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Prof. Christoph Heubeck
Institut fr Geologische Wissenschaften
Freie Universitt Berlin
Malteserstr. 74-100
12249 Berlin
GERMANY
ph: ++49-(0)30-83870695
cheubeck@zedat.fu-berlin.de

fax: ++49-(0)30-83870734
http://userpage.fu-berlin.de/~cheubeck/

Todays Lecture:

Reservoir Engineering
(light)

Reservoir engineering

Drive Mechanisms
Pressure-Transient Analysis
Recovery Factor
Subsurface Phases
Links and Literature

Drive Mechanisms
9 High Porosity
9 Permeability
9 HC saturation
9Source of reservoir energy !

Drive Mechanisms

What causes hydrocarbons in the reservoir to move to the

wellbore ?
Which forces should be supported or pushed back ?

Driving force(s) to create a

pressure differential, causing
HC to flow to the wellbore
(natural or artifical)

Drive Mechanisms

Where and how should secondary recovery strategies be

implemented?

Gas Cap Drive

Gas cap drive

Solution gas drive
Water drive (Bottom-water, edge-water)
Gravity drainage drive
Combination Drive

Gas
Cap
Oil Zone

Only where a gas cap

exists (or where one
forms): RF ~20-45%;
possibly assisted by
gravity grive

Initial
Conditions

Danger of depressurizing
volatile phase (gas)
Gas
Cap
Oil Zone
During
Depletion

Solution Gas Drive

Gas comes out of solution as

production causes reservoir
pressure decline (cola-can
analogy): Least efficient of
the drive mechanisms, RF 520 %

Bottom Water Drive

Oil Zone

Aquifer

Initial
Conditions

Danger of producing
volatile phase (gas) first

During
Depletion

Need aquifer under

pressure. Need favorable
uniform water advance.
RF ~50% but may be as
high as 85% !

Danger of drawing the

less viscous phase
(water) to the wellbore
(water coning, water
tunneling)
Oil Zone

Edge Water Drive

Gravity Drainage /
Gravity Drive

Present in all reservoirs

but very low production
rates.

Important only
near reservoir depletion,
in reservoirs with high
structure, and
low-viscosity oils

Producing GOR trends by drive mechanism

Combination Drive

Gas Cap

Producing GOR mscf/stb

Dangers (and possibilities!)

from all sides !

Oil Zone
Aquifer

Gas-to-oil ratio

Solution
gas drive

Gravity
drive

Water drive

Gas Cap
0

Oil Zone

10

20

30

40

Oil Produced - % of OOIP

Reservoir Pressure Trends by drive mechanism

50

60

70

original oil in place

Reservoir Water Cut by drive mechanism

100

100

Water Cut (% of Produced Fluid)

Reservoir Pressure (% of Original)

Water drive
80

Water drive

60

Solution
gas drive
40

Gravity
drive
20

80

60

40

20

Gravity drive
Solution gas drive
Gas cap drive

0
0

10

20

30

Oil Produced - % of OOIP

40

50

60

70

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Oil Produced - % of OOIP

Solution Gas Drive

Gas Cap Expansion Drive

4

Ultimate Recovery Ranges by Drive Mechanism

3

Drive Mechanism

Energy Source

Recovery (% OOIP)

Solution Gas
Drive

Evolved Solution Gas

Expansion

5-30

Gas Cap Drive

Gas Cap and evolved

solution gas expansion

20-40

Water Drive

Aquifer Expansion

35-75

Gravity Drainage

Gravity

5-30 ( incremental)

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

40

50

60

70

50

60

70

10

20

Black = GOR

30

40

50

Blue = water cut

60

70

10

20

30

40

Red = pressure

Solution Gas Drive

Gas Cap Expansion Drive

Recommendations for perforations

Gravity Drive

Gas Cap Drive

30

Gravity Drive

20

10

Water Drive
4

Gas
Cap

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Gravity Drive

Water Drive
4

Oil Zone
Initial
Conditions

As close to the OWC in a

gravity drainage

As far away as posssible from

the gas cap in gas cap
reservoirs

10

Black = GOR

20

30

40

50

Blue = water cut

60

70

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Red = pressure

Recommendations for perforations

Reservoir engineering

Water Drive

Drive Mechanisms
Pressure-Transient Analysis
Recovery Factor
Subsurface Phases

Oil Zone

Links and Literature

Aquifer

As high up as possible in
water-drive reservoirs

Pressure-transient analysis of drill-stem tests

Pressure-transient analysis of drill-stem tests

110
inner
radius

Undetermined
outer radius

5280 = 1 mile
DST 1 was performed over
the perforated interval
12400 - 12517 MDRT
in the Fulmar Fm.

