Automation in Manufacturing

Automation of manufacturing processes

Sensors

Manual
Soft
automation

Hard
automation

Transfer
machines

Computer
aided

Programming

Numerical
control

Adaptive
control

Direct
NC

AC
constraint

Computer
NC

AC
optimization

Material
handling

Manipulators,
automated
guided vehicles

Robots

Assembly

Design for assembly,

disassembly, and service
Fixed sequence, variable
sequence, playback, NC, intelligent

FIGURE 14.1 Outline of topics described in this chapter.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Flexible
fixturing

History of Automation
Date
1500-1600
1600-1700
1700-1800
1800-1900
1808
1863
1900-1920
1920
1920-1940
1940
1943
1945
1947
1952
1954
1957
1959
1960
1965
1968
1970s
1980s
1990-2000s

Development
Water power for metalworking; rolling mills for coinage strips.
Hand lathe for wood; mechanical calculator.
Boring, turning, and screw cutting lathe, drill press.
Copying lathe, turret lathe, universal milling machine; advanced mechanical calculators.
Sheet-metal cards with punched holes for automatic control of weaving patterns in
looms.
Automatic piano player (Pianola).
Geared lathe; automatic screw machine; automatic bottle-making machine.
First use of the word robot.
Transfer machines; mass production.
First electronic computing machine.
First digital electronic computer.
First use of the word automation.
Invention of the transistor.
First prototype numerical control machine tool.
Development of the symbolic language APT (Automatically Programmed Tool);
adaptive control.
Commercially available NC machine tools.
Integrated circuits; first use of the term group technology.
Industrial robots.
Large-scale integrated circuits.
Programmable logic controllers.
First integrated manufacturing system; spot welding of automobile bodies with
robots; microprocessors; minicomputer-controlled robot; flexible manufacturing system; group technology.
Artificial intelligence; intelligent robots; smart sensors; untended manufacturing
cells.
Integrated manufacturing systems; intelligent and sensor-based machines; telecommunications and global manufacturing networks; fuzzy-logic devices; artificial neural
networks; Internet tools; virtual environments; high-speed information systems.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

TABLE 14.1 Developments in the history of

automation and control of manufacturing
processes. (See also Table 1.1.)

Flexibility and Productivity

Flexible
manufacturing
system

Increasing flexibility

Conventional
job shop

Manufacturing
cell
Stand-alone
NC production

Flexible
manufacturing
line
Conventional
flowline
Transfer
line

Soft automation

Hard automation

Increasing productivity

FIGURE 14.2 Flexibility and productivity of various manufacturing systems. Note the overlap between the
systems, which is due to the various levels of automation and computer control that are applicable in each
group. See also Chapter 15 for more details.
Type of production
Experimental or prototype
Piece or small batch
Batch or high quantity
Mass production

Number produced
1-10
< 5000
5000-100,000
100,000+

Typical products
All types
Aircraft, machine tools, dies
Trucks, agricultural machinery, jet engines, diesel
engines, orthopedic devices
Automobiles, appliances, fasteners, bottles, food
and beverage containers

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

TABLE 14.2 Approximate

annual quantity of
production.

Characteristics of Production
Type of production
Job shop

Batch production

General purpose

Equipment

Mass production
Special

Production rate
Production quantity
Process

Plant layout

Flow line

Labor skill
Part variety

FIGURE 14.3 General characteristics of three types of production methods: job shop,
batch production, and mass production.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Transfer Mechanisms
Power heads
Power
heads

Workpiece
Workpiece
Pallet

Rotary
indexing table
(a)

(b)

FIGURE 14.4 Two types of transfer mechanisms: (a) straight, and (b) circular patterns.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Transfer Line
Start

Machine 1:
Mill

Machine 2: Machine 3:
Drill, ream,
Mill, drill,
ream, plunge plunge mill
mill

Machine 12:
Bore

Machine 11:
Drill, ream,
bore

Wash

Machine 10:
Bore

Machine 5:
Drill, bore

Machine 6:
Drill, ream,
bore, mill

Machine 9:
Mill, drill, ream

Machine 8:
Mill

Machine 7:
Drill, ream, bore
End

Wash

Machine 14:
Machine 13:
Finish hollow mill, Ream, tap
finish gun ream,
finish generate

Assemble

Machine 4:
Drill, bore

Air test

Machine 15:
hone, wash, gage,
bore, mill

Assemble

Assemble

FIGURE 14.5 A traditional transfer line for producing engine

blocks and cylinder heads. Source: Ford Motor Company.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Dimensioning Example

+
+

+
+

(a)

+ +

(b)

(c)

FIGURE 14.6 Positions of drilled holes in a workpiece. Three methods of measurements are shown: (a)
absolute dimensioning, referenced from one point at the lower left of the part; (b) incremental
dimensioning, made sequentially from one hole to another; and (c) mixed dimensioning, a combination of
both methods.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Numerical Control

Limit switches

Position feedback

Drive signals

Computer:
Input commands, processing,
output commands

FIGURE 14.7 Schematic illustration of the major

components of a numerical control machine tool.
Spindle

Work table
Work table

Pulse train

Machine tool

Stepping
motor

Gear
Leadscrew
(a)

FIGURE 14.8 Schematic illustration of the

components of (a) an open-loop, and (b) a
closed-loop control system for a numerical
control machine. (DAC is digital-to-analog
converter.)

