1072 (10m)
DISTRIBUTION DATA BOOK
A collection of fundamental data pertaining to the elements of, and the
loads on, distribution systems
In working on problems involving distribution
circuits and equipment, our enginoers often find
it convenient to reter to basic data that have been
compiled from various sources by our Power
Distribution Systems Engineering Operation.
Since this material is equally useful to distribution
engineers in the electric ulity industry, wo are
printing it under one cover and presenting it as
8 Distribution Data Book.
GENERAL €Q ELECTRIC
GET-008L a
SECTION
M1
WV.
v.
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
Circuit Characteristics
A. Resistance and Reactance of
Overhead Lines . 8
B. Resistance and Reactance of Cables 8
Underground Cables . 5
D. Aerial Cables toeeeeee W
E, Transformer Characteristics "1
} Underground Distribution Systems for
Residential Areas. 13
A. Primary System . 13
B. Secondary System 13,
C. Transformers... ot 13,
D. Separable Insulated Connector
Modules . . 4
1, Modules Available 14
2. Selection 14
‘Transformer Connections 15
A. Transformer Polarity 15
B. Single-phase Peralleling 15
C. Small Three-phase Step-down Banks |... 15
7, Delta-delta Banks ° 15
2. Wye-delta Banks 16
3. Dolia-wye Banks ties 16
4, Open-wye, Open-delta Banks ..... 16
5. Open-delta, Open-delta Banks 16
6. Wye-wye Banks .. 16
7. Caution 3 tsaeeve 16
D. Autotransformers oo. esses 16
Short-circuit Calculations . v7
A. Line Impedance 7
B. Transformer Impedance °°: W7
C. Impedance of Lines with Different
Voltages
D. Effect of Offset aoe ‘Ue
E. PerUnit.... came 18
F. Allowable Short-cireuit Currents for
Insulated Conductors. .
1. Temperature Limits
2. Conductor Heating... ..
3. Characteristics of Short Circuits”
4. Application Procedure
5. Examples of Data Use
Voltage Calculations
A. Voltage Drop . .
B. Tables for Estimating Voltage Drop .
1. Three-phase Problems
2. Single-phase Problems
Voltage Regulating Equipment
A. Selection of Regulator
1. Type
2 Location and Size
3. Choice for Three phase Circuits
SECTION
B. Regulator Control Settings
Regulator Bandwidth
2 Tie Delay
3. Voltage Level
4. Line-drop Compensator Setting
Chart oo... :
C. Light Flicker...
1. Lemp Operating Voitage : : :
E. Reduction of Light Flicker by
Banking Secondaries
VII. Application of Shunt Capacitors
‘A. Basic Considerations in Applying
Shunt Capacitors . .
1. Released Capacity
2 Voltage Rise i
3. Reduction of Losses.
4 Protection
5. Additional Benefits
Lightning Protection of Distribution
Systems
A. Primary Distrib .
1. Impulse Withstand Level to
be Protected ...
2, Selection of Arrester :
3. Effective Location of Arresters
4.
5.
vill
Special Applications
Lightning Protection of UD
‘Systems
6. Overhead Line Protection”
B. Secondary Distribution Systems
1X. Overcurrent Protection of Distribution
‘Systems
A. Primary Circuits
1. Calculating Short-circuit Currents.
2 Selection of Overcurrent Protective
Equipment :
3. Coordination Requirements
B. Secondary Circuits
X. System Design — Loading Data
Estimating Load
Load Factor...
Coincidence of Diversity Factor’
Distribution Transformer Size. |
Thermal Loading of Underground Cables -
Design of the Secondary System
, Monitoring Transformer Loading
tj
enmoom>
|. Losses and Economic Data
‘A. Line Loss
8. Transformer Losses
C. Evaluation of Eneray Losses
D. Increased Revenue from Increased
Voltage. .
E, Present Value of $1.00
PAGE
a
+ 43
2 43
244
. 46
46
46
+. a7
: 49
2 80
51
51
61
8
82
55
2 85
+ 86
. 87
57
87
: 87
. 59
59 TABLES
PAGE
Table 1. Physical and electrical characteristics of open-wire distribution line conductors vernes 8
Table 2. DC resistance and correction factors for AC resistance oo cena sos
Table 3. Conductor sizes, insulation thickness and jacket thickness
Part A. Crosslinked-polyethylene-insulated cables... Bib 9
Part B. Rubber-insulated cables............ 000001010! ore fee 10
Part C. Paper-insulated cables os es peel 73580 y W
Table 4. Approximate distribution transformer impedances . u
Table 6. Full-toad current of transformers in amperes ....... wae een 2 oe 12
Table 6. Typical data for single-conductor concentric neutral cable, crosslinked
polyethylene-insulated . . a3 Bike ern s i: . 13
Table 7. Typical data for single-phase triplexed G00v service cable, crosslinked
polyethylene-insulated > tei + . 14
Table 8. Transformer imbalance . 4 iF Ke : 2 15
Table 9. Circuit breakers, circuit reclosers, distribution expulsion arresters and fuses. 18
Table 10. Meximum short-circuit temperatures for types of insulation a8 se 19
Toble 11. Natural sines, tangents and angles corresponding to cosine values of 1.00 to0.00 .... 23
Table 12, Voltage drops of open-wire lines in volts per 100,000 ampere feet : cee 24
Table 13. Voltage drops of underground cables in volts per 100,000 ampere feet . : 25
Table 14, Function performed by regulators and capacitors .......... . 85 Eee a
Table 15. Load bonus regulation nase + 2 bitiu sees BG arneees.
Table 16. Power-factor correction factors... .. : : : 35
Table 17. Application guide for group-fusing capacitor banks with General Electric universal
cable-type and oil cutout fuse link ratings “N’*, “OIL”, “K""and "1" types
(Grounded.wye and delta connections; 25-, 50° and 100-kVar units). 36
Table 18. Application guide for group-fusing capacitor banks with General Electric universal
cable-type and oil cutout fuse link ratings “N’, "OIL", “and ""T"" types
(Floating wye connection; 25-, 60- and 100-kVar units) «se 38
Table 19. Application guide for group-fusing capacitor banks with General Electric universal
cable-type and oil cutout fuse link ratings “N’’, “OIL”, "K", and "T” types
(Grounded-wye and delta connections; 10:, 200., and’300-KV/ar units) : 38
Table 20. Application guide for group-fusing capacitor banks with General Electrie universal
cable-type and oil cutout fuse link ratings “N”, "OIL", "K", and “T" types
(Floating-wye connections; 150-, 200-, and 300-kVer Units) 38
Table 21. Basic impulse insulation levels (BILs) and withstand tests ten 40
Table 22. Arrester ratings vs maximum overvoltages BEE Be a neocon “ 40
‘Table 23. Performance characteristics of General Electric distribution arresters 4
Table 24. Dielectric tests for dry-type transformers and dry-type shunt reactors . 42
Table 25. UD transformer-arrester protection wee cee ee
Table 26. Time-current curves for HR reclosers 47
Table 27. Distribution transformer losses 53 Bch . 5 ce 58
Table 28. Distribution transformer losses at other than rated voltages ee 58
Table 29. Losses for distribution transformers operating at other than rated voltages sees 8B
Table 30, Present values (Vn) of $1.00 investments to be made in years (n) from now, based
on certain rates of interest (i) ..... Bae ty cece 3 59 1 — CIRCUIT CHARACTERISTICS
A. Resistance and Reactance of Overhead Lines
Resistance depends primarily on the conductor size and type
fof conductor used. Reactance depends not only on the
‘conductor size but also on the equivalent delta spacing between
the conductors, Accordingly, Table 1 gives the physical and
lectrical characteristics for commonly used overhead conductor
sizes and types of conductors.
“The concluctor reactance may be separated into two parts
the internal reactance of the conductor including the area
around the conductor of one-foot radius and the external
reactance of the conductor beyond the one-foot radius. Hence,
the total reactance (X) per conductor is equal to the sum of the
‘wo parts, oF:
X, #X2 in ohms per 1000 foot
reactance of conductor at one foot
Xp * reactance of conduetor beyond one foot
Table 1 gives the values for X_ for the various conductor
types and sizes, Fig, 1 gives the values of Xp for various
equivalent spacings between conductors as may be used in
practice
For ordinary single-phase circuits, the equivalent spacing is
the distance between conductors. For ordinary three-phase
circuits, the equivalent spacing is expressed by the formula
YR x Bx C where A, 8, and C are the distances, centerto
Center, of the conductors, @s follows:
To assist in obtaining the spacings, a few typical arrange
‘ments with their equivalent spacings ate shown in Fig. 2. The
arrangements used in practice will vary from system to system,
but because of space limitations only these few are shown.
B. Resistance and Reactance of Cables
Cable resistances are given in Table 2, and cable reactances in
Fig. 3. The reactance data that follow are based on the formula:
X= 0,028 (log, 25 + K)
X= Reactance in ohms per 1000 feet at 60 hertz.
Spacing of conductors (center-to-eenter) in inches.
Diameter of conductor in inches.
A. coefficient dependent on the ratio of the inside
diameter of a conductor to the outside diameter of the
conductor. For cable of standard-strand construction, K
equals 0.28,
“These reactance curves are correct for shielded or non:
shiolded cable without @ magnetic binder
‘The reactances of three-conductor or triplexed cables may be
obtained by using the upper scales of thickness of insulation and
jacket in Fig. 3. For cables not in direct contact with each
other, use the bottom scale (abscissa) of Fig. 3
Example (showing method of using Tables)
Given: A triplexed 500 MCM, aluminum, 15 kV greunded
reutral, shielded and jacketed crosslinked polyethylene cable,
0c.
From Table 2. D-C resistance st 25C = 0.03638 ohms per 1000
228 + 90
feet. At 90C, the resistance would be 0.03538 x ye
(0104447 ohms per 1000 feet. The a-¢ correction factor is 1.06,
so the ac resstanct at 90C = 0.0447 x 1.06 = 0.04714 ohms per
1000 feet.
From Table 3, Part A, The insulation thickness is 175 mils. The
jacket thickness is 80 mils. An additional 100 mils should be
‘added for semicon layers and shielding. (See paragraph C. which
follows.) The total thickness of insulation and sheath system is
175 + 80 + 100 = 355 mils
From Fig. 3. At the intersection of 500 MCM and 355 mils
{interpole between 360 and 400 mils), reed 0.036 ohms per
1000 feet.
C. Underground Cables
For threeconductor cables, the insulation thicknesses
‘ordinarily used can be obtained from Table 3, Parts A, B and C,
and then the reactance can be obtained directly from Fig. 3 at
the intersection of the cable size and insulation thickness lines.
(On three-conductor cables an identifying tape is frequently
applied over the insulation of the individual conductors, This
‘ape usually adds approximately 30 mils to the diameter of the
conductor and consequently 15 mils should be added to the
insulation thickness to find the correct value of reactance. For
inner semi-con tapes, outer semi-con tapes and shield add 100
mils when this shielding system is used. Metallic tape insulation
shields generally add 10 to 30 mils to cable diameter. For sector
cables use a corresponding round conductor diameter
To obtain the reactance for three single conductor cables
with random spacing in a conduit, multiply the reactence for
three conductor cable spacing (Fig, 3) by 1.20 for non-magnetic
conduit or by 1.50 for magnetic conduit,
Reference on cable ampacities are given in Section X under
Thermal Loading of Underground Cables, CIRCUIT CHARACTERISTICS
Table 1, Physical and electrical characteris
's of open-wire distribution line conductors
size Aesetance
Diameter Lbs. Approx. Amp. wal
wg (swords) | mena in 1000 Ft. capacity” Resistance AU FL Spocing
Copper — Hard Drawn
3 i 7681 0.1285 =O 5080 0886 0126
6 i 26.25, 162 80 70 110 ois oa2t
4 3) 4174 0.254 128 to 161 0.263 ona
2 mm 6.37 0292 205 148 210 0.167 0.109,
1 a 3.09 0.328 28 170285 0132 0.106,
10 a 105.5 0.388 526 200 735, 0.108 0.1036
210 0 131 ong an 240 395, 0.083) oor
390 0 1678 ass 513 280 390, 0.088 0.088
a0 a 216 0522 653 330 480 0.053, 0.095
19) 250 osza mm 375 510 085 0.092
09) 300 0.829 926 425595, 0.037 0.090
09) 350 0673 1081 478635, 0.032 0.088
AL /St0et csr,
6 a 26.25 0198 362 5585 og75 O28
4 en anya 0.250 576. 75 120 0425 0.125
2 en 66.37 0316 18 10165 0287 0.126
10 en 105.54 0.308 1456 150 225, 0.168, 24
20 en 331 oa? 1837 175 260, or34 or
30 en 1678 0.502 2318 70 205 0108 one
a0 an 2116 0.563, 2021 25 5 0.084 a110
2617 2568 642 268 290 410, 2.066 e088
26/7 3364 art 462.4 340 480, 0.053 08s
287 3078 o7es 546.4 0 535 0.085, 08
267 4770 0888 655.7 430 605, 0.037 082
267 55655 ‘og27 765.0 480 670, 0.032 0.080,
2517 7950 4108 10950 20880 0022 0078
(Strands) All Aluminum — Hard Drawn
a 0 0.282 m0 7% 116 ‘ona ona
2 0 0.292 62.0 105 160 0267 109
10 ° 0.68 98.5 145215, 0.168 0.103
210 a ota 1243 170250 0.134 oot
30 a 0.464 1867 200 280 0.106 0.098
a0 0 0522 1976 240 240 0.084 0.098
a 2568 0.586 240.1 280 300 0.086 0092
a9) 336.4 0.688 3157 390 965 0.053 088
(a9) 275 O24 3730 370 520, 0.086, 0.086
(9) arr0 0793, 4476 225 590 0.037 .084
(13) 556.5 0.386 5220 465645 0.032 082
(37) 795.0 41026 746.0 605820 0022 0079
size Copperweld — Copper
Ba 199 743 6 90 0.684 ona?
BA 0.230 1016 Ba 120 ote, 0.23,
4s 0290 1818 115 185 0263 oie
20 0.366 256.8 185220 0166 on
*condvetor at 80 6.40 © AMBIENT, mievty = 0.5 fr copper, 0.2 for aluminum,
Lower current vase correspond to si ar
Her curront values correspond ir moving et two foot per second.
*shesistanes of conductor in ofms/1000 fe 60 hertz, 26°C temperature
‘7, reactance af conductor oUt t9 one foot in ofims per 1000 fe, GO ete
Tota reactance per phate =X) * X>.
Kgs Extomat ractance of conduct beyond one fin hms per 1000 ft, 60 hertz abtsned trom Fi. 1
CIRCUIT CHARACTERISTICS
xo
a
= ood
J 00
2 00
33 cos
15 00s
Taal y+ 0.0528 Lo9190-0087
SE of
2-002
3-003
£00
% -cos
6 py as 6 20 30 46 5060 80 100
10 Equivolant Delte Spacing in inches
200 3005001000
Fi. 1, Extorna resetenee of conductor beyand ne fo0t in ahms per 1000 fee, 60 hertz for various eguivalont spacing between conductors
Table 2. DC resistance and correction factors for AC resistance
nto DC Resistance [AG Resistance Mul
se ‘Single Conduetor
men ‘Ohms per 1000 feet @ 256" ‘Cables +
COPPER, ALUMINUM coPPER avuminum | coped | ALUMINUM
8 ‘06532 ior 7.000 ‘000 1.00 1.00
6 8110 os7a1 2.000 1.000 100 4100
4 0.2584 0.4230 1000 41000 1100 100
2 0.1626 (02668 1000 +1000 tor 100
4 01280 ozs 11000 1.000 101 1.00
10 1072 01676 1000 1.900 02 4.00
210 ‘08105 0.1329 11000 41901 03 1100
310 ‘108429 0.1058 1000 4.001 10a 101
400 ‘05008 ‘0.08951 000 4.001 108 191
250 oasis 07077 11005 11902 108, 192
300 0.03505, 0.05897 1.006 11003 107 102
350 ‘0.03082 ‘105085 1000 11904 108, 1.03
500 0.02187 0.03538 to18 2,007 13 106
750 oo1s38 0.02389 1039 101s 121 a2
1000 01079 0.01798 11087 1.028 130 119
1500 ‘o.oo719 001179 raz 11058 153 136
2000, 0.00599 o.00885 1209 1.100 182 156.
+70 correct to other temperatures, use the following
234.5+T
250.5
Were Reis the new resistance at temperature Tand Rag it the tabulated resistance
a
‘or copper: Rr Fg far aluminum: Rp" Agg x 2282.
Fe Rr Fog: For stuminum: Rp Rog x 22
“Hncludes only skin effect (Use foreables in separate ducts]
includes skin effect and proximity effect (Use for triplex, multicondbetor, or cables inthe same duct) CIRCUIT CHARACTERISTICS
Inductive reactance In chms per 1000 1
Fis. 2. Speing of eondustors for use in calculating line reactance
soe ree ‘of distribution eeu.