Fig. 62: Halley 30/12b-8 test overview.

Fig. 67: Interpretation of 30/11b-3 DST 1.

Pressure-transient analysis of drill-stem tests

28
Open ?

Open ?
85

5280 = 1 mile

Parallel-boundary model for 30/12b-6 DST 1

Seismic and test data show fieldwide compartmentalization

30/12b-7
Dry hole.
Not te sted

ton
Apple ha
Alp

Outer radius
unknown due to
short test
durati on

Drive Mechanisms
Pressure-Transient Analysis
Recovery Factor
Subsurface Phases

110
inner radi us

450

30/11b-1
No reservoir.
Not te sted

30/11b-4
DST saw
only 8 -12 MMB OIP

580 0 psi

open

30/11b-3
Short tes t
gas condensate

490 0 psi

Mo

1550

nik ie

Fau

Fault

Au k

a,
Gamm
Halley lta
De
108 0 psi

leton
App Beta

30/12b-6
Close II
faults.
30/11b-5
poo r shows.
Not teste d

28

85

open

lt

Halley

y
Halle Alpha

30/12b-4
Close Faults (3 0 deg)
In comm . with Fulm ar ?

open

V1

Zo

200

ne

Fulmar

1000

30/12b-2
U-shaped F bloc k

1100

Links and Literature

1100

80

960 psi

160

open

1000
1000

Fa ult
h (V2) ~ 300, Vol(V2) ~ 3.5 e8 ft3
A(V2) ~ 10,000 * 10000 ft2
Represented by 4 blocks of 2,500 side length each
Spatial Relation to V1 unconstrained

Reservoir engineering

open

833 psi

Be
ta

30/12b-8
In pressu re
comm. with 12b -4

2200

970 psi
30/12b-3
Dry hole.
Not te sted

5280 = 1 mile

Appleton / Halley
Fault Compartmentalization
from Seismic and Interpretation
of PTA and RFT Data

923 psi

F
Fulmar

ield

Clyde Field
882 psi

open
450

1550

Geometrical
Representation

Well

Major Pressure

Study of 100
fractured
reservoirs
(by C&C
Reservoirs)

Definition Recovery Factor

Recovery Factor:
Percentage of
economically
recoverable reservoir
fluid, compared to
Original Oil in Place
(OOIP)

FIELD NAME

COUNTRY

HASSI MESSAOUD

ALGERIA

ELMWORTH-WAPITI
TURNER VALLEY
WATERTON

Reservoir properties

Lithology
matrix heterogeneity
fracture distribution
fluid viscosity
drive mechanism
wettability