Input

Work table

1
Comparator
2

DAC

DC

servomotor

Leadscrew
Feedback signal
(b)

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Gear
Position
sensor

Displacement Measurement
Machine column
Worktable
Scale
Machine bed
Sensor

(a)

Ball screw

Worktable
Rack and pinion

Rotary encoder
or resolver
Rotary encoder
or resolver
(b)

Linear motion
(c)

FIGURE 14.9 (a) Direct measurement of the linear displacement of a machine-tool

worktable. (b) and (c) Indirect measurement methods.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Tool Movement & Interpolation

Workpiece
1

Cutter

Cutter
radius

FIGURE 14.10
Movement of tools in
numerical control machining. (a) Point-to-point
system: The drill bit drills a hole at position 1, is
then retracted and moved to position 2, and so
on. (b) Continuous path by a milling cutter;
note that the cutter path is compensated for
by the cutter radius. This path can also
compensate for cutter wear.

3
4

Cutter
path

2
Holes

Workpiece

(a)

Machined
surface

(b)

FIGURE 14.11 Types of interpolation in

numerical control: (a) linear; (b)
continuous path approximated by
incremental straight lines; and (c)
circular.

y
Quadrant
3

Full circle

2
1
x
(a)

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Segment

x
(b)

(c)

CNC Operations
Point-to-point and
straight line

Point-to-point
Drilling and
boring

Milling

Workpiece
2-axis contouring with
switchable plane

3-axis contouring
continuous path

2-axis contour
milling

(a)

3-axis contour
milling

(b)

FIGURE 14.12 (a) Schematic illustration of drilling, boring, and milling operations with various
cutter paths. (b) Machining a sculptured surface on a five-axis numerical control machine. Source:
The Ingersoll Milling Machine Co.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Adaptive Control
Velocity
Position
Resolver
Part
manufacturing
data

CNC

Commands

Servo
drives

Tachometer

Machine
tool

Spindle
motor

% Spindle load
Spindle speed
Torque
Parameter
limits

AC

FIGURE 14.13 Schematic illustration of the application of

adaptive control (AC) for a turning operation. The system
monitors such parameters as cutting force, torque, and
vibrations; if they are excessive, AC modifies process
variables, such as feed and depth of cut, to bring them back
to acceptable levels.

Vibration

Readout

Workpiece
Feed per tooth

FIGURE 14.14 An example of adaptive

control in slab milling. As the depth of cut or
the width of cut increases, the cutting forces
and the torque increase; the system senses
this increase and automatically reduces the
feed to avoid excessive forces or tool
breakage. Source: After Y. Koren.

Cutter

Adaptive control
Conventional

Variable depth of cut

Variable width of cut

Cutter travel

(a)

(b)

(c)

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

In-Process Inspection
Gaging
head

Workpiece

Cutting tool

Machine
tool

Control
unit

Final work
size control

FIGURE 14.15 In-process inspection of workpiece diameter in a

turning operation. The system automatically adjusts the radial position
of the cutting tool in order to machine the correct diameter.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Self-Guided Vehicle

(a)

(b)

FIGURE 14.16 (a) A self-guided vehicle (Tugger type). This vehicle can be arranged in a variety of
configurations to pull caster-mounted cars; it has a laser sensor to ensure that the vehicle operates safely
around people and various obstructions. (b) A self-guided vehicle configured with forks for use in a
warehouse. Source: Courtesy of Egemin, Inc.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Industrial Robots
5
4

2500 mm

3000 mm

FIGURE 14.17 (a) Schematic of a six-axis KR-30

KUKA robot; the payload at the wrist is 30 kg
and repeatability is 0.15 mm (0.006 in.). The
robot has mechanical brakes on all of its axes. (b)
The work envelope of the KUKA robot, as
viewed from the side. Source: Courtesy of KUKA
Robotics.

1
1200 mm
1075 mm
(a)

2025 mm
(b)

Vacuum line

Small power tool

Robot arm
Suction cup
Workpiece

FIGURE 14.18 Various devices and

tools that can be attached to end
effectors to perform a variety of
operations.