00
0.07 Fecenductor cable
thickness of insulation
‘shield @ sheath in’ 250
0.06) ‘ni 200
160
oo
0.04]
0.03
Conductor
oe} ‘ies In
iW or
eal ‘ails
°
O2 03 04 05 O08 Of 08 08 10 Ui 12 13 14 lS 16 17
Conductor spacing (center to center) in inche:
Fig. 3. inductive reactance per phase in ohms por 1000 feet at 60 heres
CIRCUIT CHARACTERISTICS
Table 3. Conductor sizes,
sulation thickness and jacket thickness
Part A. Crossclinkec:polyethylene-insulated cables*
insulation Thickness for 100 and ingle conductor Jacket Thine for 100
Ratod Circuit 133 Percent Insulation Levels? Conductor | and 138 Percent insulation Levalst
Voltoye, {Grounded and Ungrou Sie, (Grounded and Ungrounded Netra)
Phase t-Phase Column & ‘ANG or
Volts vile [mm |e mew ite [ om
600 149 a | 19 | 90 | 076 | 148 15 | 028
32 e | sr | as | ria | 62 2a | o76
1-410 me | 198 | s6 | 140 | 140 a | 14
225500 o« | 230 | 65 | 165 | 2501000 | 65 | 165
525-1000, 1 | 277 | 30 | 203
wore Tao | ie va | 148 ie | 028
32 7 | 178 tao | 62 so | 076
14/0 90 | 229 16s | 1-400 a5 | ie
225500 wos | 267 190 | 2501000 | 65
525-1000, 120 | 308 229
too Percent | 133 Percent
Tosulation Level | Insulation Lavel
(Grounde [Wngrounaed
Newt Nectrall
Nonehielded
2001-8000 3.4/0 uo | 270 | 10 | 270] 36 20 | 076
225:500 v0 | 305 | v0 | 30 | 420 a tia
525-1000 130 | 330 | 130 | 330 | sior000 | 65 | 165
100 Percent 739 Percent
Inulation Level | Conductor size | insulation Level
(Grounded AWG oF MEM | (Ungrounded
Netra Neutral)
Shielded
] 8 as | ass 4s [oa
2001-8000 90 | 229 | 9 | 229) _ 620 so | 152 so | 182
310-1000, so_| 203 | s0_| 203,
wor a000 Tis | 292] 1a | 6-170 80] 162 67 so Tr
2orooo | a0 | 203 | 1750 fo | 203
—__| _ 1000, so_| 299
'BO0%-75000 pion | as | aan | ae | eas | 2750 ‘a | 203 | 1-800 a] 203
| - 4000 110, _| 750-1000 | ria_|_ 2.70
‘600126000 7000 20 | a0] aS [a7 | — 1500 cy 7360 | -203
so0-1090_| 110 4g0-1000 | 10_| 270
75007 28000 +1000 207 500 ‘30 | 203
- coo.1000 | 110_| 2.70 .
001-3500 | ~170-1000 mae 876 1/0350 Bo} 203
4001000 | 110 | 279
(Continued on Part BI
* Based on IPCEA Standard S 66.524 on March 1972 issue.
Same ar rubber insulated eable.
#For 139 percent insulation level (ungrounded neutral the minimum eondvetorsize/e 1 ANG.
‘Note 1 — Colum A thicknesses (0-2000 votes) a
applicable to singl-conduetor poner cables for genera! application when a carbonblack pigmented
Insufation s uted without further covering
Column B thicknesses (0-2000 vats) ore applicable ta multiple conductor cable with an outor covering and to singloconductor cables with an
‘The Column B thicknesses are considered adsquate for electrics! purpotes and mey be specified for single-conductor cables wit a carbon-bisck
pigmented insulation without foriber covering for applications where instalation and service condivions are such that the additional thickness. for
Imechanicel protection te not eansdored necosory for satsfeetOry operation. CIRCUIT CHARACTERISTICS
Table 3, Conductor sizes, insulation thickness and jacket thickness
Part 8. Rubber-insulated cables*
rman ara nS
eet wre Biter =
eect [eae a ne
romero | come | ERE [RIT | cum: | dice |
paren | pater [tans | Sar | eee, | ee
rat
a ae eae |
ae | 8 le 1s [28] es | 2 [ts 2] is
ee, | 8 | [8 | | Be | E te | ig
mr Te Te he |e |e
mB ss [eel we | lew is |
a | 2 i ele] 2 | ele g) st
eee, | 8 [28 [i | sel aces |S [a8 ae
Se |S [as fe se | ee | ee & dg
moe | a = [ae }e || ee [a Tes 31s
~ | 8 le lele| & [els 3 |e
wae | [28 [8 [38] oe | 8 [48 £| ig
me, Lie [as | |e] ee | sae 21
mee ee] a a
2m [elelelele lela Bae
ais |B [38 |B Bae |e mes
j |e |S
yo |B [ER loner | aie [an
wou Sige = te ow eee ee Lass, |e bee
eee © a: [ier [aa | [2H [ste |B [ER
ears
15001-25000 Tand over as 11.86 0701-1500 | 80 | 203
* Based on IPCEA Standard S-19:81, of March 1971 hve
1 The selection of the cable insulation level to be uted in 2 partioular instalation shall be made on the bstls ofthe plicable phas-to-phase voltage and
the goneral system catagory as outlined in the flowing pareoraphs
4100 Porcont Leve! ~ Cables inthis category may be applied where the syste is provided with relay protection such that ground faults wil be cleared
4s rapidly st possible, but In any case within T minute, While these cables ae applicable to the great majority of eable installations which are on
rounded systems. they may be used ato on ther systems for vtich the application of eables s acenprable provided the above clearing requirements ae
‘otin completely de-enerazing the faulted section.
133 Percent Level ~ This insulation level cosresponds t that foomerly designated for ungrounded systems. Cables in thi category may bo aopied in
{rtuatins unera the clearing time requiremonts ofthe 100 percent level category cannot be met, and yot there is adequate aturance tha the faulted
{ection wil be deonergized in a time not exceeding 1 hour, Aka they may be uted when additional insulation strength over the 100 porcent level
ategory is desirable
173 Percont Level ~ Cables in this category should be applied on systems where the time required to deenersizing 2 grounded section Is indefinite, Their
tee ie recommended iso for resonant rounded systems. Consult the manufacturer for msuacion thicknesses
10
CIRCUIT CHARACTERISTICS
Table 3. Conductor sizes, insulation thickness and jacket thickness
Part C. Paper-insulated cables*
‘Single Conduetor Cab “Taras oF Fo conductor CBE
Rated Circuit Lend Sheath ‘Loa sheath
Voltage Conductor | tnsulationt| plus dacket Conductor | Insulation? | plus docket
Phase to Phase | size “Thicknes | Thickness Size Thickness | Thickness
ANG oF MCM | mile ile AWG or mem | mis
600 61000 | 60 155-190
2000 6100 | 65 155-190
000 61000 | 90 155-195 “
2000 6a 125 160 210-1000 | 110 180240
1000 | 110 160-195
15000 a2 180 160-165, 62 180 180198
i000 | 165 165.200, 210-1000 | 165 180.240
25000 1210 255 170 210 255 208
arorao0 | 240 170.200 soi000 | 240 205.278
35000 270-1000 | 330 175-205 250.1000 | 300 285-288
* Based an AEIC Stand 1-68, 10th Ealtion, Apri 1968
1 Value are for 100% insuloion thickness (grounded neutral). For 139% insulation thickness (ungrounded
‘neutral, eter to Standard, 28 the insfation thickness changss for every 1 kV of rated voltae
1 Sheath and jacket thickness depend on cable cove diameter
D. Aerial Cables
‘The reactance of an aerial cable is determined in the same.
manner as outlined above. On three-conductor non shielded
preassembled aerial cable, each conductor may be covered with
‘8 sheath or jacket, the thickness of which is given in Table 3,
Part A or B. The thickness of this sheath must be added to the
insulation thickness in determining the proper reactance.
On shielded constructions a tape is applied under the shield, and
15 mils should be added to the normal insulation thickness in
determining the reactance.
Table 4. Approximate distributi
Range i given for range of conductor sizes
E, Transformer Characteristics
‘The characteristics of General Electric distribution trans
formers are given in Tables 4 and 27. These characteristics
include percent IR, percent IX, percent IZ, no-load losses, and
full-load losses, Transformer cegulation for a kVA load of power
factor cos 0, at rated voltage, can be calculated from the
formula: 55 Regulation = —KVA iload cos
“S Regulation = [7a (wansformer) (%1R eos 0 +
0X50 SR sn 92
% Xin + ae ,
Fulkload current in amperes of American National Standard
transformer sizes are tabulated in Table 6.
‘ion transformer impedances*
T 2201160 vw ‘90070320 ¥ a 7200012470 ¥ 0 ‘aaoor2s940 GRD ¥ to | 38800 GAD ¥/19920"" vo
120/220 Vote "20/240 Vol Ta0r210 vote "20/240 vote
kva | ‘ores 60 Mert, ‘GO Hecte co Hert
escent | Percent | Porcont | Pareant | Poreont | Percent | Parco | Poronnt | Peeant | Percant | Percent | Parent | eraont | Pecont | Parcent
ee ee eee eee cee eee ene eee ie tan | Pi |e
s | se [se | 2s | 22 | ve | 27 | 22 ay | as | 22 | a9
wits | ie fis | ta | ae fa | ta tw | te | to Jose fue |e |
wf? |e faa fe | ae food fod ve [ra [a9 Joa faa | ao | a3
vfs | ia foo foo | oo foe | a2 20 fia |e | 22 | 1a 20
gs| oo | te |r foto fore fad |oaa ia faa |e | ta | a2 ay
a) fo | 13 ag fio | foe fon faa foe | oan ta
| oo | ia fre | so | v2 | ae | 10 1 ro | 22 | 10 19
wo jos | ie | ts fos | i | i> | os [te | 20 | 33 | ie v8
to [os | > | ts | os | 19 | 13 | 08 3 [os | 31 | 23 | os 20
290.480 200/400 200/480
20 ] os | 29 | 30 | os | 29 | 30 | os | 20 | 30 | os | 20 | 30 | os | 29 | a0
ga | os | 32 | 3s | os | 32 | 33 | os | 32 | 33 | oa | 31 | 32 | os | 33 | 39
soo [or | 32 | 33 | ov | 32 | 33 | om | a2 | 33 | o> | aa | aa | or | aa | aa
“When only one of the two lowvollage windings i loaded, the percent 1 and the percent IX fon KVA base equal #0 capacity of that winding,
‘or one-half nameplate kVA) are approximately 0.75 and from 0.6 t0 1.26 of fulkwinding percent 1R and fallwinding percent IX, respectively
” CIRCUIT CHARACTERISTICS
Single-phase Cvcuits
Table 5. Full-load currents of transformers in amperes
2
Circuit Voltage
xa [120 | 240] 490 | 2400 arco [aa00 | 7200 | 7620 | 12,000 | 13,200 | 14,200 | 19,020
s | a7] 208| 104] 208] 120[ 108] oe | oes] oa2 | 02a | os | o2s
ro | ea3| 417) 208) 417] 240) 208] 19] 131] 083 o76 | 69) 80
ts | 5 | 625] 31a) 25] ger) a13| 208] 197) 125 | 114] 108] os
2s | 20a | tos | 21] 104 | oor] 521] 248 | 328] 208] 199) 174] 126
avs] aia | ts6 | 781] 186 | oor] zar| 521 | as2] a1] 280] 260] 188
so | 417 | 208 | 108 | 208 | 120 | 104 | 694] 6x6 | 417] 329| 247 | 251
7s | 625 | aa | is6 | ara | io | 156 | 14 | 984] 2s] see] 5.21 | 277
yoo | 823 | 417 | aoe | ary | 260 | 208 | 139 | 131 | aaa] 758 | 695] 502
rer | 1302 | e096 | ae | one | 402 | ase | 252 | aro | 139 | 127 | 6 | ose
2s0 | 2083 | 102 | 21 | 10a | 6or | 521 | aa7 | ea | aoa | wo | v4 | 126
aaa [275 | 128 | 604 | 130 | eo | os | acs | 237 | 2x8 | 252 | 232 | 107
500 | 4167 | 2083 | 1082 | 208 | 120 |e | oa | os | avy | azo | aa7 | 25.1
“Three phase Circuits
{Circuit Votage (Line-to-Line)
va [208 | 200 | aa0 | 2800 [iso | 4900 | 7200 | 8320 | 12.000 | 12,470 |13,200 | 24,040 | 24,500
we | are] aer| 1e0] oer | 208] 190 120] 108] 072 | 069 | 000] os | 25
go | ea3| 722) a61| 7az] 416) ser] 241 | 208] 14a! 199] 121] 070 | oso
as | 125 | 108 | sar| we | 625) sar] 360| 313| 216] 208] 197] 104) 075
75 | 208 | re | 902] 120 | 104 | oo2| sor) 521] 361 | a47 | aan] 174) 1.20
res] 32 | 2 | 195 | 27a | 186 | 135 | 902 | a1] sar] sar] aor] 261] 128
150 ast | tao | 261 | aoe | 180 | 120 | 104 | 722] 694] oso] 24a | 251
205 | 25 | sar | a7 | sar | ar2 | 271 | iso | ise | ws | toa | aa) sar) an
300 | a3 | 722 | 361 | 722 | are | oar | 241 | 208 | ta4 | 139 | 131 | 695] 509
soo |1998 ] 1203 | sor | 120 | ooa | oo1 | aor | 347 | 201 | 232 | 219 | 16 | 298
750 | 2002 | saa | 902 | 10 |1oa | 902 | oo1 | 520 | 961 | 27 | a2 | 174 | 120
1000 | 2776 | 2406 | 1203 | 21 frao | 120 | a0 | oo | 48.2 | a2 | 437 | 222 | 108
ys00 | 4164 | 3609 | ta0a }acr |20e | ra | 120 ron | 723 | cea | os6 | saa | 251
Il — UNDERGROUND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
FOR RESIDENTIAL AREAS
A. Primary System
Increasingly, new housing developments are being supplied
by single-phase underground distribution (URD) systems.
Essentially all URD primaries are operated line-toxmulti-
grounded neutral, using a single, direct-buried, solid, insulation
‘able with bare, full-conduetivity, concentric neutral. Cable may
be installed in conduit under paved areas or in areas where extra
‘mechanical protection is required. These cables are highly
sfficient, having low reactance and excellent thermal capability.
Primary’ circuits may be radial or looped and normally are
‘designed for nominal 200-ampere capacity.
Approximate cable data for typical URD primary cables are
given in Table 6. Note that the impedance'given is the total loop.
impedance of the cable when used in a single-phase, line-to:
neutral application,
B, Secondary System
Secondary and service distribution in residential areas uses,
standard 120/240 volt, three-wire construction, Popular cables
fre three-single-conductor, polyethylene‘insulated aluminum
conductors, usually triplexed, and frequently with the neutral
‘conductor of reduced cross-section
‘Approximate cable data for typical URD secondary and
service cables are given in Table 7. Impedances given are
line-to-neutral” values per conductor, assuming no current in
the neutral
C. Transformers
The tansformers used for URD, whether pad-mounted,
subsurface, or direct-buried, all make use of standard core-and:
coll assemblies similar to those used in pole-type transformers
‘and, consequently, the eleetrical charactoristies given in Sections
I and XI can be used.
“Theemal loading of URD transformers iscovered in Section X.
Table 6. Typical data for single-conductor concentric neutral cable, crosslinked polyethylene insulated
‘Tota (Loop) | 2% Vol. Roa (1.6 LG)
Impedance for 06,0000 | ampseiy
‘Overattcapia |_Ohmn/1000"* 90% foo Direct Buried
Rating | Size AG | Diam. Inches | R_| X | st 7200V | at7620V | Single Cable**
aoe | eat 0.86 oses | o1s2 [oss [ore 167
rev | #r aL 09 oes | 0136 | occa [oer 193
iskv |evoar | 093 os68 | 0.128 | 0ss3 | 0.808 218
rev | aoa | 14 0292 | ong | oasr [ois 288
at 13200 v | at 14400 ¥
zoey | #rAL 708 ‘aes | onso | ovo [ose rr]
ase | evoar | 112 ose | ors1 | 0300 | 0275 198
rsev | amar | 120 0292 | o140 | 0205 | 0225 228
zee [evar | 135 | ors | on27 | ots? _ | o.tss 308
3+ 15600 V | #19900 V
ssev Jwvoar | 132 036s [oz | 0260 | oz0a 18
sev | yar | 1.37 o2a2 | onso | 023 | one? 208
aoev | roar | 142 o2s2 | o1s2 | 0176 | 0138 248
sev | saoar | 152 oss | ones | oss [ons 283
* Assumes 100% neutral conductivity, SOC cable tomporature anda return eureent ih tha eaneentTie
** ued on 20C earth, 90C conductor, earth resistivity Ip) ~ 90, 100% load focor.
13 UNDERGROUND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS FOR RESIDEN
ITIAL AREAS
Table 7. Typical data for single-phase triplexed 6OOV service cable, crosslinked polyethylene insulated
1] impedance Ohms
size-awe | Canin, | Ber Conductor | s Vote Repusion
ormcm— | Diameror | er 1000 ‘per 10,000 amp. Ampacty Direct Buried
Seonded | (inches) [R| st 240 and 90% pt, Singla Trploxed Cablo**
wat. oas | 0293 | 00297 2.308 167
AL 098 0233 | 0.0307 1.360 189
soar | 107 0.184 | 0.0297 1488 218
wa | 118 0.146 | 0.0200 1.200 245
wom. | 129 0.117 | 0.0284 0.980 278
wa. | 1.40 0.093 | 0.0277 0.798 a5
wasoar | 175 0.057 | 0.271 0826 15
* Bad on BOC conductors, with no current inthe neutral
* Bwued on 20C earth, SOC conductor, earth resisiv
D. Separable Insulated Connector Modules
Importent lements in underground distribution system
sign are abilitios
© To connect or disconnect equipment
© To extend or to tap into the system at any time
© To provide sectionalizing points.