CANADA

FRACTURED TIGHT SANDSTONE

FRACTURED TIGHT SANDSTONE

CARBONIFEROUS

FRACTURED MUDDY DOLOMITE

DEVONIAN-CARBONIFEROUS

FRACTURED MUDDY DOLOMITE

PRECAMBRIAN

KARSTIC/FRACTURED MUDDY DOLOMITE

CHINA

AHWAZ

IRAN

CRETACEOUS

FRACTURED MICROPOROUS LIMESTONE

MANSURI

IRAN

CRETACEOUS

FRACTURED MICROPOROUS LIMESTONE

AIN ZALAH

IRAQ

CRETACEOUS

FRACTURED MUDDY CARBONATE

BAI HASSAN

IRAQ

TERTIARY

FRACTURED ORGANIC BUILDUP

KIRKUK

IRAQ

TERTIARY

FRACTURED/KARSTIC ORGANIC BUILDUP

KARACHAGANAK

KAZAKHSTAN

DEVONIAN-PERMIAN

FRACTURED ORGANIC BUILDUP

TENGIZ

KAZAKHSTAN

DEVONIAN-CARBONIFEROUS

KARSTIC/FRACTURED ORGANIC BUILDUP

CANTARELL

MEXICO

CRETACEOUS-TERTIARY

FRACTURED FORESLOPE CARBONATE

CRETACEOUS

FRACTURED FORESLOPE CARBONATE

CRETACEOUS-TERTIARY

FRACTURED FORESLOPE CHALK

CRETACEOUS

FRACTURED MICROPOROUS LIMESTONE

EKOFISK

Study of 100 fractured reservoirs ( by C&C Reservoirs)

CANADA

RSVR CLSS

CRETACEOUS

RENQIU

POZA RICA

www.pore-cor.com.

CANADA

RSVR AGE
CAMBRIAN

MEXICO
NORWAY

SAFAH

OMAN

IDD EL SHARGI NORTH DOME

QATAR

CRETACEOUS

FRACTURED MICROPOROUS LIMESTONE

VERKHNEVILYUY

RUSSIA

CAMBRIAN

FRACTURED MUDDY DOLOMITE

ABQAIQ

SAUDI ARABIA

JURASSIC

FRACTURED MUDDY CARBONATE

ANSCHUTZ RANCH EAST

USA

JURASSIC

TIGHT SANDSTONE

JONAH

USA

CRETACEOUS

TIGHT SANDSTONE

LOST HILLS

USA

TERTIARY

FRACTURED SILICEOUS SHALE

POINT ARGUELLO

USA

TERTIARY

FRACTURED MICROPOROUS CHERT

WATTENBERG

USA

CRETACEOUS

TIGHT SANDSTONE

YATES

USA

PERMIAN

KARSTIC/FRACTURED CARBONATE SAND

Type I

Type II

Type III

Type IV

Fractured
reservoirs

Fractured porous
reservoirs

Microporous
reservoirs

Macroporous
reservoirs

Little matrix
porosity and
permeability.
Fractures
provide both
storage capacity
and fluid-flow
pathways

Low matrix
porosity and
permeability.
Matrix provides
some storage
capacity;
fractures provide
the fluid-flow
pathways

High matrix
porosity and low
matrix
permeability

High matrix
porosity and
permeability.
Matrix provides
both storage
capacity and
fluid-flow
pathways, while
fractures merely
enhance
permeability

Reservoir management
strategy
Optimization of production rate
EOR technique:
Water flood, steam flood

Enhanced oil
recovery

Type I

Type II

Type III

Type IV

Which one are you going

to buy?

Type I

Type II

Type III

Type IV

Fractured
reservoirs

Fractured
porous
reservoirs

Microporous
reservoirs

Macroporous
reservoirs

ave. RF = 21 %

ave. RF = 26%

ave. RF = 24%

ave. RF = 34%

easily damaged by
excessive production rates.
Many perform well under
unassisted primary recovery
when managed properly

Ultimate recovery efficiency in 450 mature clastic fields

dependent upon
lithology, wettability,
and fracture intensity.
The choice of proper
EOR technique is
essential for optimum
exploitation

most sensitive to
drive mechanism

Reservoir engineering

Development strategies and reservoir management techniques play crucial roles in maximizing
expected ultimate recoveries for given reservoir/fluid parameters.

Five main fluid type/permeability clastic-reservoir classes, with characteristic ultimate recovery
distributions and controls, are:
(1)

heavy oil/tar reservoirs, in which RF is controlled by well spacing/reservoir depth, reservoir

connectivity and the application of tertiary recovery techniques;

(2)

low-permeability oil reservoirs, in which RF is controlled by permeability variations, well spacing

and application of waterflooding/miscible flooding, fraccing and horizontal drilling;

(3)

intermediate-permeability oil reservoirs, in which RF is controlled by fluid viscosity variations,

reservoir heterogeneity/architecture and application of waterflooding;

(4)

high-permeability oil reservoirs, in which RF is controlled by natural drive strength/type and

control of aquifer and gas-cap encroachment; and

(5)

gas/condensate reservoirs, in which RF is controlled by permeability variations, aquifer

encroachment and condensate drop-out.