Nut driver
Deburring tool
(a)

(b)

Electromagnet

(c)

Dial indicator
Gripper

Sheet metal

Object
(d)

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

(e)

(f)

Robot Types & Workspaces

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

FIGURE 14.19 Four types of industrial robots: (a) Cartesian (rectilinear); (b) cylindrical; (c) spherical (polar); and (d) articulated,
(revolute, jointed, or anthropomorphic). Some modern robots are anthropomorphic, meaning that they resemble humans in shape and
in movement. These complex mechanisms are made possible by powerful computer processors and fast motors that can maintain a
robot's balance and accurate movement control.
Rectangular

Cylindrical

Work
envelope

Spherical
Work
envelopes

FIGURE 14.20 Work envelopes

for three types of robots. The
selection depends on the
particular application (See also
Fig. 14.17b.)

(a)

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

(b)

(c)

Robot Applications

FIGURE 14.21 Spot welding automobile bodies

with industrial robots. Source: Courtesy of Ford
Motor Co.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

FIGURE 14.22 Sealing joints of an automobile

body with an industrial robot. Source: Cincinnati
Milacron, Inc.

Robots and Transfer Lines

Robots

Remote center compliance

Circular
transfer line

Linear transfer line

Torque sensor
Visual sensing

Programmable
part feeder

FIGURE 14.23 An example of automated assembly operations using industrial robots and
circular and linear transfer lines.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Advanced End Effectors

Toolholder
Inductive transmitter
On-board electronics
to process signals
Chuck

Strain
gages

Drill

FIGURE 14.24 A toolholder equipped with thrustforce and torque sensors (\it smart tool holder),
capable of continuously monitoring the machining
operation. (See Section 14.5). Source: Cincinnati
Milacron, Inc.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

FIGURE 14.25 A robot gripper with tactile

sensors. In spite of their capabilities, tactile
sensors are now being used less frequently,
because of their high cost and low durability (lack
of robustness) in industrial applications. Source:
Courtesy of Lord Corporation.

Applications of Machine Vision

Controller
Controller

Camera 1

Camera 2

Good

Good

Good

Camera

Reject

Reject

(a)

Reject

(b)

Camera
view 1
Robot
controller

Paint
spray

Camera Vision
view 2
controller

Workpiece

Reject

Workpieces
Camera
Vision
controller
with memory

(c)

Robot
(d)

FIGURE 14.26 Examples of machine vision applications. (a) In-line inspection of parts. (b) Identifying parts with
various shapes, and inspection and rejection of defective parts. (c) Use of cameras to provide positional input to
a robot relative to the workpiece. (d) Painting of parts with different shapes by means of input from a camera;
the system's memory allows the robot to identify the particular shape to be painted and to proceed with the
correct movements of a paint spray attached to the end effector.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Fixturing
Relay

Microcomputer

Clamp
Amp
Hydraulic
line

FIGURE 14.27
Components of a modular
workholding system. Source: Carr Lane Manufacturing
Co.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Strain gage

Solenoid
valve

Hydraulic cylinder

ADC

Workpiece
Work table

FIGURE 14.28 Schematic illustration of an adjustable-force

clamping system. The clamping force is sensed by the strain
gage, and the system automatically adjusts this force. Source:
After P.K. Wright and D.A. Bourne.

Design for Assembly

Select the
assembly method

Analyze for
high-speed
automatic
assembly

Analyze
for manual
assembly

Analyze
for robot
assembly

Improve the design

and re-analyze

FIGURE 14.29 Stages in the design-for-assembly analysis. Source: After G.

Boothroyd and P. Dewhurst.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Indexing Machines
Parts feeder
Parts feeder
Stationary
workhead

Stationary
workhead

Completed
assembly

Work carriers

Work carriers
indexed

Indexing table
(a)

(b)

FIGURE 14.30 Transfer systems for automated assembly: (a) rotary indexing machine, and (b) inline indexing machine. Source: After G. Boothroyd.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Vibratory Feeder Guides

Narrowed track

Bowl wall

V cutout

Widthwise parts rejected

while only one row of
lengthwise parts pass

To delivery
chute

Part rejected if
resting on its top
To delivery
chute

(a)

Slotted
track

Bowl
wall

Pressure
break

(b)

Wiper
blade

Bowl wall

Screws rejected
unless lying on side

To delivery
Slot in track
chute
to orient screws

Bowl wall

Screws rejected unless

in single file, end-to-end,
or if delivery chute is full
(c)

To delivery
chute

Scallop Wiper blade

Parts rejected
if laying on side
Cutout rejects
cup-shaped parts
standing on their tops
(d)

FIGURE 14.31 Examples of guides to ensure that parts are properly oriented for automated
assembly. Source: After G. Boothroyd.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Robotics Example: Toboggan Deburring

Robot
Cutouts

Toboggan

Deburring tool

Fixture

FIGURE 14.32 Robotic deburring of a blow-molded toboggan. Source: Courtesy of Kuka

Robotics, Inc. and Roboter Technologie, GmbH.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7