These funetions, Jong taken for granted on the overhead
system, required development of sectionalizing equipment,
evolution of techniques for working lines hot, and introduction
‘of handling equipment. Switched connectors can be used safely
10 accomplish the desired functions underground,
1, Modulos Available
Individual products which comprise the connector system
line for 18 kV and 25 kV class systems are:
Switch modules
Elbow connector modules with and without capacitance tap
‘Basie connector modules
Elbow-tee connector modules with and without capacitance
tap
Switch-tee connector module
Insulating cap
Mult-taps (2+ 3+ and 4-position)
Feed-through
Insulated bushing
4
(6) = 90, 100% toad fetor
Grounded bushing
Integrated bushing
SAF-ANGLE ® bushing
Test rod
Grounding rod
2, Selection
{An assortment of insulated cable-connector modules is now
‘available to perform a variety of line and transformer switching
funetions. Components can be arranged to provide great
floxiblity of oporation at costs which are only a fraction of
‘what equivalent housed switching equipment would be.
When connectors are used on three-phase applications, the
switched voltage must not exceed the rating of the connector.
(On delta-connected transformers or ungrounded wye systems,
the rating of the connector must be such as to handle the
switching of the line-to:ine voltage.
(On wye-wye grounded transformer connections, connectors
rated line-to-ground voltage can, in general, be applied satis
factorily, The remote possibility exists, however, that the 60-2
recovery voltage could reach a value 1.73. times normal
line-to-ground voltage under either of two conditions:
(1) Single-pole primary switching of @ three-phase trans:
former whose load is 100 percent ungrounded.
(2) A line-to-line fault not involving ground.
If either of these conditions is likely to exist, full line-to-line
voltage rated connectors should be applic
Ill — TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS
A. Transformer Polarity
‘Transformer polarity is an indication of the direction of
current flow through the high-voltage terminals with respect 10
the direction of current flow through the low-voltage terminals,
at any given instant in the alternating cycle.
The polarity of a single-phase distribution transformer may
be either additive or subtractive. A simple test for polarity is to
connect two adjacent terminals of the high and low windings
together and apply 8 moderate voltage to either winding
The polarity is additive If the voltage across the other two
leads of the windings in question is greater than that of the
high-voltage winding alone (Fig. 4).
“The polarity is subtractive if the voltage across the other two,
leads af the windings in question is less than that of the
high-voltage winding alone (Fig, 5.
By industry standards, all single-phase distribution trans
formers 200 kVA and smaller, with a high voltage of 8660 volts
and below, will have additive polarity. All other single-phase
transformers will have subtractive polarity,
By industry standards, the high-voltage terminal markings are
Hy to the right and Hy to the left when facing the high-voltage
side of the transformer
For additive polarity the low-voltage X, terminal is on the
right when facing the low-voltage side of the transformer, and
for subtractive polarity the lowvoltage X, terminal is on the
lett,
B. Single-phase Paralleling
11 greater capacity is desired, two transformers of the same or
different kVA ratings may be connected in parallel. Single-phase
transformers having either additive or subtractive polarity may
be paralleled successfully if they are connected as shown in Fig
6 and the following conditions exist:
Voltage ratings are identical
2. Tap settings are identical
3. Percent impedances are within + 714% of each other
4, Frequency is the same,
C. Small Three-phase Step-down Banks
1, Delta-delta Banks
In order to have balanced transformer loading, the following
conditions must exist:
Fig, 4. Additive polarity
tee 240 4}
Fig. 5. Subtractive polarity
4. All units must be connected on the same tap
’. Al units must have the same voltage ratios
«. All units must have the same impedance.
It is possible to operate at reduced bank output with 2 small
Unbalanced transformer loading if two of the units have the
same impedance and the third unit has an impedance within =
25% of the like units, Table & shows the amount of imbalance
‘of three transformers of the same kVA size and voltage rating in
a threephase bank. (21 = impedance of odd unit and 29 ~
impadance of like units.)
Table 8. Transformer imbalance
raioZ! ranane on
1 ‘2 | Odd Unit Like Units
: oe ss a
- a = 3
r ; ; a sal a aie
Fs Scene ram celine tne theater me
15 TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS
2 Wyedelta Banks
If the high-voltage neutral of the transformer bank is
‘connected to the eireuit neutral, the transformer bank may burn
‘out for the following reasons:
1. {twill carry circulating current in the delta in an attempt
‘0 balance any unbalanced load connected to the primary
line beyond it.
2. It will act a @ grounding bank and will supply fault,
current to any fault on the circuit to which it is
‘connected.
3. It provides a delta in which triple harmonic currents will
circulate.
All of these effects cause the bank to carry current in
‘addition to its normal load current, and often this combination
's sufficient to cause roast-out of the bank.
When this transformer connection is used, and the high:
voltage neutral of the transformer is not connected to the
circuit neutral, an open conductor in the primary results in @
single-phase input and output of the bank. If the transformer
supplies a motor load, @ harmful overcurrent is produced in each
three-phase motor circuit. An equal current flows in two
‘conductors of the motor branch circuit. and the sum of the two
‘eurrents flow in the third conductor.
‘The usual overload protection in motor circuits consists of a
protective device in only two of the conductors. If the highest
ff the three currents happens to be in the unprotected circuit,
motor burnout will very likely occur.
If 8 third overload device is installed in each motar circuit,
then the likelihood of motor failure from this cause is
liminated. Whether three protective devices are justified is
influenced by the probability of an open primary line to the
transformer. Such a probability is effected by the kind of
switching and protective arrangements used in that part of the
system.
3. Doltarmye Banks
The comments about motor protection in regard to wye-
dota banks apply equally to deta-wye banks.
4, Open-wye, Open-delta Banks
Distribution lines in rural areas often consist of two phase
wires and one neutral wire, In urban distribution it is sometimes
desirable to have multi-phase, where only single-phase primary is
ailable and the second phase wire is installed. These lines
criginate from three phase, fourwire, ground-nevtral systems
‘and are known commonly as '"V" phase lines. The major
portion of the load taken from these "“V"-phase lines is
single-phase, but occasionally it is necessary to supply three-
‘Phase motor loads from these lines, in addition to a single-phase,
120/240-volt connection.
Since both transformers carry the three-phase load, and one
carries the single-phase load in addition, the latter transformer
must be the larger unit. It must carry the vectorial sum of the
single-phase load plus 68 percent of the three-phase load, while
the smaller transformer must carry only 58 percent of the
‘threephase load. For example, if it is desired to carry @
single phase load of seven KVA and a three-phase load of five
16
KVA, where the loads have the same power factor, transformer
sees are arrived at as follows:
Large Sia
‘Transtormer ‘Transtormer
Single phase load 7KvA
29 29
‘Theeephae load (0.58 5) 28 29
8.9 kVA 29 kVA
Required transformer size TOKVA kVA
‘These sizes are based on the assumption that the loads are
continuous, steady-state loads. In actual practice, this is seldom
the case, Some judgment can be exercised, depending upon the
knowledge of actual load conditions, as in the selection of
transformers for any other application,
5. Open-delta, Open-delto Banks
This connection is similar to openwye, open-delta except
that the transformers are connected phase-to-phase instead of
phase-to-neutral, Selection of large and small transformer ratings
‘can be made the same way,
6. Wyewye Banks
A bank of wye-wye transformers should not be used unless
the system is fourwire. It is important to remember that the
primary neutral of the transformer bank should be tied firmly
10 the system neutral. If this isnot done, excessive voltages may
develop on the secondary side.
7. Caution
Single phase, self protected transformers should not be used
to supply three-phase, fourwire, closed-delta circuits serving
combined three-phase power and’single-phase lighting loads, 11
the secondary breaker in the lighting phase opens, the lighting
phase is still supplied with 240 volts. With the breaker open,
however, there is nothing to hold the low-voltage neutral at the
‘midpoint between the 240 volts. The voltage between each
phase to neutral will depend on the relative impedance of the
loads connected on either side of the 120/240-volt circuit. Since
these are rarely equal, the lamps on one side will probably burn
‘ut from overvoltage.
D. Autotransformers
A considerable saving in cost may often be effected by using
autotransformers instead of twoswinding transformers. When it
is desired to effect a comparatively small voltage change, oF
where both voltages are low, an autotransformer can usvally be
used as successfully as a two:winding transformer.
‘Autotransformers should not, except under special con:
ditions, be used where the difference between the high-voltage
and low-voltage ratings is great, because the occurrence of
grounds at certain points will subject the insulation on the
lowvoltage circuit to the same stress as the high-voltage circuit.
‘Autotransformers are rated on the basis of their kVA output
rather than the transformer kVA. Efficiencies, regulation and
other electrical characteristics are also based on output rating,
IV — SHORT-CIRCUIT CALCULATIONS
A. Line Impedance
When the resistance Ry and the reactance X, have been
determined, the impedence, Z,, of a circuit can be obtsined
from the relation 2, = \W/A_2+X_2. I limited only by a circuit
Jmpadance, the short-circuit current is as follows:
—£—ampores in each phase.
Vaz,
Line-torneutral fault
“Theee-phase faut
£
Van,
Impanes ofthe phate conductor ond the neutral conductor
tre cual and that the phase conductors are ararged ike the
point ofan equlatera range withthe metal conductor
br eal cstanes from al phase conductors. *
ine-to-line fault = =~ amperes
Liesotne t= 26 amp
‘amperes, assuming that the
where!
E_ = fine-toctine voltage
2, = line to neutral impedance in ohms, or the impedance of
‘one conductor to the point of fault.
B. Transformer Impedance
It is frequently necessary to take into account the effect of,
stepup or step-down transformer banks, The impedance of
deltawwye, wyedelta, and delta-delta transformer banks should
be combined directly with conductor impedances in calculating
short-circuit currents. The transformer impedance, which is
usually given in percent, will have to be converted to ohms
before it is combined with the line impedance. This ean be done
with the relation:
Zyy 1082
ra
18” WR
where
Zy 4 © transformer impedance in ohms
Z y= transformer impedance in percent
E = line-te-line voltage in kV
kVA = rating of the three-phase transformer bank
‘The short-circuit currents for the combination of line and
transformer are:
‘Three-phase fault = ——£ ___ amperes in each phase.
S12, + 2rq)
é
Linetomeutal fault = =F ____ amperes with the
Vaz, + 20h
same essumptions as given under line impedance.
Line-to-ine fault
ete) meres
“In the cose of a multi rounded neutral system, the impedance of the
mutatis somewhat less than that ofa phase eonciuetr of equal siz. 19
figuring the impedance of « muti-grounded neutral conductor, 2 factor
(of 2/3's suggested, because of the multiple path fr the return current
CC. Impedance of Lines with Different Voltages
When it is necessory to combine a line and transformer
impedance with the impedances of another line of a different
voltage, the impedance of the new line must be put on the same
‘voltage bese asthe original ine. This can be done by muktipiying
the impedance of the new line by the ratio of the square of the
Tine-to-line voltages of the transformer connecting the lines
together. It must be remembered that the ohms impedance
varies directly 08 the voltage squared. Therefore, in going from a
low voltage to a higher voltage, the impedance will increase, and
vice-versa, The transformer line-to-ine voltages squared ratio
must be taken so that this will be the ease.
D. Effect of Offset
‘The magnitude of the short-circuit current, a¢ determined
from voltage and impedance values, does not necessarily
represent the rms value of the current for the first few cycles,
because of the fact that the current wave may be offset of
Lunsymmettical with respect to its zero axis. The rms value of
the first half-cycle increases as the amount of offset increases
For constant reactance circuits the maximum value which the
rms of the offset current wave can attain with respect to the rms
‘of the symmetrical current wave is a function, among other
things, of the reactance/resistance ratio of the circuit up to the
point of faut.
In the Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical
Engineers (Vol. 67, 1948) paper entitled Simplified Calculer
tion of Fault Currents, are the various multiplying factors to
bbe used with the currents calculated by the formulae above,
“These are the basis of the values shown in Table 9.
When applying circuit breakers, circuit reclosers, distribution
expulsion arresters and fuses, the formulae for the type of fault
‘which will give the highest value of rms symmetrical current
should be used. Then the multiplying factor in Table 9 should
bbe applied to determine the rms current which should be
compared with the rating of the device.
The relationship shown by the curve in Fig. 7 gives the values
that can be used in calculating the maximum rms value of the
first half-eycle of fault current. This curve can be used instead
fof Table 9 for checking the suitability of the interrupting rating
ff fuse cutouts and raclosers when the circuit constants of a
particular installation are known,
Pe CEA
ais 1
aE L 1
ald 2 ay a
3 |
roll
50810 2 3.456.810 5 20 30 50
Roti Seu reactonce ,
‘rear renstonce RE
Ratio. of X for substation transformer plus primary cichit seldom
excoods 4, and is usally 110 3,
Fig, 7. Multiplying factor for determining short ieuit duty on
‘ms amporeated davies, such ae ditibution cutouts fram
"sleulated symmetrical short ceuit currant
w ‘SHORT-CIRCUIT CALCULATIONS
Table 9. Circuit breakers, circuit reclosers, distribution expulsion arresters and fuses
Reactanse Quanviy for Urea
Imutttving [Spehranoue TS
Fector Genarator | Motor
A. Grouit-beakerInterapting Duty
TGeverat Cone
Etgnteyeie or slower beakers =
"Thee yete Braker
2, Sent case for breakers at generator voltage only. For shortcirei
fatelaons ef more tan 600,000 KV toelore the appiation of any
trutilying factor) ted predor
throvgh current mating resctors only
Elghteycle or lower beakers =
13, Aircrelt breakers rated 600 volts and iss
1B. Mechanical Stes and Momentary Duty of Ceuit Breaker:
1 General Case
2. ft”5000 volts ard below, unless curent is fed predor
. Distribution Expulion Aeesters ond CieuitReclosers:
Ery or 3EM(2% * XO)
, Fun:
"At 16.000 volts, oF below, except for current limiting fuse, when the
vs or primary substations
Uahot is lest
2. All ohor caves, including il usrenimitng fuss regards of votoge
"9 — sr minimum system capacity snd minimum of
subronsent® | Transient | eatect
Subtransient
|
|
|
rot f
Jsubtransiens | sunransent | Subtransint
iH fssoraniem | sutamiens | surat
“As old circuit breakers ae slower than modern ones, it might be expected low muliper could be used wit of ieuit breakers However. modern
er sirenltv anata tobe more efectae than tet slower predeceston, and therefore, the application procedure mh the olde ict breakers
Sheuty te snore conserve than with modern ecu breaker Ata, there no anurance that a short crcre wil no change ts eharater and mite
Sreigor currens Now tavough » cicure breekes white rr opening. CansequenvY, Me factors 0 be used with ofr and stoner crust breakers wel
“te basedon the conciton that eny hvaococtve generators involved have amortaser windiogs, For hydrosectrc oneraors without amorissnur
Grinding value of ?5percan of the transient reactance should be sed or this ale
+ Duabution exouivon svster and cicurracloursare rated ano symmetna! bot hance the mutepiying factors 1.0
E. Per Unit
Per-unit quantities can be used to great advantage in
determining currents, voltages, etc., throughout a three-phase
system in which there are many circuits connected by trans
formers operating at different voltages. One of the principal
advantages of the per-unit method is that when expressed! as per
unit, based upon nominal circuit voltages, impedances can be
combined directly without regard for actual transformer turn
ratios when caleulating short-circuit currents in complicated
retworks or systems of more than one voltage, Using percent
has the same advantages as per-unit. The use of per-unit is easier
than using percent because it eliminates the introduction and
omission of the factor 100 at appropriate stages. Any quantity
jn the percent system divided by 100 is the corresponding
{quantity in the per-unit system and vice-versa,
The first step in determining short-circuit currents by the
per-unit method is to choose a convenient kVA base. Since the
various transformers, generators, and synchronous motors in a
system will have resctance value expressed on its own kVA,
rating, these values must be converted to the chosen kVA base,
18
This can be done by the relation’
per-unit reactance (on base kVA)
reactance (rat (EVA base)
tance (rete KVAL ira (rated)
‘The values of line constants will usually be given in ohms. These
hhave to be put into per-unit on the chosen kVA base. The
following formula will do this
per-unit impedance (on base kVA) =
Impedance in Three-phase
ohms to neutral kVA base
Rated line to:
line kV (1000)
After the system impedances have all been put on the chosen,
kVA base, they ean be added up in series or parallel, just as
‘ohms would be, to determine the equivalent impedance from
source to fault. Dividing one by the equivalent impedance gives
‘the number of times normal kVA (or the corresponding current)
which will flow from the source to the fault. This “number of
‘times normal” multiplied by the chosen kVA base will give the
three-phase short-circuit kVA (oF the corresponding current),
‘SHORT-CIRCUIT CALCULATIONS:
F. Allowable Short-circuit Currents for
Insulated Conductors
During normal operation the magnitude of current that a
siven cable may carry is limited by the continuous temperature
rating of the insulation, It is recognized, however, that undor
fault conditions there will be an abrupt elevation in conductor
‘temperature which will subject the insulation to a more severe
‘hormal stress for a short period of time. It is the intent here to
define these thermal stress limits (jn terms of current and time
for various conductor sizes) so that the system designer may
check that the protection equipment will prevent. severe
permanent damage to cable insulation during an interval of fault
current flow.
1. Temperature Limits.
The IPCEA — in Publication P-32-382, titled Short Circuit
Characteristics of Insulated Cable, dated Aug, 1958 — has
established maximum allowable short-circuit temperatures for
various types of insulation. These recommendations ate listed in
‘Table 10 and are the basis for the data which isto follow.
