter the slits 180" out I fof pase (Fig, 24-57). Describe in ADU {etal the interference pattern on the ssrcen, FIGURE 24-57 Problem 9, 1 (UP va double sit experiment the third-order maximum for light of wavelength S00 am is located 12mm from the central bright spot om screen 1.6m from the slits Light ‘of wavelength 650 nm i then projected through the same slits How far trom the central bight spot will te second: ‘order maximum ofthis light be located? (11) Tao narrow sits separated hy LAmm ae laminated by 4mm light. Find the distance between adjacent bright ininges on screen 50m fm the sls 12, (IMD Light of wavelength 80 nm in ie falls on two sis 6.00 % 10-2 mm apart The slits are immersed in water, as fsa viewing sereen 4ldlem away. How for apart are the Fringes on the screen? 18, (IN) A ery thin sheet of plstc (n = 1.60) covers one ‘of double-sht apparattsillsnated by 640-nm Kh The omier point om the sercen. instead of being a maxim, ‘dark What isthe (esinimum) thickness ofthe plastic? 24-4 Dispersion 14 (1) By what percent, approximately, does the speed of red ight (Aine) exeved tha of viet Fight (Xm) in i cate Ming glass? (See Fig. 4-14) 15. (1D A light beam strikes piece of slas at a 60.00" inc dont angle. The heam contains two wavelongths, $50.0 fand 700.0nm. for which the index of refraction of the las is 1.4820 and 1.4742, respectively What is the angle hotween the ovo refracted heams?16. {IIA parallel beam of light containing two wavelenaths 2y = 4Slinm and A. 6St'nm, enor ehescate fn la ‘ofan equilateral prism as shown in Fg. 26-88, At what anale {doos each heam leave the prism (give angle with normal tw the face)? FIGURE 24-58 Problems 16 and 87 24-5 Single Sit Ditfraction 17 (1) 1 S80-nm light falls on a sli OOH mm wide, what is the full angular width of che centealdifraction peak? 18 (9) Monechromatie ight falls on slic thats 2.60 >< 10°* mm ‘wid. If tho angle betwoon the fist dark fringes on either Sie of the entral maximum i 350" (dark fnge to dark fringe) wats the wavelength ofthe ight used? (il) Light of wavelength S20nm falls on a slit that is 420 10mm wie. Faimate how far the fis viehtsh 10"? m and blue light of wave 85. (I) Ligh fang normally on. 9700-ng/em evel to contain three lines in the frst der spectrum at angles of 31.2°,364 and 475°, What wavelengths are these? 4 (I) What is the highest spectral order that can be seen if grating with 6000 ines per em. illuminated with (35-nm laser light? Assume normal 35. (1) Two (and only two full spectral orders ean be seen fm either side of the central main when white light i Sent through a effete grating. What is the maximiam hum of lines per em fr the srating? 36 CI) White ight containing wavelengths from 410:am to 750 nm falls on a grating with 8300 lines/em. How wide is the firstorder spectrum on a screen 2:30 away? 37. (I) A HeNNe gus laser which produces monochromatic Tight of known wavslength a= 6328 3K"? m is sed (o calibrate a reflection grating in a spectroscpe. The firstorder diffraction line is found at an angle of 215° to the incident beam, How many fines per meter are there ‘om the grating? 88. (Hl) Two fistorder spectrum lines are measured by a 5500dline/em spectroscope at angles, om cach side of center, of +26°38, +41°08' and ~26°48', —41°19!. What fre the wavelengths? idence 24-8 Thin-Film Inter 29. () I soap bubble 1s 120mm thick, what wavelength ‘mont strongly refleted atthe center of the outer surface ‘when lhiminated normally by white light? Assume that n= 134 0. () How for apart are the dar fringes in Example 24-8 if the glass plates are each 25 em long? (Il) What is the smallest thickness of @ soap film (= 142) that would appear Back if iluminted with 480-0 light? Assume there i avon both sides of the soap film 42. (I) A lens appears greenish yellow (A= Simm fs Stongest) when white light refleets from it, What ‘inimum thickness of coating (n = 1.25) do you think i ‘used on such a glass (= 152) Tens, and why? 49. (I) A total of 31 bright and 31 dark Newstom’s rings (nat counting the dack spot at the center) are observed when '550-nm light flls normally on planoconver lens resting fom a flat glass surace (Fip. 26-31), How much thicker i {he center than the edges? 44. (0) A fine metal foil separates one end of wo pieces of ‘optically fat glass. as in Fig. 24-23, Whe light of waves length 670nm is incident normals, 28 dark lines are observed (with one at each end) Howe thick is the fil? 45. (1) How thick (minimum) should the air layer be between (vo flat glass surfaces if the glass isto appear bright when 4S0-om light is incident normally? What if the glass iste appear dask? 46. (I) A pices of material, suspected of being a stolen diamond (n = 242), is submerged in oll of refractive index 1.43 and illuminated by unpolarized light. Ue is found that the eelected light is completely polarized at an angle of 591s it diamond? 47. (ID) thin film of alcohol (n= 1.36) les om a fat glass plate (= 1.51). When moaochromatie light, whose wave. length can be changed. s incident normally. the reflected Tight fsa minimum for A ~ 512mm and « maximum for A= 640/am, What i the inion thickness of the fim? Problems 683