Drive Mechanisms
Pressure-Transient Analysis
Recovery Factor
Subsurface Phases
Links and Literature

Vaporization of a pure substance at constant Pressure

T1

P1

T2=Tv

P1

T2=Tv

P1

T3

P1

Gas

Liquid

Vaporization of a pure substance at constant Temperature

T1

P1

T1

P2=Pv

T1

P2=Pv

P3

Gas

Liquid
Gas

Liquid

T1

Gas

Liquid
Gas

Gas

Liquid

Liquid

Hg

Hg
Hg

Hg
Hg

Hg
Hg

Heating

Hg flows out so that

p stays constant

Hg

P above
Vapor
Pressure

Pressure-Volume Diagram of a Pure Substance

Pressure-Temperature Diagram of a Pure Substance

Critical Point

Liquid

tL
in e

Po
in
bl e
Bu
b

ine
tL

Liquid
+
Vapor

T7
T6
T5 = Tc

Vapor

T4

Solid

Precipitation,
Condensation

Freezing
Evaporation

Condensation ?

Vapor

T3
T2
T1

Vc

Pressure, p

Pc

Liquid

Melting

Critical
Point

o in
wP
De

Pressure, p

Pc

Specific Volume, v

Sublimation

Temperature, T

Tc

10

Chemical Composition of Hydrocarbons

Phase properties of the binary ethane ethane system

Composition of Reservoir Fluids

1400
100%

8,21

CA

1200

22,57
C7+
nC5
nC4

CB

N2
CO2
34,62

500

co

400

Reservoir Temperature, deg F

Phase behavior of reservoir hydrocarbon mixtures

oi
l

Phase behavior of reservoir hydrocarbon mixtures

5000

5000

4000

4500

100%

Typical
reservoir
temperatures

80%

3500

3000

60%

92,46

2500
40%

2000

C7+
C6
nC5
iC5
nC4
iC4
C3
C2
C1
N2
CO2

0%

500

80%

3000

Gas
Condensate

60%

2500
40%

0%

Gas
Condensate

500

C7+
C6
nC5
iC5
nC4
iC4
C3
C2
C1
N2
CO2

20%

1000

Wet
gas

73,19

2000

1500

Liquid
Gas

8,21

3500

20%

1500

100%

Typical
reservoir
temperatures

4000

Pressure, psia

4500

Pressure, psia

Bl
ac
k

G
as

300

til
e

ry
D

200

O
il

0%

vo
la

200

C1

20%

sa
te

int
Po

Mixture
B
ne
Li
t
in
o
P
ew

C2
57,6

nd
en

b le

e
Lin

Critical
Point
Heptane,
CH

73,19

G
as

b
Bu
100

C3

40%

Mixture
A

iC4

92,46

86,12

W
et

600

iC5

60%

G
as

int
Bu
bb
le

Po

800

Lin
e

Critical
Point
Ethane,
CE

400

1000

C6

56,4

1000

Dew Point Line

Reservoir Pressure (psia)