2. Conductor Heating
Under short-circuit conditions the ultimate conductor
temperature depends on (1) the magnitude of fault current (2)
the cross sectional area of the conductor; (3) the duration of
fault current flow and (4) the conductor temperature before the
short cireuit occurs, On the basis that all the energy produced
uring fault current flow is effective in raising the conductor
temperature (since the time period is very short this isa valid
assumption for engineering purposes), the conductor heating is
governed by the following equations:
2 +
roncorren: ——({.f+~0.0297 toyy (T2120
Tene
:
ror avumiwum (f= 0.012569 (125228
where 1 = Short-circuit current in amperes
A= Conductor area in circular mils.
{t= Time of short circuit in seconds,
Initial conductor temperature in degrees Centigrade
al conductor temperature in degrees Centigrade.
It is important to note that the abnormal temperature
persists much longer than the duration of fault current flow.
For example, 2 flow of 30,000 amperes in 8 500 mem cable will
levate the copper temperature from 75 C to 200 C in
‘approximately one second, With the current then reduced 10
zet0 as much as 3000 seconds could be required for the copper
two return to normal operating temperature, The cooling time
will vary with the cable geometry (wall thickness, diameter,
ste,). This thermal lag in cooling is of special importance in
cases where circuits are protected by automatic reclosers and
where immediate manual reclosing is sometimes practiced.
For simplicity, the above equations are presented graphically
in Fig. 8 which shows a separate family of curves for copper and
aluminum conductors, For convenience, a chart of interrupting
‘Table 10. Maximum short-circuit temperatures for
typ9s of insulation
Maximum — | Maximum
Continuous | Shorteireuit
‘Temperature | Temparature
‘Typ2of Insulation Rating” Rating
vutkene ® 900 2806
Paper BBC 2006
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Silicone Rubber 1286 280 cr
Thormoplastic ~ Flamonoi © OC soc
— paivathyiene mC 150
Varished Comrie a5 2006
* Although the continuous temperature ratings of some insutations vary
‘uth woltege ratings, the shortecircut temperatures ae independent of
Voltage and opply mal eases.
1 "The IPCEA has not yet aig temperature limits for this insulation
‘The above value e General Electric recommendation.
‘mVA is provided to allow direct entry into either graph without
converting mVA (megavolt-amperes) to amperes. Also provided
is a tabulation of the interrupting time of various circuit
breakers. The graphs apply only to an initial conductor
‘temperature of 75 C and a shortcireuit temperature of 200 C.
Generally the initial conductor temperature is not accurately
known since it depends upon the loading of the cable and
ambient conditions, To be conservative, it is usually assumed to
be equal to the maximum continuous operating temperature of
the insulation. In critical eases a more accurate analysis might be
required using @ more realistic initial temperature. In such cases
temperature correction factors (KK) can be obtained from Fig.
8, Also, if the insulation under consideration is thermoplastic
(Flamenol or Polyethylene) the maximum short-circuit
temperature is 180 C and the correction factors from Fig. 9
‘mast be used.
3. Characteristics of Short Circuits
Oscillograms show that short-circuit currents are nearly
always asymmetrical during the first few eycles after the fault
‘occurs, This simply means that short-circuit currents usually
consist of an a-¢ component superimposed on a dc component.
The dec component decays with time; its rate of decay
depending on the resistance and reactance of the circult. Fig. 10
illustrates these conditions during a typical short circuit.
‘The procedure thet is normally followed in making a
short-circuit study is to first evaluate the symmetrical short
circuit eurrent and then alter it by an appropriate multiplying
factor to include the additional heating effect of the de
component. Ifthe fauit is cleated within the first few cycles the
de component and, therefore, the multiplying factor will be
appreciable, The effect diminishes as the interval of fault
current flow becomes longer. The appropriate factor (Kk) by
Which the symmetrical current value should be multiplied is
given in Fig. 11 for several typical ratios of complete circuit
Feactance 10 resistance (distribution cable locations will
generally fall in the region of X/R » 10 or les)
19 ‘SHORT-CIRCUIT CALCULATIONS
‘COPPER CONDUCTORS ALUMINUM CONDUCTORS
CES
rH i PLE anwar
=e
TI
ail
et
Peery
rl
3. Maximum sits of insulated copper and sluminum sonductrs fora conductor temperature change from 75 C initial
a 200 C final during @ short-cireutcutrentinterupting intra
Fis,
4. Applicstion Procedure
Step 1 — Evaluate the symmetrical short cireuit current.
‘Step 2 — Knowing the clearing time of the protective deviee,
determine a correction factor K, from Fig, 11
Multiply the symmetrical current by factor Ky to
allow for the d-c component.
Step 3— If the problem involves an initial temperature other
than 75 C or a maximum short-circuit temperature
other than 200 C a correction factor K, should be
obtained from Fig, 9. Multiply the symmetrical
current (or its corrected value from Step 2) by the
factor K; to allovr for different limiting temperatures,
Stop 4 — Check the conductor size being considered on Fig.
B using the corrected value of current. The
permissible time should exceed the protector inter:
‘upting time to prevent cable damage,
&
3%
8
Fig, 9. Comsetion factors Ky for inti
short citcut temperatures
5, Examples of Data Use
Example 1 ~ Faeder circuits are to be run from a 480vol, Gober lod
cantor unit substation, During ermel operation it hasbeen
decided that a No.2 AWG Versatol Geoprene Cable
[copper conductor) wall provide adequate currentear¥ing
capacity. Evsulstion neater that the symmetrical short
[rect euront i 16.000 amperes. The Imerrupting time of
the chosen breaker & 1.5 cycles and i is desired f0 check
the cable's short-circuit capediy.
Solution: Symmetrical current ~ 16,000 amps
‘Tne duration — 15 cycles,
Foctor Kp 1.3 (From Fig 11).
Corrected currant ~ 16,000 x 1.3 = 20,800 amos.
Fig. 10, Osellogams showing decay of de component and eftct of
sevmmatry of eurrent
20
In Fig. & we determine that » No. 2 AWG copper conductor will
withstand 20,800 amperes for more than two cycles. Therefore, an
Iterupting time of 1-1/2 evcls wl adequately protect the cable,
Example 2 — A 4160.olt feeder isto be run from a substation at which
the symmaical fault current ie 30,000 ampores. For
continuous duty 3 No. 4/0 (copper) polyethylone cable Is
futable. An eightcyeie cuit breaker with rnstantaneous
‘rine hie_besn chosen. Will the polyatnylene. cable be
Sultable under shor-ceuit conditions?
Solution: Symmetries! euerent ~ 0,000 omperes.
‘Time duration ~ 8.8 cytes Ifrom breaker information on
Fig 8)
Foctor Kg ~ 1.10 (from Fig. 11 2 conservative vale)
Feetor Ky = 1.25 for an intial temperature of 75
final temperature of 180 C (fram Fig. 9).
Corrected current ~ 30,000. 1.1031.25 » 41,300 amen
From Fig. 8 we see that 41,300 amperes in 3 No. 4/0 wil reise the
conductor to maximum temparatur in approximatly six oF seven eycies
Ty interpolation). This moons that the cable would overheat if fault
eutvent loved for 8.5 cycles. Two alternate solutions are possbie: (1)
ond
SHORT-CIRCUIT CALCULATIONS
i at
a
ze \ [Sane
Ha RT
Fig, 11. Correction factors Ki for he components of current
se 2 250 mem polyethylene cable or (2) use a No. 4/0 Super Coronel
cable which wall be satisfactory for short-circuit conations i incicated
fon Fig. 8 and wil oko be more then adequate for continuout
‘urrentcarrying capacity
2 V — VOLTAGE CALCULATIONS
A. Voltage Drop
When the electrical characteristics of the line under con:
sideration have been determined, the line drop for 9 given
‘concentrated load of power-factor cos 0 can be computed from
‘the formula:
Volts drop = | (R os 0 + X sin 0)
where Rand X are the total resistance and reactance,
respectively, of one conductor of the line under consideration
This formula gives the voltage drop on one conductor, line-to-
reutral, The three-phase line-to-line drop is /3 times the above
value, and the single;phase drop is twice the above value, To
obtain voltage drop in pereent, the following equation ean be
sed
KVA (R cos 0+ X sind}
FOkV2
where kVA is three-phase kVA, R and X are the total resistance
and reactance, respectively, of one conductor in ohms and KV is
Tine-to-ine kilovolts. For single-phase circuits, kVA is single
phase kVA, Rand X are total values for both conductors, and
kV is the actual single-phase kilovolts
It can be seen from the vector diagram in Fig. 12 that both
formulas are approximate, but are close enough for practical
purposes
In this diagram, 0 is shown as the power-factor angle at the
station end of the feeder because, on most distribution feeders,
this is the only location at which the power factor of the load
cean be measured,
To assist in the application of this formula, Table 11 has
been prepared. This table gives the values of sines, tangents, and
angles which correspond to cosine or power-factor values from
1.0 10 0.
In actual practice, loads are usually distributed over the
feeder rather than concentrated at one end, When this is the
case, simplifying assumptions can often be made, These are
shown in Fig. 13. For instance, if a load is uniformly distributed
‘over the feeder, the drop to the end of the line is the same as if
the total load were concentrated at a point half way out on the
feeder. This is mathematically correct for avery large number of
loads, For a small number of distributed loads the error may be
large. When the load can be divided into a number of large
concentrated loads distributed along the lines, it is possible to
divide the line into the sections between loads for caleulation
purposes, and to consider each section individually with the
load which it carries,
If there is distributed load on a line and it is desired to find
the voltage drop to some point on the line, the following
formula will be helpful:
KVA (eos +Xsin8) Ly (
6 volts drop =
L
1
aL
Seyolts dro
where: kVA = total three-phase load in L tine
R= resistance per 1000 ft
X = reactance per 1000 ft
0 = source power-factor angle
Ly distance from source to desired point in
thousands of feet
LL= total length of line in thousands of feet
2
Fig, 12. Vector iogram
B. Tables for Estimating Voltage Drop
Voltage drops for open-wire and cable circuits can be quickly
estimated by simple calculations and use of the following
“ampere-feet” tables. The values given in the tables are the
absolute difference in voltage (voltage drop) between sending
end and receiving end line-to-neutral voltages of a balanoad
‘three-phase circuit for each 100,000 ampere-feet of combined
load and circuit length. Table 12 covers standard, open-wire
three:phase voltages used for distribution. A wide range of
spacing is used to cover various line construction. Table 13 gives
similar information for various classes of distribution cable
voltages.
1. Throe-phase Problems
In using the tables, the first thing required is the number of
ampere-feet involved in the problem, This is obtained by
multiplying the amperes per phase by length of eircuit in feet.
Divide this ampere-feet by 100,000 to determine the multiplier
to be used with values in the tables. For the proper voltage,
conductor size, conductor material, power factor, and
conductor spacing (interpolate, if necessary) find the voltage
drop factor in the table and multiply by the multiplier
determined previously. This will be the absolute line-to-neutral
volts difference (drop) between the sending and receiving ends
(of the circuit. Dividing by line-to-neutral voltage of sending end
Sewee Lise =}
sou
@oiabeee toe
Ce
Son
Fig, 13. Assumptions for datibuted and concent
loads ~ voltage drop
VOLTAGE CALCULATIONS
Table 11. Natural sines, tangents and angles corresponding to cosine values of 1.00 to 0.00
Coane |e Tangent oxime] Sno Tonge ro
1.00 cou 0.000 oso 300 1982 oo? 0
ose oat ot as a7 17 foea9:
oe a.90 ams oa oar 1a sree:
oer 024s ozo oa eae ioe areas
se 200 red oar Sass 101 ear
oss or 022 ons 280 ‘oat iy
oon oan O38 oat a0 doa seor
ose ane 0206 aaa 8303 200 aon
ose case ose oa oisce Bier see vo
aot oats as oa oar aaa eee as
880 ease ose a0 ot Ban sera
oso ass asi 020 asa 2:82 or x
eae oars 8340 a ozs 2asa ora
oar ans oer oar 920 asi err
086 care oes 036 33 aon Sree
cas os? 880 oss e337 Zen ear
oe ose ase oat 90 2s ‘oe
oss oss ner oss oaee 2ast Toa
rd ore eae ose oar 2800 rea0
oat 06 oot ot o3s1 ons ae
80 eco 2760 O20 case ata wes
070 asia one 20 0957 ame 1 ot
oe Size 8300 O26 eo aaar eae
O77 oes oso oar oes 300 He 20
O76 60 oss 036 eee ane se
O95 eet see O26 oes san rest
8 cere oises oze cart howe wer
os one ose6 gs oars peed ee
ove aoa 2989 oz ors er reir
oa 08 ase? ot core tise res
090 ota ‘020 020 seo aor e828
ao o7z4 149 oxo oe 100 we
ase ora hove ors ee base a8"
er Stan 108 arr one S700 0°13
oe ost ise a6 eer arr 0°
oss S160 hs0 ots 2309 Sao sre
ast tee V0 ons S300 Son meer
ass oa a8 ons amr 7600 mese
one as 1266 a2 oes dase eee
oar ore vee at Sear Sie feat
0 300 1 O10 ees 3960 S16
aso 807 1.288 008 ee 11.050 ex 0
oe oats Hoe 08 oer waar ere25
cer ez vue oor tse taaat eres"
tes | onze iso 205 00 tessa eee ar
ass ots ioe 898 00 iso ore
ose eee 505 cr evo 2aa08 Brea
os oes soo 203 ‘00 ese eet
one ase hers 202 +900 fare 2°51
br 2380 ve08 801 +500 orto? 0°20
00 00 200,000 50° 0
oreo en and utiving by 100 wil exes Na Lineal volando 125 1987 = 174
percentage of sending or recsving end voltage, rexpectvey 174 ;
Example — Given a three-phase, GOsherte distribution fine THIS 16 yyy X 100 ~ 2.20% voltage drop on basis of receiving
fone mile in length, which consists of 24/0 stranded copper
conductors with an equivalent delta spacing of 60"; conductor
temperature, 50 C; receiving end load 6000 kVA at 08 power
factor lagging; recaiving end line-to-ine voltage 13,200.
5000 kVA,
V3 x 13.2
times tabular value
From Table 12 for #4/0 copper, 60" spacing, 0.8 PF the
value is 12.5
Amperesfeet = x 5280! = 1,387,000, or 13.87
end.
ile-phase Problems
‘Tho voltage drop for single-phase circuits with two identical
conductors ean be obtained in a similar manner using the same
tables. The only difference is, in obtaining the number of
ampere-feet multiply the amperes per phase by twice the length
of circuit in feet
23 feet (note 1)
" GMopnon tut fi rsounrne aon ea Meenas mnt meee ” z ee
ete pa pe [ee pete . i Teble 13. Voltage dr
Saran St cme ta Heme mora toes Panes cee VI — VOLTAGE REGULATING EQUIPMENT
A. Selection of Regulator
The two fundamental factors of service, from both the
‘consumer's and the operating company’s point-of-view, is the
‘maintenance of continuity and as nearly a constant voltage
supply as is economically possible. To the consumer, an
improvement in voltage regulation means greater satisfaction
from electrie devices and a stronger incentive for extending the
Use of electric energy. To the operating company, an improve-
‘ment in voltage regulation results in greater customer satisfac
‘ion, greater goodwill towards the operating company, an
improvement of service rendered, and a higher average voltage
level, which results in higher revenue to the company for the
same value of connected load. Where the load is chiefly lighting
‘and hesting, as in residential areas, this variation in kWehr
consumption will be most pronounced. Fig. 14 gives the
increased revenue on typical circuits
1. Type
Several different types of equipment are used to maintain
voltage levels throughout a system. This equipment can be
‘ouped into three major classes:
1, Source voltage control; generating station bus voltage
control.
2. Voltage ratio control.
a. Load tap changing transformers
b, Step voltage regulators
«, Induetion voltage regulators
3, Kilovar contro!
1, Synchronous condensers
b. Switched capacitors
The types and sizes of the equipment chosen depend upon
the nature of the load and the characteristics of the system.
It should be recognized that the easiest and least expensive
method of system voltage control is by variation of the
20}
Bre ‘esomptions
2°" eases toad tector * 0.30, 910.95
16] Uianing tod S0% of toot
Wottge drop ottectng ‘a tighting
= 14] 0a 0% 3! arop of annual
peat
2
ro]
.9¢-arop at yeor
Per cent voll
ol
3080 100 200 300 500° 760 1000
generating station bus voltage, using the generator field control.
Although full use should be made of this method of voltage
control, this method alone does not meet all of the require:
‘ments of the system, To meet the system requirements most
utilities use, in varying degrees, a combination of automatic
voltage-ratio and kilovar control of, as applied here, regulators,
‘and. shunt capacitors. The question arises as to how much
‘emphasis should be placed upon each of these methods of
voltage control. The technical functions that can be performed
bby regulators and capacitors are given in Table 14.
2. Location and Size
To determine the correct location and size of the regulator,
the loading and vottage characteristics of the circuit should be
known. Also, the voltage conditions from the substation to the
fend of the feeder should be known for both the peak and light
loads. These voltages may be measured or they may be
calculated if the following are available: a cireuit diagram which
shows the size, spacing, and length of conductor; an indication
of at least the most important loads and the phases to which
‘they connect; and 2 notation as to whether the loads and
circuits are single-phase or three phate.
‘The size of the regulator depends upon the load which it
‘must carry and the percent of voltage regulation, Therefore itis
recessary first to determine the proper location for the
regulator. In determining the location for a regulator it is
advisable to consider the effect of load growth as well as present
load conditions. If @ voltage profile based on 3 reasonable
estimate of future load is made and compared with a voltage
profile based on present load, a determination of the extent of
voltage contro! required with time can be made. A regulator
‘that is sized and located in accordance with this procedure will
provide proper voltage correction for present and future load
‘conditions. See Fig. 15.
060° 3000 "8000 7000 10000
‘Example: Compensating for a Spercent drop at yearly peak load of 600 kVA increases the snnvalravanve $1260.
Fig, 14. Dollars revenue per yar ecovered by compensating for voltage drop at yearly peak load
VOLTAGE REGULATING EQUIPMENT
Table 14. Function performed by regulators and capacitors
wormed By |
Perlormed By
Funetion Vottage Ratio Control | Kilover Control comments
{Weoltage Ropulator) (Switched Capacitor)
1. Can rate and ower OUTPUT VOLTAGE. ves vest I+ ot inherent with svitened capacitors but wil giv
‘his effoet by being stead of
2 Gan rae sytem vatoge on source or mBut nO. ves
se of regulating means
3 Capable of staples or sail vollge sep) VES NO "Not intwent wih salted eapoctor, but wil pro
comet ‘duce smal change In volape I bank sizo Is small or
stem impedance to bork iss,
3 Gopsbie of wainaining @ 2 SltvoN band ves nO Switched capacitors do not owally permis is smalls
win Banda
5 Conable of many swtching operations with ves no [Copactor awh contac detenorate rondly with
fut frequent inspection large number of switching operations por Sy.
1 Reauaes 1A oes and (2X toa never, Noe Yes Nor inherent with voltage regulators but some rade
tion in loses may result om output de by virtue of
Inereoea voltage
7 Reduces thermal loading NO. ves
{aes ever loading epabiny, ves Yes | Votre regustow wil aie te fonding eapatiliy on
Dutpat sie but wl mot rie loading eapabiity of
NOTE: feither renters nor capacitors by thernslver can Tull ll of thee dered Functions. However, sed a 9 combination, the two methods of
Voltage control can maintain a elatvly Wat fesder voltage profile and atthe same tm reduce sytem losses end prove for consihrabe syste oad
‘roath on the fever
‘The amount of kVA of regulation required for 8 single-phase
regulator in a single-phase circuit can be determined as the
product of percent voltage regulation and the total circuit kVA,
beyond the regulator divided by 100 (see Fig, 16.)
‘A thrae-phase circuit can be regulated by one throo-phase.
regulator, two single-phase regulators, or three single-phase
regulators. Fig. 17, 18, 19, 20a and 20b show the connections
for the different methods, There are two types of three-phase
regulators;
', Three-phase core-and-coil construction with three-phase
switching mechanism.
b. Triplex. Three separate single-phase units mechanically,
coupled within one tank.
The amount of kVA of regulation required for wye:
‘connected three-phase regulators is equal to the product of
Percent voltage regulation and the circuit kVA beyond the
regulator divided by 100 (see Fig. 17).
For throephase feeders, with two single-phase regulators,
connected open-ielta, see Fig. 18.
‘There are two schemes of connecting three single-phase
regulators, into a three-phase feeder; in wye as shown in Fig. 17,
€or in delta a shown in Fig, 208 and 20b,
In regulating a three-phase, three-wire system with a bank of
regulators connected in delta as in Fig, 20a and 20b, the percent
rogulation of the line voltage is approximately 50 percent
‘greater than the regulation of the individual regulators as shown
vectorially in Fig. 21 and 22.
‘The load bonus feature which is available on step-type
regulators allows the current rating to be increased with a
‘corresponding reduction in regulating range. Increased capacities
are given in Table 15. The kVA of regulation is based on full =
40 percent or load bonus values of regulating range listed in
Table 15,
Table 15, Load bonus regulation
‘Current Capacity Increases
(Shown as percantage of
Select Dasirod Regulating
Range With Neve 32" Mutaae*
Postion Indeator (Sing pose) (Tee phase)
+10% 100% 100%
$a 110% 108%
pears 120% 115%
as 135% 1208
+ 54 160% 1408
Fig. 15. Voltage profile for present and future load conditions
Toa maximum of 668 amperes. **Apoles to voltage clase 16 kV and
‘below tos maximum of 600 amp.
2 VOLTAGE REGULATING EQUIPMENT
ceva
wy
tego aan
ar
3, Choice for Three-phase Circuits
When deciding what scheme shall be used in connecting
tegulators into 2 three-phase circuit some consideration should
be given to the following factors:
(2) One three-phase regulator generally occupies less space
‘than a benk of three single-phase regulators for the same
‘equivalent three-phase circuit kVA of regulation.
(b) In general, single:phase regulators used in banks, provide
‘greater flexibility when changes in the system design are made
{(c) Less spare capacity is required when a system uses banks
of single-phase regulators
(4) A bank of two regulators connected open-delta can
provide regulation for all three phases of a threeswire, three:
phase circuit, On the other hand, the sum of the kVA of
regulating capacity of the individual regulators will be greater
3. 21, Vector diagram for threo ten porcent regulators (single-phase,
Induction or step) connected in deta (Method 1)
28
than the percent of the range of voltage regulation times the
three-phase circuit kVA. This connection results in neutral shift
and is not applicable to four-wire circuits
{e) Three single-phase regulators in a delta bank can regulate
‘a three-wie, three-phase system. Like the open-delta bank, itis
necessary to provide extra kVA-of-regulation capacity in @
closed-delta bank; however, the percent output line voltage
regulation is 50 percent greater than the percent voltage
regulation of the individual regulators.
(f) Three single-phase regulators in either wye or debts
connection provide incividual phase regulation of all phases.
(g) Three single-phase regulators in a wye-connected bank.
require connection to the system neutral for successful
operation,
B. Regulator Control Settings
1, Regulator Bandwidth,
“The bandwidth for which a feeder regulator is st has a direct
effect on the amount of load a voltagelimited feeder can carry.
‘The voltage spread between first and last customers is used up in
the secondary, distribution transformer and primary circuit
voltage drop 2s well a6 in the regulator bandwidth, The less
voltage used in the bandwidth, the more will be available for the
fother components. Voltage taken from the bandwidth can be
added to the permissible primary voltage drop. This permits an
increase in the amount of load which can be carried on the
‘existing feeder. As an alternative, the feeder length can be
increased in an area of uniform load density with a resultant
increase in load. These increases will be in accordance with the
following formulas: os
wo
vo, 1
(VRP 1) 100
Volts reduction in the bandwidth
original value of permissible primary volt-drop before
the bandwidth reduetion,
In general, regulators of smaller step size permit the setting
‘of a smaller bandwidth, In addition to increased feeder length
and load, the smaller bandwidth permits a higher average voltage
to be maintained within the permissible voltago zone at the
eustomer location. This higher voltage results in an increase
‘increase in load
S6inerease in length
Fig, 22. Vector diagram for throe ton poreant repultors (single phase,
Induction step) connacted in delta (Method I)
VOLTAGE REGULATING EQUIPMENT
aay
119 ususow snows aae> [2 3
otepuse sais 21 Had onsno SEL
18000
10000
Lunt of feeder to ood center (fet)
Tauren? eonavetor
te feet)
SEE
(eo) opnpuse md wun fF
ts1on, ayia fuoued s0p
3
&
i
i
£
:
:
z
i
5
7
:
:
z
:
strate the procedure."
oad center
Length of feeder
Sze
16,000 fe
Length of feeder to loud center
Sin
No.0
Sin
200 ama,
Spncing
Cr. rated primary covert
‘Stonase wye
Resstonce 13
eon PL ov eontrel suppy-wanding rade
“Type oF ieuit
‘Sota wre
stance — 13
:
#
2
CT. rated primary current
Volts compensation for primary eicult
‘Rosctonce — 6
Renetance — 20
i
i
i
:
3
12 tough for reitonce compansation snd long deh broken line to trace through for rvetence compensation.
+ Pe ratio refers to contol supply-wining ratio or potenti transformer
1° Use short dh broken line to trac though for rexatenes compensation snd eeectane compensation,
* Use shore-dseh broken linet
ohare
Fig 23. Line drop compensator sett VOLTAGE REGULATING EQUIPMENT
aS
ae sngi tevctr — coreg
ater Gane Ean
T
a +
3 | S s
zal ~! ft ~ -
5 = HI
tts — asp 20-30 eto)
imal 1 | |
‘Solid Lines composite curves of voltage Hicker studies by General Electric Compeny, Ganera! Electric Review August 1925; Kansse City
Power & Light Company, Electrica! World, May 19, 1934; T. &D. Committee, El, October 24, 1994, Chicago; Datrit Edson Company:
‘West Pennsylvania Power Company: Public Seriee Company of Norther Iino
Dotted Lines voltage flicker allowed by two ulti, references Electrica World November 2, 1958 and June 26, 1964
Fig, 24, Relations of voltage uctua
KWhr consumption corresponding to a given connected load.
‘The amount of increased revenue resulting from the additional
kilowatt-hours can be calculated using the following formula’
Annwal revenue increase in dollars =
Voltage-sensitive kW-hr Load
Total KWERF Load
x voltage reduction in bandwidth x load factor x annual peak
KW x rate in cents per kW.
“This equation applies over relatively small values of bandwidth
change in the order of one or two volts. A change in revenue
resulting from large voltage changes can be determined by
reference to Fig, 14,
oss4
2. Time delay
‘Tho time delay should be set so that a proper compromise
exists between the number of tap change operations and the
voltage control desired. If the time delay is too short, the
regulating equipment will operate excessively by responding 10
transient voltage changes. It is recommended, then, that the
‘number of operations be controlled by changing the time delay,
rather than by varying the bandwidth,
When regulators are cascaded on a circuit the regulator
closest to the source should have the shortest time delay setting,
and the time delays should be increased for regulators, located
beyond the first regulator. The longest time delay is sei for the
regulator farthest from the source,
30.
to Trequency of their occurrence (incandescent lames)
3. Voltage Level
This is the voltage about which the regulator operates, and is,
the voltage magnitude held constant at the controlled voltage
point. The voltage level is set in conjunction with the line drop
compensator,
4, Line-drop compensator setting chart
In the majority of cases, it will be necessary to use a
line-drop compensator with the regulator in order to obtain at
the regulator terminals an output voltage variation which will
‘meet system performance requirements. One concept of the
function of the linedrop compensator is that it be used to hold
Fated voltage at some point on the feeder other than at the
location of the regulator. In accordance with this coneept, the
line-drop compensator setting chert, shown in Fig. 23, provides
an easy method for determining the setting of the line-drop
compensator.
The following information is required for determining the
compensator setting by means of the chart:
1. Length of feeder in feet-to-oad center
2, Size of conductors and equivalent spacing of conductors
in inches,
3. Current-transformer-rated primary current.
Potential-transformer ratio or patential-wvinding ratio.
Type of circuit connection; single-phase, delta or wye
(fourwire)
VOLTAGE REGULATING EQUIPMENT
Flicker chart
farmer sie shows tags Spr linn
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Fi. 25, ster chr 3 ‘ ie
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That Numbers for T2OV, ve |
Right Wumber for 2400) nos ne
In general, itis desirable to compensate for the distribution
transformer and secondary drop, Whenever the value of this
drop is known, it should be added to the values of the
compensator settings obtained from the chart. Otherwise, a
reasonable approximation of five volts drop for resistance and
four volts drop for reactance ean be used,
It must be remembered that the voltage supplied to any
customer should not exceed approximately 105 percent of the
‘nominal line rating, Compensator settings must be poriodically
checked and adjusted to compensate for load growth.
C. Light Flicker
Steady-state voltage conditions within close limits can be
attained by the use of shunt capacitors and feeder voltage
regulating equipment with properly adjusted line drop compen-
sators, However, feader-regulating equipment will not compen:
sate for instantaneous voltage fluctuations caused by sudden
applications of low power factor loads, such as produced by
‘motors during starting, The solid lines in Fig. 24 show curves,
based upon the average of results obtained in several investiga.
tions, of visible and irritating voltage fluctustions on lighting
circuits, which are plotted against the frequency of their
occurrence. These data were compiled in the 1930's. Since then,
some electric power utilities have found that for today's
conditions flicker limits can be liberalized with success, The
dotted lines in Fig, 24 show the limits set by two utilities,
References are given in the figure. This flicker information is
appropriate for secondary systems
[At the top of Fig, 24 the type equipment which will produce
the indicated voltage dips in the ranges shown is tabulated.
Permissible limits of instantaneous voltage fluctuations are
determined by objectionable light flicker.
8 8
3 8
Note: These characteristic curves for forge govilled Mezd Camps show
the ettect of operating © lamp at other thn itz rated voltage. These
‘haracteristies ae averages of many lames.
Fig. 26. Incandescent Maze ©
a1 VOLTAGE REGULATING EQUIPMENT
tes
jeri
' 8 BES Bs
Som Boe I ©
ote: Burning lamas may be extinguished i valage crops to approx:
‘mately 75 portent of the rated line voltge.
Fig 27. Fluorooant
The value of voltage dip caused by @ motor load during
starting depends upon the size of the secondary conductor,
‘upon the size and impedance of the transformer feeding the
load, and the distance of the motor from the transformer, The
chart in Fig. 25 shows an example of the magnitude of voltage
dips caused by starting currents of 50 amperes at 80% power
factor, 120 volts, and 100 amperes at 80% power factor, 240
volts
Light flicker can be reduced either by using larger distribu:
tion wansformers, additional distribution transformers with
“se “en
‘Fuses are gonerily used in the secondary loads of tho eransformer, in
‘order to dsconnect the transformer from the grid in cae of » fault
‘wth the transformer
Fi, 29, Gri type
Pe
70 15125304
Primory voltoge oformar tap setting
Fig, 28. Moreury (200.watt,Type H
reduced length of circuit, inereasing the size of secondary
conductor, adding parallel lines or secondary banking,
D. Lamp Operating Voltage
Lamps are designed to give best all+round performance at
rated voltage. fig, 26, 27 and 28 show the variation in
performance for three types of lamps operating at other then
rated voltage.
E. Reduction of Light Flicker by Banking
‘Secondaries
Objectionable light flicker is being eliminated by a number of
utilities by means of the interconnection of secondaries of
adjacent distribution transformers, commonly referred to as
“secondary banking” In addition, banking makes possible an
increase in the connected secondary load without an increase in
the peak load on the transformers, It has also improved service
continuity.
‘There are two general types of secondary banking: the grid
‘ype and the straight-line type, as shown in Fig, 29 and 30.
Jedeke
7° oP
‘Fuses oro nstaod at soctionalzing pointe between transformers. Blown
see wil ten indicate the Yocation ofthe faulted section, ye ull parm
Jadacent transformers 10 assume 9 portion of the lead from a heavily
loaded section,
Fig, 30. Staighttine type
Vil — APPLICATION OF SHUNT CAPACITORS
‘A. Basic Considerations in Applying Shunt Capacitors,
‘The shunt capacitor has become inereasingly important as a
design tool in the field of distribution, In general, capacitors, by
reducing peak-load feedervoliage drops, allow greater feeder
loads 10 be carried; or in other words, they increese feeder
capacity. Also capacitors, by reducing kVA loads, release
substation and generation capacity
The application of s shunt capacitor to 8 distribution feeder
produces a uniform voltage boost per unit length of line, out to
its point of application, The resulting improved voltage level not
only increases revenue, fut also ereates consumer goodwill by
‘making the operation of appliances more satisfactory.
Proposed capacitor applications should be checked to make
sure that the voltage to some customers will not rise too high
during lightlozd periods, Such investigation is particularly
necessary if the feeder is not regulated. The curves in Fig. 31
‘can be used to compute voltage rise. The curves in Fig. 32 give
the percent substation or generator capacity roleased by the
application of capacitors, and Table 16 gives the factors for
calculating the size of capacitor necessary to raise the power
factor of a given load to a higher value.
The most economic power factor, based on thermal capacity
usage by k Var, is given by the following relation:
Cos 8 = V4 eis?
Where:
‘¢ = capacitor cost in dollars per kVar when supplied in the
load area
'5= cost of system in dollars per kVA
‘This rlation is plotted as Curve A in Fig. 33,
Hf
3
38h
|
I
(Ohms resstonce ser 1000 feet
1, Released Capacity
The fundamental k Var and kW relations in a circuit when the.
power factor is improved are readily portrayed in Fig. 34
The following relations define some of the properties of Fig
34, regarding released capacity in equipment which has a
current magnitude as the limiting factor.