80%

0
-300

-200

-100

Wet gas

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

Temperature, deg F

800

900

1000

1100

1200

-300

-200

-100

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1000

1100

1200

Temperature, deg F

11

Phase behavior of reservoir hydrocarbon mixtures

Phase behavior of reservoir hydrocarbon mixtures

5000

5000

Typical
reservoir
temperatures

4000

4500

100%
22,57

Pressure, psia

4000

60%

3000
2500

40%

2000

57,6

C7+
C6
nC5
iC5
nC4
iC4
C3
C2
C1
N2
CO2

1000

56,4

60%

3000
2500

40%

2000
20%

1500

1000

0%

Volatile
oil

500

C7+
C6
nC5
iC5
nC4
iC4
C3
C2
C1
N2
CO2

34,62

0%

Black
oil

500

0
-300

-200

-100

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1000

1100

-300

1200

-200

-100

100

200

300

Temperature, deg F

500

600

700

800

900

1000

1100

1200

800

900

1000

1100

1200

Behavior of fluids during depletion

5000

5000

4500

4000

Black
oil

2000

2000

1500

1500

1000

1000

500

500

0
-300

-200

-100

Wet gas

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

Temperature, deg F

Loci

3000
2500

800

900

1000

1100

1200

ci
Lo

2500

Poin
t

3500

i nt

Gas
Condensate

Po

Volatile
oil

3500

Bubb
le

4000

w
De

Typical
reservoir
temperatures

Pressure, psia

4500

3000

400

Temperature, deg F

Phase behavior of reservoir hydrocarbon mixtures

Pressure, psia

80%

3500

20%

1500

100%

Typical
reservoir
temperatures

80%

3500

Pressure, psia

4500

-300

-200

-100

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

Temperature, deg F

12

Pressure-Temperature Phase Diagram

4000

4000

Gas
condensate
reservoir

%
40

%
%

Li

e
m
lu
Vo

500

500
0

150

100

50

200

300

250

350

350

Reservoir
Fluid

Propane injection in oil

can cause dramatic
nonlinear viscosity
reduction (CO2 is
best)

Gas injection causes re-vaporization

of gas condensate

Reservoir
Fluid

Temperature

nt
P oi
ble
Bub Line

t Line
Dew Poin

Produced
Fluid

Pressure

t Line
Dew Poin

Pressure

300

250

Behavior of fluids during depletion

C
nt
P oi
ble
Bub Line

200

Reservoir Temperature, deg F

Behavior of fluids during depletion

150

100

50

Reservoir Temperature, deg F

Produced
Fluid

1000

id
qu

%
5

1500

10

%
10

1000

path of
produced
fluid

Loci

Loci

Liquid Volume

2000

%
40
20

1500

t
in
Po
e
bl ci 80 %
b
o
Bu L

2500

Reservoir
Fluid

Critical
Point

Dew
Poin
t

2000

3000

20

t
in
Po
e
bl ci 80 %
b
o
Bu L

2500

Critical
Point

Reservoir Pressure (psia)

3000

Reservoir
Fluid

Single-phase
gas reservoir

Gas
condensate
reservoir

3500

Dew
Poin
t

Reservoir Pressure (psia)

3500

Single-phase
oil reservoir

path of reservoir fluid

Pressure-Temperature Phase Diagram

Adding gas (a solvent)

to oil (about 40%) can
cause asphaltene
precipitation

Gas evolving from oil

due to pressure drop
during depletion can
cause wax
precipitation

Produced
Fluid

Hydrate may form from gas and

water upon gas expansion (need
antifreeze injection)

Temperature

13

Behavior of fluids during depletion

Pressure

Difficulty and relevance of early reservoir

fluid sampling !

pressure

Temperature

asphaltene precipitation
1

0
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

time

Last word

Geologist
Plant
Engineer

Reservoir
Engineer

Hydrocarbon
Basins

Geologist

Production
Engineer

14

Lectura

Practica

9:15-10:45

11:30-13:00

Lectura
15:15-16:45

Lu

Lectura 1 / 2 (Introduction;
The petroleum system)

Lab 2 (Internet
resources)

Lectura 3 (Geochemistry: Origin of

HC; organic matter, source rocks,
accumulation. The "petroleum
kitchen")

Ma

Lectura 4 (porosidad,
permeabilidad)

Lab 4 (Porosity
calculation)

Lectura 6 (The reservoir: Lithology,

geometry, and facies. Reservoir
characterization and management)

Mi

Lectura 5 (Reservoir
petrophysics: capillary
pressure, pore-size
distribution, bound water
etc.)

Lab 5 (Bound
water, capillarity
exercise)

Lectura 7 (Reservoir engineering:

Drive mechanisms, phase behavior,
production problems, scale
formation etc.)

Ju

Lectura 9 (Logging
concepts and tools;
quantitative evaluation of
lithology, fluids, and
porosity)

Lab 9 (Logging
exercise)

Lectura 8 (Geophysics in
exploration and reservoir
management)

Vi

Lectura 10 (Exploration:
Hydrocarbon classification
of basins; play types)

Lab 10 (Petro
Mod)

Lectura 11 (Summary: Reserves

and Resources, unconventional HC)

15