Capacitor kVar to go from 0, to 0
Resultant KVA at 6
cos
vay = kv, 229!
aay
Incremental kVA capacity released at original power factor in
terms of 8, and 0, is,
Ava svn, (eo os in tm)
cos? 0, 17 Dion, tan By =
ARVA at origi
[(ioee se a4
way
Vina |
kVA,
ARVA= kVA,
and
ARW=AKVA cos,
Per OO at Spare ire
aay) Jaev
‘These curves give voltage rise per 100 kVA of threeiphase copacitor per 1000 oF 100 feet of three-phase line
For singe-phase ins, the voltage rise per 100 KVA of singe phe eapoctor per 1000 feet or 100 fat of ne
‘il be tence the incicated vale,
Fig 1. Curves of voltage vse caused by capacitor epplieation
33 APPLICATION OF SHUNT CAPACITORS APPLICATION OF SHUNT CAPACITORS
| ae + Table 16. Power-factor-correction factors
gga) 3 -
FF aot i fore oso Power aso in Parent
H : cnt 7 eo [oo fv foe los [so [or [se [oo [too
|} asd : con” [oo [ov [er [oa [oe [oo [oo [or [ss fe [oe
i i so | ooea|s on] 165] 162122] a0] 27a 03) a 03] | 520] so) a
= o0 i a1 | oaacloae 391 141.174 202323012] 20H 32] 6211 451 9 1544 96
z i | S| oasaloan 09] tos 13 to ta a9 ea tat a1 0] eso] toe
i ox ; S| Oasoloare 10331 0d] eee] aoe t209 ta] ora] 80
i i S| mon onze oes|0.ar|oors ooo ocx oa] tara ton] el ara] 121 eq tel +201 ae] 20 80] 419] 9
we 8 | o7ee|0 705 o%|0.e7|ar 0900] os20 os o.7a| 100]. 060] 00] aq tte 1901238120] 491379]
3 { se | o720)0-730 .9130940,0968 0.291.024]: 051 og 1.119 1.151951. 229] 277] 130.400
E aid S| ceaslone {1875 900s ose] osae| tot toc] ara 111 te +t] 00] faa
z S| esslo.n ‘aoa oany oof osealazne tong tore tor] 14 tt} 291269
H cure as SAV" Copsctor CO cy | cemloe {G01 /0.26|0 se oa] 0 sr2|agz9|o579 tans toa] ry 11] 1191220
°O Gio ao OS OAD O50" DED O70 O80 G50 100. Lo SRVA™ System Valor & | osseeo rojas] o.sa|o aes o.7|0 ret 0700 78 0820 o.o{orel0.0s| 000] 097100 xa 10011] 1en| 1208
er nt capri wk « S88 Saver 61 | osslos75]0.601027| 0.550 0.670 709| 0.7290 790787 0215] 02%2|0270] 0904 o 9050.70: cow 1.19 290
ro curve a: SANE ony 2 | ostsloset|asen[ossa[osra/oas| 0.2 oce|o rio rea ori |omna|onze| 0.0 090200 o sre 23) 1308
saw {8 | ottao.so|asan 0.5% | 007 ost] 0540 ose .s0{0.721/o.20|0.177[0s] oe usr 0.904 oaee {oor 250
i. 29. Opmating power factor at which system investment ape &4 | o.asolo.reoso|oszalo sso soo eo o.s0|0 sooocoool 1140 71[0a05 080] 0.87% 00 0 00,
Example: Assume» SOOO VA substation has fod power factor of 0.70 ‘hy lovers equals the costo eapsitrs & | oaialo.es or|oaar|aszao.5s0/0 sro oso saa] osssla.713/0.20]0.74 ooo] 0840 ar 1027) 1360
| arama 4000 vA of capacitors are apaioa. The perani capacitor KVA «6 | o22elo-r4 ot] 0496|0402/0519 0549 057305090624 0.540 982/0.709]0 43) 0.779]0.900 0.047 0.99] 98
1 o00,8000 = 0.40 for otc the reesed expo 0.70 power factor . S| olaelo‘ae oetlo.ao|a ae oan 9 ste ose] 0 enlace] .ee| oes oro|0 ra 070 79,0817 9) 108
1: 0124 per um or {0.24% 8000) ~ 1200 KVA. Avot may be noted Fig. 31 shows the above equation plotted in terms of various 2 | o32o.so a2] 0.4a7|a any oa oa ost 05000967] 0 80s| 0529 oso] 0 ane. 7tl0 70] 0.78 {937/109
thom te dota lines that the Hal power actor i abot 0.92 in Sate | o.zelo'aejo.aslo'ar|o aon o.oo ase ool o-salasc|o selon oe|0 ea oca|0 70] 015 3) 149
: 50 | 0.27ofa.zeeo.za{034e|0.3a 0 00 a2 0.459 ate) ose 0806 oa] 0 so osz| 557/000] 07 sr t020
Fig. 22, Thermal capacity elena by ppiction of capeciton 3, Redueton of Losses 024202690204 0.20] 0-29 0.372 0.990.429 o.4s2|0480 os] 050905630 97| 529 0.690. aso] oo02
eresietancs low in a dieu. aquél $6 tis prsaie’Gt the 313)ooo| 0200 0.200 37 o sua o:a0{0 sae 04230 aot| oa] 0 37/0 soo sao ean oso] Or [oma/oaee
Tyee ovo onl tn ise crate tzu ae ees oan oS 94 oa ayo oan owl oar sa os se
For ready reference, A KVA in terms of 0, 8p, and CVA "sistance and the current squared. The current, in tur, is equal tena]. o 2m 00 eos 0270 oan oa ston 80 on 2769/0908
are plotted in Fig. 2 in per unit of KVAy. | to the rs (root of the sum of the squares) value ofthe reactive {8152)onsel08e/0.210/0 290 a 262 o.2e0fo.ie|o.aea|0 700.2090 a20\0409 aby asto|o.ss| st 700s
| owed in Fig 32 in er uni ol KVL. most eznomie an active components of current. AS the lss a function of 6.108|01310157]0.183]0209 0.299026 0.206|0.15]0.240.371| 0.205042 0460 0.490.529 ose 0.90 0882/0.719 0855
i the current squared, it follows thet the loss due to the two Sons 0201310157 [0 tay 0.209 0000.20] 0 no|oao a] 0 3730 4o|0 ee oa] 0 ose] 0 sa] ogze| oe] 0.829
operating power factor in terms ofc, capacitor cost in dollars the curent sguared it follows that the loss de Jot {10530070010 0.1340.57 180210023 0.260200 sao 307[0.2|0 am oat] ara asta ossa|osoeo.t| 0.809
ar kVar when supplied in the load area, and, cost of system in Ey bara 7 ‘1a |0.02{ oar o1s}0 an o.159 0 2910.20] 2602640 alo aaufo.24|0 sai ost] oacy ates] 0.567 00.76
Bra er, BCG! oper egw total loss = (cos 2 + (Hsin 8)? {000.260 052 o.oe}0 oq ots 0570.18 0.200 2380 a0] 0 2040.32%|0 20 0207024] 04s] 0499] |o.ce|0 re
active current loses + eactivecurrent losses a0 0.02 00520079 0 104 o.131]0.157{0 040.212] 02400260] 0.29010.329 0.03|0309 0499] 0473I0515 0 sea|0 724
bette icoperting pf This concept in figuring losses is useful, because the 00 oono.nsa aor o.1os]0s31[0se[0 08 o2l0 2202090 2a0 2300.90 07 O86 0 08
aa, economic opereting savant SM SOE TRG. ST aR ‘3 00[a0ne 0.084 oro 1s]0 122 oo] 0 aaa. 0 4910277 0.9029 0s sso|oere
1 (e/s72 echelons eb naterhunneriie [0000 0.020.029 o.00|0 109\0 130 620 190.217] 0 251 o.2a)0 170.35 Oi o8u0
This relation is plotted as Gurve 8 in Fig. 33. - “ Ni irult ls S 000 0.02] 00300080 0109013501610 o.ze]0257]0.20%| 0329 buare/os20
"To show how this curve can be used, assume that @ portion [BY be redvood. As the resetive-curent lasss are the only ones 6 nf .000|o.26| 0089 0.010 1000.13] 0.167{0198|0.230]0289 0201 oasi|os0o
' curve can be used, exsume tat 2 portion tha are effected by power-fetor improverent, i is sugested = [St00 020.80 ooslott loss oxralozcelos| ora oacelo sr
of 2 system is operating near rated capacity, For example, let thar amas losses be desl with ssw sepurate ently, when fering 2 300 o.o|0 ee o.c0n/o1taletea|os elo oe 207/o5K0
this portion be worth S100 per kW and determine the most rat use osss be dealt with as a separate ony, when Figuring = $160 0.900550. 0117/01o|0 690.22 lnsrolosre
tconomical operating factor when capecitors are installed in the bctions trom the sopicetion-of shisnt loscitors. Tl so ‘000.0260 058.0012 fois] 0 103 lo3loaoe
fond ee, Copadtors can bo Insta for epovoxmataly $0 per (TOE! te len reduction which eecomparies the higher sytem 91 ono one aoa. se areas
KeVar. Ths gives @ capacitor cost to the system value ratio (es) “>Use caused by cepachors 8 |e : {20%0}2021|2089| 0.057019 ezes|o4ae
8 Ino practical case, the total energy loss ~ thet is, the KWhr = Saco] 0 ane 250/008
2f 0.08, From Fig. 3, this corresponds to a 0.995 power f2ctOr. ios gyer a given period — isthe figure that i usually of major “ 4 : |>200/0.035]0072 0221/0063
“That i, inthis examgie where system capacity s ended, ts use OO & ven Patio’ fhe Rawr that is wsualy of main os sca] 00 tooo
for tonsporation of klovas cannot be Justified below 00.5 imperanes, Therefore, the loed cycle, the daily load pattern t * : ss oa) lo za}o2
cent power factor. 7 ‘S o es/oast
poet power fect ividing the load-current requirement into its active and reactive = eles foe f.z0a
components, suggested, the emount of fixed shunt capacitors ° : Jpooofatea
2, Voltage Rise required to reduce the total energy loss to @ minimum for a ‘ a8 = x : renee
The equation of percent voltage rise cue to application of a given load pattern can be readily determined. This value curns {Exar Tr tof expctor nora (080th Owe to OF 8 pn oad we Piha canbe fend flow?
shunt capocitor, neglecting line resistance is: jut to be the average value of the kVar requirement. These ‘Aus S000 onda 60 een Rowe lector, 50K x 0.60 200
— ‘ti cre to ras te pow fc to Operant. Te cpslior es cesar sound by muliting 300 kw by te cometon actor take om
Perant Ae = VAX son an tn a at a eae en te
10 kV’ Let us tue ter ta he et ier stander tings lected (900 ka). Nhat not he sting power?
‘00 evr
Where: + 1.00 erection etn
Beak” 00 i
CKVA = three:phase capacitor kVA
X = reactance per phase-to-neutral in ohms per mile
‘d= length of line in miles
kV = line kilovolts
Reterring to te table, we ind tat with an original power fxtor of 60 percent and correction factor 31.00, the ultimate power factor would be
practi 95 percent
For single-phase circuits multiply X by two. rd lations
34 36 APPLICATION OF SHUNT CAPACITORS
Table 17. Application guide for group-fusing capacitor banks with General Electric universal cable-type and oil
‘cutout fuse link ratings “N,"" “OIL,” “K," and “T” types
‘GROUNDEDIWVE AND DELTA CONNECTIONS
CAPACITOR BANKS WITH 100-KVAR UNITS*
0 Vi 12160 Vorw | 800 Vans 79200 Voie | 19800 vote
phase Keone ROH | RAT [ NOH | KITT RIOT | WIT Wot [ KY] Wot F
m0 1100 | s00- | 75 0/560] 0] «0 25 | 25 18 | 25 vs] 28 5
0 PY so0%?) 2° | 002°} asrr00 | 68 | 50 40 | 50 ao| as 2%
ba = | r00- | 25 so] 75 s0| 75 0
1300 osiio0| sor |esr00| 68) asii00}
1300 = ra J | roo | 100 | roo
1800 = fre F=f reo | ror
CAPACITOR BANKS WITH 25: AND S0.KVAR UNITS
2400.voiw | —4160-voiw | 4800 voinm | 7200 Vorm | 12470.voiw | 13200 vow | 13800 Vane
Sphae Kear [RON | KIT [OH | RIT [RON | RIT [WTO [RIT [Wow | Kit —[WIGH | KIT RIO [RIF
7 [30 76] 20 7s wo) 5 wo] = wo [is vo ]is 70
wo [38 | so | a0 0 23| 20 215 wo] 5 40] 18 10
zs | 0s 75160 so 40) 20 20 2| 20 12| 20 2
oo ee we | so | 40 * 18 | 25, 15 | 25, 18
318 5! wi- | sor | 50 30 20 | 0 20 | 30 »
a0 1 By 23 | 40 23/40 ®
528 0 25 | 40 25/40 2%
oo | cy 40 | 50 4045 0
os rst | sai |s0 40 50 «
790 wi- | s0- |r | sor | 80 o
2s ws | so- |r | soi | 25160 | soi
900 we | so [rs | So | dem
978 wi- | so- [rs | sor | r5/-
1080 asi | es [7s | so | 75
1125 asi | esr |asi- | 65) | as:
1200 | es fas | es [as
Far TO For Tl Car OTE Wt Brea ROOD re
1 For 28 and Oster amis, ful erent should not enced 4000 ampere
Note: For sgl phase capacitor Bonk, uty the ange phate a 1
ing by 3 to obtain the aquieslent 3pnase kar rating, nd mulily the ingle hate
‘ote by 1.73 to obtan theeaunslont Jahatevottage rating, Ssectthe hse Ink econmanded under the corespanding dhe hrar and hate inet
Tin vottage rag Hen the tbe forthe grounded ane o alinconneted bank
points become more important when capacitors are being
applied primarily for loss reductions. Additional reduction in
losses can be made by using switched capacitors which can be
switched on during peak kilovar load and off at light load.
‘The base, or minimum value, of kVar in a given load pattern
‘can be supplied by capacitors which correspond to that amount,
with no further consideration, because this provides approxi
mately unity-power-factor operation at the light-load periods.
‘The variable portion remaining will likewise have, as in the
‘general case, its minimum rms value when "capacitors
corresponding to its average value are applied, What this may
mean for a few chosen types of load patterns, and the
‘corresponding loss reductions accruing, are shown in Fig. 35.
‘These data indicate that, in the general case, approximately 0.50
t 0.80 of the loss due to the variable portion of the kVar
requirement can be eliminated with unswitched eapecitors. For
purposes of comparison, and as a guide in arriving at @ solution,
the loss and load factors are also listed for the various patterns
in Fig. 35,
When itis desirable to put in more CkVA than can be done
with unswitched capacitors, automatically switched capacitor
banks are available in distribution ratings,
36
4, Protection
Tables 17, 18, 19 and 20 can be used to assure that the
proper fuse protection is provided the installed capacitor bank.
Figures 36, 37 and 38 are case rupture curves for the indicated
‘cepacitor sizes.
5, Additional Benefits
‘The foregoing benefits do not take into account any change
Which might be made in turn ratios of transformers and voltage
regulators located between the generator and load after
capacitors are applied. When original voltage conditions are
satisfactory, transformer taps could be changed after applying
capacitors which would result in @ reduction in both the active
fand reactive components of current. This additional reduction
in current would give additional system benefits” on the source
side of the transformer where the tap change is made.
+ AIEE Trancaction Paper 55711 “OC Circuit Giuge Easy Method of
‘Determining Votue of Capacitors in Reducing I9R Losses,” R.A.
Sohmist, AIEE Powor Apparatus and Systems, Number 26, pape 840.
APPLICATION OF SHUNT CAPACITORS
lo 022 05 0636
10 025 0.383 05
sat rey
witte setae
10 0333 0.375 05
Rectongle
“4teflo 10 05 05 08
T
Fig. 38, Choractorsties of four chosen Kilovarlood patterns
2
Fig 36. 1004 Var units rated 2400-7960 volts
= sre a i
sine UY
eerste
NINO Cush Te exe Pate fal
Fig. 37.25: and 5OcVar unite rated 2400-7960 volts
soo Panoz at st abo on
oD
peg Saari e Gee
oF “suitable for locations.
5 See
oof HEFFNER FEET TH
Fig, 38, Proposed characteristics of 150, 200-, and 200-kVar units
rated 2400-7960 volts
7 APPLICATION OF SHUNT CAPACITORS
cutout fuse link ratings “N,"" “OIL,” “K,"" and "T” types
Table 18. Application guide for group-fusing capacitor hanks with General Electric universal cable-type and oil
wor fer won fair [-Wor fart —[ won |e
ow | - wo |
‘S98 BE 8s 88 BB BD
‘cutout fuse link ratings "N,”" "OIL," "K,"" and ""T" types
Table 19 — Application guide for group-fusing capacitor banks with General Electric universal cable-type and oil
a xeon
ee on Re oa ae | aon | aa ee
wer [reo] es | mre ‘ore | sos | a0 a | se
eae : a |e
> | ioe | carte
* | : 2 |e
cutout fuse link ratings “"N,” “OIL,” "K," and ""T"" types.
Table 20 — Application guide for group-fusing capacitor banks with General Electric universal cable-type and oil
‘ago vat yas | exam vor | v2a70 veru | 95.20 vom | 73,000 von
- roaao) | as | saan | 25160 | sao | 2560 a0
"NOTE: Ennotion fos Fak ube only ware Gut current Ovau shored capeitor uit does na excend 6000 amor.
vil
A. Primary Distribution Systems
Continual research in the laboratory and in the field on
lightning and its effects on circuits and apparatus has established
the fundamentals of lightning protection so well that the careful
selection and application of modern atresters will provide
distribution systems with a high degree of immunity from
lightning troubles,
Adequate lightning protection of distribution systems
depends upon three major considerations:
1, The selection of distribution transformers and other
distribution equipment that have an insulation strength to
lightning voltages not less than presentday basic insula
tion levels
2, The selection of arrester ratings wich will limit the
lightning stress to a value well below the standard
impulse-withstand level of apparatus.
3. The effective application of the arresters, by mounting
them in close shunt relation with the apparatus to be
protected and, whenever possible, interconnecting the
primary artester ground to transformer secondary neutral
1, Impulse Withstand Level to be Protected
ANSI basic insulation levels and withstand test values for
lectrical apparatus are shown in Table 21. For example, this
table shows that the primary winding of @ 15kV voltage class
distribution transformer must withstand a 1.2 x 60 ys impulse
full-wave test of 95-KV crest and a chopped-vave test of 110:kV.
crest
Conservative protection for a distribution transformer
throughout its service life generally requires that the repeated
lightning stresses be limited to approximately 70 percent of the
standard ANSI Impulse Test Level (BIL). This takes into
account the effect of repeated lightning stresses on solid, or
‘composite solid-andt-oil, insulation* as well as operating con:
ditions to which distribution transformers are subjected
{possible depreciating effects on new insulation by overloads,
moisture effects, absence of periodic maintenance, filtering of
oil, etc.)
‘The tests shown in Table 21 for distribution-class trans
formers, 500 kVA or less, apply also to:
Oit-type instrument transformers and constant-current
transformers.
Step-voltage and induction regulators 250 kVA or less,
single-phase,
‘Rater t@ ATEE paper, The Provection of Solid Insulation by Lightaing
rrecamy iby B,D, ‘AMecCarthy end Te ok Carpenter, Electrica!
Enpinearing, Octobar 1947.
— LIGHTNING PROTECTION OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
Step-voltage and induction regulators 750 kVA or less,
three-phase.
Cable potheads for distribution-elass cables.
Insulation thickness used on modern cables provides impulse
breakdown levels well above the BIL’s established for
correspording voltage classes of apparatus
The tests shown in Table 21 for power class transformers
over 500 kVA apply also to:
il-type curtent-limiting reactors.
‘Stopvoltage and induction regulators over 260 kVA, single:
phase
Step-voltage and induction regulators over 750 kVA, three:
phase
Outdoor capacitor units and equipment should be capable of
withstanding 8 1.2 x 50 ys full-wave voltage impulse test
aquivalent to the test voltage shown for the corresponding
voltage class of distribution transformers. Impulse tests, how:
ever, are not applied to capacitor units from terminal-to-
terminal or from terminal-to-case when one electrode is con-
rected to the case. This is because the capacitance of the
capacitor being tested would greatly alter the test wave. The
GO-hertz hi-pot test of capacitors from line-to-ground is the
same as that shown for distribution transformers, except that it
\s applied to capacitors for only ten seconds.
2. Selection of Arrestor
Arcester voltage ratings are established by design test and
provide the basis for arrester selection and insulation coordina
tion, Basically, this invalves a balance between the protection
the arrester will provide to connected apparatus and the ability
of the arrester to reseal against system voltages. These unique
requirements make the arrester the only device on the power
system which is designed to spark over rather than to withstand
transient voltages.
‘The highest voltage an arrester will normally experience has
traditionally been computed by considering the voltage on an
Lnfaulted phase during a single line-to-ground fault which could
bbe caused, for instance, by the seme lightning stroke which
‘causes one of the arresters on another phase to spark over.
In actual practice, the selection of surge arrester ratings on
multi-grounded neutral distribution systems usually is made on
the basis of past experience or by reference to industry tables,
Based on an evaluation of the circuit parameters, operating
voltage limits, type of construction, and distribution trans-
former magnetizing reactance, a proposal for the selection of
voltage ratings of distribution-type surge arresters has been
made by an IEEE working group and in Transaction Paper
T11PBA2PWR,
39 LIGHTNING PROTECTION OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
‘Table 21. Basic impulse insulation I
levels (BILs) and withstand tests
] ‘taype Traetormers ‘ashing for Outdoor Apparatus
| outdor ai Suite, sion and Te Sunda Fn
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syst fu fFmg_ | ener ma roesoe
Sorap | (orca Fartane
Be Tain | tome
ol pun A twin Timeto | 1.2% 50us | Dry'Test | werten | KV Cort
= eee Mi rest kV crest kV [KVMS | kV RMS
Freq | Freq [1.250 | RMS 7
Tin | osm aa
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BO |i Shoe
[ost [Pwr RMS | RMS | KV Crest | Dist | Pwr] Dist | Pwr | Dist | Pwr ‘Dist | Pwr [Dist | Pwr] Dist | Pwr) Dist | Pwr
wz fw@les |- |- [- |w lw] «| «|r wlafo|-| «|_| »|-
2 | Ble |= ts | se] Bl 13 slolis || )x| &| w
bo | | 7 = |= [te |i | eo | sf ts Bl sla jn lt | &| oe
ao || Jos [am [os [2 |as| oe /sto| te ws | os |2 | | |a0| 38) 9
bo | ae fe [ao fae [ato (30 | 30 | sto [490] 18 ae [ito |’ |80 | 3 [2 | 33 sto
x0 fide fico [50 foo fase [so |e | tas jim | to 126,120 |20 | 7m | co | to | aso | 10
ass | '28:[200 | a 0 200 [70 | 70 | 17 [250] 22 125] 200 Jas | as | 95. | 95 | 20 | 200
Maximum dynamic overvoltages and minimum arrester
ratings for four-wire multigrounded neutral distribution
systems, extracted from the IEEE paper, are shown in Table 22.
‘Maximum Discharge Voltage
{In order to determine whether the arrester will protect the
distribution system, itis necessary to determine the maximum
discharge voltage due to lightning current which may be
‘encountered.
Extensive field measurements of lightning discharge currents
in urban and rural areas have established the relative frequency
fof discharge current magnitudes and the range of discharge
‘current duty on distribution arresters, as shown in Fig, 39,
Protective characteristics of distribution arresters
The needed margin of protection should be based upon the
lightning discharge currents which may be expected on distr
bbution circuits. The protective characteristics of distribution:
type arresters are shown in Table 23.
‘Morgins of protection
Volt-time impulse coordination and margin of protection are
Table 22. Arrester ratings vs. maximum overvoltages
kV arrester Rating | Maximum Dynamie Line-
Nominal Urually Applied on | to-Ground Overvolage
Voltage Opens Lines for Open-wite Lines
‘a160¥/2400 3 30
ex20v/4800 6 60
+2000¥/6030 9 a6
s2a70v7200 9 90
32200719620 10 95
i3800¥/7970 10,12 100
20780712000 18 15.0)
22960713200 1B 165,
22¢040)/14400 18,21 180
‘3e800¥/19920 27 248
40
graphically displayed in Fig. 40 where typical volt-time
characteristics for a 9kV Alugard arrester are plotted with the
timeimpulse strength of a modern, 7200-volt distribution
transformer (95kV BIL),
From this example, it will be noted that a liberal margin can
bbe provided at which the Alugard arraster protection level is
below one-half of the demanstrable impulse KV test strength of
these transformers. Similar margins of protection can be
obtained in the other distribution voltage classes.
Po
_ 3 a9
sl
8 iol
ie
Hs
Ba
i
sig
Fay
ae 5
2
B10 2025-3035 40 a5 80 88 GO G70
ging care keomoee-ereeh
(1) Currents through distibution arasters on urban circuits having over
12 customers per mile
CGurrents through distribution arrester on semi-rural eircuts having
‘pot more than 12 customs per mil,
(2) Corrente through distribution arrasters on rural elreuits hoving an
‘erage of two eustomers per mile.
(4) Currents throush transmission line rowers.
Fig, 38. Lightningcurrent expectancy curves compiled from
‘tual Field measurements
)
LIGHTNING PROTECTION OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
Table 23. Performance characteristics of Gonoral Electric distribution areesters
PROTECTIVE CHARACTERISTICS
‘Max ANSI Front wave Wo, Dcharge Vala cast ona
Shatovr a ces tno nroeana pute Crest,
eet va xwnaty | 1800 | 800 | sooo | 10000 | 20,000
Fes | Mod Wo, Baconmscor | Capped ‘mos | Amon | Amps | Amps | Ape
3 Acucaro® 45 a es fw fu fw a5
THANE VALVE Fm 28 u : sf fa fu 8
as MAGNE VALVE Fox 28 ” = fw fo |v 2
° acucano® 2 s a 7
TWAGNE VALVE Fox 28 x u vie [2 |e %
1s WAGNE VALVE Foxm28 288 = a | as | | a x8
3 aLucano® = oa ~2 |» |» |# Pn
tinene VALVE Form 28 2 a | |& | 2
o ues © 8 oo 2 [x [a | ow Py
MAGNE VALVE Form 28 = s = [as [a |s 3S
i” ‘aucano® = ” v [wo | as | « 535
AGE VALVE Fon 28 mes wis [at | %
s WAGNE-VALVE 76 a a l« fa [a %
MAGNE VALVE Form 28 is = 2 iw fs |e ns
oe wAGNE-VaLvE 1 na 2» las le |x 30
timeNE VALVE Frm 28 Ss e | ss [0 | is By
2 AGNE-VALVE 108 1a se fe fam fe | 10
. [
120} ok V4
sume Lt Lae
L
‘SAT Ruger Arenar win Earl Gl
with Drsconnecter|
Voltage av-crest
~ Hos pata Vote Creat
a i 7
Fig. 40. Nximum voltage allowed by a 9-KV Alugord dietribution
arrester compared with the base ingulation level of @7200-valt
stibution transform
3, Effective Location of Arresters
‘The lightning arresters should limit the lightning stresses t0
the lowest practicable value. This requires that the IR drop in
‘the connecting leads be kept to @ minimum, Bost protection for
any given protective device will be obtained by interconnectign
‘of the primaty arrester ground to the grounded secondary
neutral. This interconnection eliminates the IR drop of the
ground lead and ground circuit. The total length of the
interconnection lead (from primary bushing of the transformer
‘through the arrester and interconnection circuit to secondary
reutral) should be kept to 2 minimum and preferably should
ot exceed ten feet.
For protection of other apparatus, arresters should also be
located in close shunt relation to the apparatus to be protected
(except sectionalizing fuses — see paragraph below). For
‘example, artesters. protecting metal-sheathed cable should be
installed at the cable pothead with the arrester ground tied into
‘the cable sheath {right at the pothead), and thence connected to
ground at the base of the pole.
It is desirable to connect the distribution arrester on the line
side of the primary fuse s0 that the lightning discharge currents
can pass through the arrester to ground without having to pass
through the fuse.
Furthermore, consideration should be given to position of
the transformer connection leads $0 a8 not to lower the basic
impulse strength of the transformer below that which the
arrester can protect. For example, “drip loops" too close to the
transformer tank. This has been cause for unnecessary fuse
blowing
To limit the impulse current’s passing through and possibly
‘causing the blowing of sectionalizing fuses, distribution arresters
should be connected one or two pale spans away from, and on
either side of, the sectionalizing fuse.
4 LIGHTNING PROTECTION OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
4. Special Applications
‘Switchgear connected to overhead lines through continuous
‘metal sheath cable”
Where the lightning exposure is from an overhead circuit
with a section of continuous metal-sheath cable between it and
the metal-clad switehgear, the surge protection requires that:
‘Surge arresters should be installed at the junction of cable
and overhead line.
These arresters are required primarily for the protection of
the cable, They should be connected to ground, the arrester
‘ground bonded to the cable shesth, and the cable sheath bonded
to the metal-clad switchgear structure, This reduces or
eliminates the influence of the arrester ground! impedance.
Arresters should be installed in the metat-clad switehgoar if
the arresters at the cable junction do not provide the required
‘impulse sparkover protective level for the switchgear
The arresters at the cable junction will imit the surge voltage
level at that point to the protective level of the arresters, but the
surge passing the arresters at the cable junction can double at
the switchgear under certain conditions unless the length of
cable between the cable junction and the switchgear is
sufficiently short to limit it to some lower value. Attenuation
‘and distortion of the surge voltage wave in the cables is
negligible for most of the cable lengths used,
The curves in Fig. 41 show the maximum permissible cable
lengths between the cable junction and the metalclad switch:
‘gear for different values of frantofavave impulse sparkover
voltage at the equipment sufficiently below the insulation
strength of the switchgear to allow omission of the arcesters in
the metal-clad equipment. These curves are based on a traveling:
‘wave analysis assuming a wave front of 500 kilovolts per
microsecond arriving at the junction of the overhead line (surge
impedance of 400 ohms) and the continuous-metalicsheath
cable (surge impedance of 30 ohms). The velocity of propage:
‘tion of the surge in the cable is assumed to be 500 foot por
rmicroseeond. The maximum surge voltage at the switchgeer is
determined by the artester sparkover value rather than by the
IR drop. This is the case for modern arresters and for the
discharge currents encountered in practice as shown in Table 23.
Dry-type Insulation
Thyrte® tegn-ive Form 28 arestrs wore developed to
provide lighting and erg votage protection forthe following
tppertis end sytem
Drv 4yp tranafoiers
Small rotating machines (1000 VA an salle),
Distribution rye for such a mines ond quale: where
adequate protection not always svallable withthe standard
Inctoution seer
This restr hat lower sparkover charateristet than
staniocddevtition Arete, The: Impulie protective
Choretritics re shown in Tole 23
“Toole 24 ts 0 tabulation of allele tests for dr.type
transformers and dysype shunt estos.
Voltage ratings 12000 vols, inclaiv, ae placed inthe
1.2KV imuletion dss. Votoge ratings between the nomi
tvs voltagy are placed in aneulatin Css responding 0
‘Tipiing Paecion a Metal cad Scher Connected vo Ovresd
‘ir Gama
a
Table 24. Dielectric tests for dry-type transformers
and dry-type shunt reactors
tow Impulse Tests
ee
quency Chopped Wave [Fu
Voltage | Level (BIL) | Class | Test
cot.1 [eo.2 — |cot.2 [cota | cat.6 [cote — |cat.7
Min. Time
wey ev fav | severe 2 FR ey cease
seonds
12 | w2}4a wo |ro fro
24 |20 25 [10 |20 |10 —|20
as | 25 5 12 | |io — |a5
aa | 35 a7 fia fas fio [a6
wa | 50 we [a [50 [125 [50
the nearest higher nominal system voltage unless otherwise
specified. The insulation class of windings reoonnectable for
either Aor ¥ operation is determined by the ¥ rating.
For series windings in apparatus such as regulating trans
formers, the test values to ground are determined by the
Insulation class (Col, 3) of the series windings rather than by the
rated voltage between terminals of the sories windings.
Y-connected apparatus for operation with neutral solidly,
grounded or grounded through an impedance may have reduced
insulation at the neutral as specified in ANSI C57.12.00.
Single-phase distribution, power and regulating transformers,
for voltage ratings of 8.7 kV and below are designed for bath
and A connection and are insulated for the test voltages
corresponding to the Y connection, so that a single line of
apparatus serves for the Y and A applications. The test voltages
for such transformers when operated delta-connected are,
therefore, one step higher than consistent with their voltage
ratings. The 2.54V insulation class is used for three-phase
wansformers only,
a
FF coninuous ellie SERS
3
ae TT ie
ae]
ia
sass
mum front-ol-wove arrester sparkover -RV
3
5
2 6-25-40 GO 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Cabletengt (1 between switengeor ond cable juncton= ft
Fg. 4, Curves showing maximum permisible length of cable for which
rosters ate not required in the sitehgeor te. arrester sparkower voltage
{i the cable junction for different valves of switchgeor BIL
LIGHTNING PROTECTION OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
OVERWEAD PRIMARY CIRCUIT
S.A, S.A,
Shielsea|
cable
2 oc
Normally Open
“Vie Suiten
Fig. 42, Schomatie diagram of UD systam
5, Lightning Protection of UD Systems
Most of the problems associated with lightning protection of
UD systems are related to the fact that the lightning arrester
often is located remote from the transformer or equipment to
be protected. This separation distance, plus the fact that UD
systems are usually looped circuits with an open tie point,
introduces the factor of traveling wave reflections and voltage
doubling. This usually is not 2 consideration on overhead
systems because of the close physical coupling of arrester and
protected equipment.
Figure 42 shows a UD system with 9 lightning arrester
installed at the junction pole betwen the overhead and
Underground circuit, The question immediately arises as to
whether this arrester will provide adequate protection to the
entice system, The main point to consider here is the doubled
magnitude of voltage which is impressed upon every trans:
former, switeh, and cable in the circuit. However, if the
insulation withstand capability of these equipments is greater
‘than the doubled magnitude of voltage, there will be no novd
for aresters at the intermediate or open switch points.
‘There is an additional consideration: namely, the length of
lead from the phase wire to the arrester top and the length of
lead between the arrester ground connection and the metallic
shoath of the cable. These leads produce an inductive voltage
‘drop, This voltage must be added to the IR drop through the
arrester in order to establish the magnitude of discharge voltage
impressed upon the system, A frequently used number is two
kV per foot of lead length based upon an inductance of 0.4
rmicrohenries per foot and 6000 amps per microsecond rate of
Fise of arrester current,
Figure 43 shows the insulation coordination plot for 2
distribution transformer when the arrester is located remote
‘rom the transformer. This indicates that 95-kV BIL equipment
can be protected by a directeconnected 9:kV distribution
arrester located only at the riser pole.
Protection of Higher Voltage Equipment
‘An examination of higher distribution system voltages, such
a5 24.9kV ged ¥/14.4 and 34.5KV gr ¥/19.9 would indicate
that 18 and 27V arresters, respectively, would be required at
the riser pole and also at the terminal or open tie point in the
loop circuit.
Table 25 shows the protective characteristics of arrosters as
related to the insulation withstand characteristics of trans:
formers for each of the listed system voltages. In addition,
Column 8 indicates protection by direct-connected arrestars at
ORY chopped wove ody put wove
win Stongore Tear ERY ial
B9KV Frentet Wave
Seartever |
== Seiv TR@ ION
T2t4 set 8 ox Bo~
Fig, 43. UD imation coordination plot
the riser pole only, or the need for arresters at the riser pole,
pls arresters at the open tie point.
By comparison of Column 3 with Column 7 and comparison
of Column 4 with Column 6, this table shows how a 7.2kV
transformer having 95:kV BIL and 110kV chopped wave
strength can be protected by installing a 9-KV direct-connected
arrester at the riser pole only.
When the system operating voltage is 24.9KV [or two times
12.474V) an 18KV arrester is required. The table indicates that
the arrester sparkover voltage and discharge voltage charac:
toristics of this arrester are also doubled, but the transformer
BIL has only inereased from 95 kV to 125 kV and the chopped
‘wave strength has increased from 100 kV to 144 kV. Thus, for
distribution systems above 13.0 kV, a distribution-type arrester
's required both at the riser pole and at the end of the line.
‘These additional arresters can be eliminated by selection of
fan intermediate or station-class arrester for the overhead
junetion which has a sparkover value such that; even doubled, it
will be within the safe withstand capabilities of the equipment
fon the circuit. These low-sparkover arresters sre available and,
their charactoristies are compared to those of conventional
distribution artesters in Table 25. This tabulation shows that,
while conventional arresters” provide adequate protection in
most eases, lowsparkover arresters provide better protection in
some instances, and a more acceptable margin of safety in
‘thers
Intermediate and station arresters re included in. the
tabulation because equipment withstand levels are threatened
bby surges passed by conventional and even low sparkover
arresters at very high discharge currents, In these cases, station
for intormediato class arresters are necessary to hold the
sparkover and discharge voltages to a doubled wave level below
the equipment and cable BIL.
6. Overhead Line Protection
Increased attention is being given to the protection of
‘overhead distribution lines against insulator flashover. This can
‘be markedly reduced by locating GE distribution arresters at
strategic points along the line. Surge arresters minimize system
3 LIGHTNING PROTECTION OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
Table 25, UD transformer-arrester protection
1 2 3 4 s |e 7 8
~ Discharge ‘evento Location
Arrest | OW. Voltage Former | BIL | chopped | Ror’ | Open:
Rating | Sparkover | at 204A | Rating |W. | Wave [Pole | Te
w lw peje pe [ew fe] ©
sit [ras] 2ofras | 2 | 24 | os | 75 x
ai al ais” | 30 x
a) |r | 22| ‘a8 | 19 x
aia) |i2 | a4] as | t66 x
8.3/8 ze | se|27 | s« | as | 7s | as x
21 | a2|30 | oo x
a | alias | a7 x
a | wlies | me x
125/72 xa | lao | a | 22 | a | x0 x
2 | elas | 90 x
at | 62/27 | 54 x
50 | 60/243 | a6 R
132176 as | a6|40 | 0 | 76 | 05 | 110 x
32 | o4| 53 | 108, x | x
35 | 70{ as | 6 x
as | 70| 20) | 58 x
paginas | isin |or | te2| 90 | rao | ta [125 | tae x | x
ais) |s5 | 110] 90 | 180 x | x
isi) |so | tia] sas | 108 x
aia) [57 | a] are | ‘956 x
sasie9 | a7 [es | ie] a2 | 162 | 109 | 125 | 144 x | x
ara) |e | 72] 72 | 148 x | x
(a) Atygard aseibution arestor
{e') Magne save distribution arreter
{b) Magnesatw Form 28 citibution arrestor
{c)_Alugard intermediate arrester
a) Atigard station areeter
‘outages by eliminating the operation of avercurrent protective
‘devices to clear temporary faults caused by lightning surges.
IEEE Transaction papers” describe studies outlining the
application of surge areesters for line protection and the benefits
obtained. Figure 44 illustrates graphically the improved tine
protection available using three arresters as compared to a single
arrester or an everhead ground wire.
‘A study of this application has shown a need for an arrester
‘thermal capability greetly exceeding the minimum discharge
capability required to meet ANSI standards.
B. Secondary Distribution Systems
Lightning protection of lovevoltage -¢ power circuits or
secondary distribution services in the less than 6B0-volt range
involves the same fundamental considerations which apply to
protection of primary distribution systems. While the length and
exposure of these low-voltage power circuits is usually consider:
ably less than that of primary power circuits, they are
nevertheless subject to lightning voltages which may greatly
“IEEE Teamactons, 697P91-PWR and OSTPS2-PWR, Vol. PAS-E8, No
4 P1232 1239, linvstigation and Evslvation of Lightning Protective
Methoos for Disb Circus, Pare | and I,
44
exceed the insulation flashover or breakdown strength of the
connected low-voltage apparatus.
Because secondary distribution lines or services are usually
supported on pin-type or rack insulators mounted on wooden
poles or crossarms, the line-to-ground flashover level of the
3, 109 L [Ty yey
zo Pee E
Se £8 | es
BE ool +} at eg [tee
a See |— ih 8g
Ban Seite mts 208 OE
co toes Sa, fpf
Fig. 44, Comparison of lightning protection methods allowing four outages
er year por 100 miles of ing ~ with 12 inches of wood insulation
LIGHTNING PROTECTION OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
‘exposed circuits is many times greater than the insulation level
fof the connected apparatus. Hence, the relief of lightning
voltages on such unprotected circuits will usually occur at or
‘within the apparatus, frequently resulting in damage and service
interruptions that necessitate apparatus replacements and
maintenance costs,
The frequency and extent of such damage and service
interruptions, the resulting opérating and maintenance costs,
and the importance of power-service continuity must be
considered in determining the economic justification for protec:
tion in any individual case. However, with the present-day effort
foward greatly increased efficiency and reliability of electric
power distribution, adequate protection of the secondary
distribution circuits and services is receiving increasing
recognition.
Adequate lightning protection of secondary. distribution
systems depends upon three major considerations
(1) The selection of transformers and other secondary
istribution equipment that have an insulation strength prefer
ably not less than presentday ANSI insulation levels, Trans
formers for single-phase circuits in the less than 650-volt and
three-phase ¥ or delta circuits in the voltage range up to 1.2-kV
‘would narmally be insulated for the 1.2kV insulation class
‘rowcting Metar Equipment trom Lightning, by E, 3. Allen, GET-1908.
(2) Select arresters to limit the lightning stresses to the
lowest practicable levels. The impulse protective characteristics
of the secondary Thyrite arrester and home lightning protector
are as follows:
Impulse | 1R Discharge Voltage
Spar ‘at
Arrester over
ireuit | hx Vottogs | 1500 | 5000 | 10,000
Voltage | Rating kv | Amp | Amp | Ama
0650 | Gsovers | thyrteareter|29 | 26 fas |a2
120/240] 175volts | Home ts. rot.|20 | 1.6 [20 |22
(3) Adequate protection also involves installation of
arresters. directly at, or dose 10, the apparatus terminals
‘Apparatus to be protected may include the following:
(a} Fractional kVA transformers on 440: or §50-volt railway
signaltine circuits.
(b) The secondary terminals of distribution transformers
supplying secondary voltage power to industrial or residential
(c} Streetsighting control devices.
(a) Watthour meters and demand meters.
(e} Secondary circuit cable, torminals and conduit service
‘entrances to industrial or residential consumers IIE EEE EE EEE _C
IX — OVERCURRENT PROTECTION OF
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
Overcurrent protection of distribution systems serves three
‘major purposes:
© To reduce consumer minutes outage.
© To protect apparatus from damage during faults
© To save time and expense in locating faults and restoring
Proper application of equipment to achieve these results on
primary and secondary circuits requires
1, Determination of short-circuit currents on distribution
lines.
2, Selection of the type, rating, and location of equipment
to provide overcurrent protection.
3. Coordination of the equipment selected,
A. Primary Circuits
Every primary distribution circuit should be provided with
‘an overcurrent protective dovice at its source, at intermediate
points along the main line, at every branch or sub-branch tap off
point, and at all points of connected apparatus,
‘Automatic tripping and reclosing provides the greatest
Improvement in service reliability when applied to the whole
system. It is economically feasible t0 employ such automatic
reclosing protection by coordinating reclosing and single
element devices so the combined overlapping protection
‘provides operating benefits that neither one can provide alone.
In the modern concept of primary overcurrent protection, the
automatic tripping and reclosing equipment at the source, along
the main line and on long branches, is coordinated with branch
fuses. The reclosing equipment clears all transient faults before
fuses in series are damaged or blown. Permanent fault pro-
twetion can be obtained by using relay-controlled substation
breakers, automatic circult reclosers or fuse cutouts.
Ratings of Primary Protection Devices
Selection of primary protective devioes is made on the basis
416.
ff three ratings: voltage rating, continuous current rating, and
interrupting rating.
© Voltage rating. In most instances, the use of @ protective
device which has a maximum design voltage rating equal
10 oF larger than the system voltage will provide emple
Insulation strength and will function to properly clear
faults.
© Continuous current rating. The normal peak load current
should not exceed the continuous current rating of the
device. Provisions for load growth are generally made
when making the original installation.
© Interrupting raving. The maximum fault current at the
point of installation must be known and the equipment
selected must have an interrupting rating at leest equal to
this value. (The low current interrupting rating also should
be considered since it ean be a major source of improper
operation.)
1. Calculating Short-ircuit Currents of Distribution Lines
In order properly to apply overcurrent protective equipment
to a system it is necessary to know by caleulation the highest
and the lowest (maximum three-phase and minimum line-to:
gound or line-to-line) values af short-cireuit currents which ean
‘ow if a fault occurs: (1) where the feeder leaves the substation,
(2) at each branch junction point, and (3} at each sub-branch
junetion point.
It is also necessary to know the minimum (line-to-ground)
short-circuit current which would flow if a fault occurred at the
extreme end of any of the branches or sub-branches. See
Section IV for methods of calculating these short-circuit
currents. (GES-3261, Calculator Nomograph, provides @ quick,
easy, and accurate method for determining short-circuit eurrent
at any point.)
OVERCURRENT PROTECTION OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
\ ee
988 toccaper oman
cuaves ieee g "0
4004] GIVE AVERAGE CLEARING
200|| TME FOR ove Oven
mstenTaNeoUs
190 ie ye?
eereubes
3 Se
‘TIME IN SECONDS
2 228
Se
0.4
0.02
01 002 0060l 02 of OBl9 2 4 660 20 4060100
‘TES RATED CURRENT
Fig. 45. Timecurrent curves for 260-ampere reclose
2, Solection of Overcurrent Protective Equipment
Automatic cireuit reclosing devices should be applied to
protect the entire circuit against temporary faults. In order to
provide this protection, a recloser, or @ power circuit breaker
‘equipped with overcurrent and reclosing relays, should be
installed on the main feeder at the substation,
Where power cireuit breakers are applied at the sulstation,
overcurrent relays will be used for tripping this circuit breaker
‘when faults occur. These relays have either inverse time, very
inverse time, or extremely inverse time-current characteristics,
with an instantaneous tripping attachment,
The inverse time relay has a relatively flat time-current
characteristic (TC Curve GES-7001) which provides for clearing
‘of low fault currents, Thus it is usable where the short-circuit
‘current magnitude varies with connected generation. However,
‘the flat characteristic creates problems of coordination with
fuses located both on the source and load sides of the rola.
The very inverse time relay has a longor time delay (TC
(Curve GES-7002) than the inverse time relay in the low current
ange and a faster characteristie in the high current range. This
Provides for better coordination with both source and load side
fuses,
The extremely inverse time relay has characteristics approx
mating source and load side fuses (GES-7008). It is particularly
suitable for coordination with slow fuse links on the load side,
Also, this type of relay provides 2 means for picking up load
after an extended outage where the inrush currents may cause
‘other types to trip,
Reloys equipped with an instantaneous attachment can be
connected in the broaker control circuit to provide one
instantaneous trip and then subsequent tripping in accordance
with the setting of the inverse, very-inverse or extremely inverse
time-delay characteristis.
‘The initial instantaneous operation of the breaker will
prevent damage to fuses during transient faults with a resulting
improvement in service continuity and elimination af restora:
tion expense. With a permanent fault beyond the fuse, however,
the time-delay opening of the circuit breaker will eause the fuse
to blow and isolate the faulted section before the breaker
‘operates the second time or locks open.
Recloser
Automatic circuit reclosers are generally used on suburban
and rural lines where wide exposure to natural hazard may cause
frequent outages. Where the source section of the circuit is
protected by substation relays, reclosers are applied to provide
overlapping protection at the limits of the relay protective zone.
‘and transient fault protection beyond the scope of the relays,
Reclosers are designed for coordination between reciosers in
series and between reclosers and sectionalizers, sectionalizing
fuses, branch fuses, end external or internal transformer fuses,
‘The rating of the recloser to be used is based primarily on
‘normal load and maximum short-cirouit current at the point of
application. The continuous current rating (the amount of
current which will flow at the point of installation under
fulload conditions) should not exceed the manufacturer's
rating for the recloser. It is preferable to select rating about
‘one-third higher than the load current to allow for future load
growth. Reclosers have no overload rating and should not be
applied beyond their eontinuous-current rating
‘The interrupting rating of the GE Type HR recloser is given
in terms of symmetrical short-circuit current, simplifying the
application by permitting use of data from a corwentional
shortcircuit study, All Type HR reclosers have an asymmetrical
rating of 1.4 times the symmetrical value,
FReclosers are available with different time-delay charec:
teristics, providing 8 choice for coordinating with reclosers of
‘other manufacture, or other protective devices, All GE Type HR.
reclosers are calibrated on multiple tripping curves. Figure 45
gives the time-current curves fora standard 280-ampere recloser
‘and Table 26 lists the time-current curves for other HR recloser
ratings.
Table 26. Timo-current curves for HR reclosers
Fecloser Rating ‘Type af Curve Publication
48.070 MARY | ncantaneoue ond Standard GeS-64008
Yeoampere Frame | ingtantanaous ond Extended | GES-6421
Iostantaneous and Stondord Geseaisa
200. and 280- Instantaneous and Extended | GES.6818
ampere Frame Instantaneous and Moditiod GEseaio
extended
hy Instantaneous and Standard GES-6413A
Sdamoere Frame | retantaneour and Extended | GES-6420
egw
Instantaneous and Standard Gesear7a
Tooampere Frame | irstantanaous ond Extwndad GES.64St
a OVERCURRENT PROTECTION OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
(Open Dropout Fuse Cutouts
Every piece of equipment connscted to the primary distribu
tion ‘circuit (except ® surge arester) shoul be connected
through an overcuient protective device to. diconnect it
automaticaly if it becomes faulted. This overcurrent derioe also
will give @ postive indzation 5 t the lecetion of the faulted
fqwipment. Fuse cstouts Usually are used on the source side of
distribution transformers, capacitors, regulators, ete. The fuse
cutout also cen be uted 10 provide protection to the transformer
sonst sncondary fouls.
Where branches are tapped off the main ine, iis considered
pod practice to use the fuse cutout for ‘solating each branch
and subbranch,
Fuse cutouts may be used in the main feeder as sectionaizng
point in order 0 minimize the extent of fesder outage and to
Simplify fault leestion. This, however, not common practice
due 10 the possbilty of sndle-phasing three phase motors and
creating feroresonance problems. Loadtresk cutouts with &
solid blede in place of the fuse tube are avaiable for switching
or disconnecting at these setionliring points
DURABUTE® open cutouts are availabe in ratings listed
Maximum Voltage Ratirg
RV.
oR oT
aa tay 100 & 200 $5000 1024000
180 250v 100 & 200 ‘4000 te 20000,
20 100 12000,
DURABUTE loacbreaker cutouts are available with the
following ratings for maximum voltage, continuous current,
interrupting current and loadbreak ratings listed
‘Maximum Voltage Fatiog | Continuous | tnteruptieg Rating
v. ‘curent Rating ‘am
ie Ce] SR UT ‘Amp (asym)
aa aay 1008 200 '5000 to 24000
150 280" 100 44000 to 16000,
150 700 10000 to 20000
Test Vottige | Power Losabresk Curent | Number of
kv Factor (amperes) Operations
15 0 Leas 100 Ea
8 07 os 200 200
210 07 tos 80 2
ES 07 bs 25 2
They cen be used for switching gounded-wye capacitor
banks and primary qrounded.wye tansformer banks, and may
also be used for sectionalizing three-phase circuits where all the
kVA on the load side of the loadbreakers is connected
line-to-grounded neutral
Sectionalizer
The sectionalizer is used in conjunction with fuses and
automatic line reclosers (il or electronic, or reclosing circuit
8
1000;
To00}
500
300
‘Time in Seconds
o7;
os}
ot}
0.
ar}
c.08|
0.03}
oo} J
lo 2 100, '500 1060
Currant in Amperes,
'5000 10,000
A. Timecurrent charactorte of one inetantaneoutréceser opening
1B. Timecurront. characteristic of one extended time-delay recloser
© Timecurrent characteristic ofthe 1ACrony
Fig, 46. Relayeclosse coordination
breakers. It is not a fault interrupting device and therefore
cannot be used alone,
The sectionalizer isolates permanent faults and confines
‘outages to small sections of line. Located on the load side of
recloser or circuit breaker, the sectionalizer opens the circuit
when the recloser or breaker is open. Basically, it counts re
closer or breaker operations and drops open afte: one, two, oF
three predetermined counts. When itis in its open position, it
provides a visible break. A coll bypass gap provides surge
protection,
‘A sectionalizer has functions and fectures which make its use
‘advantageous in the following areas of application
1. A sectionalizer may be used to replace a lateral ssctional:
izing fuse where load growth requires fuse uprating and
recoordination. Since the sectionalizer has no time-currant
characteristic (such as a fuse or recloser), it eliminates a stop of
overcurrent coordination.
OQVERCURRENT PROTECTION OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
[Smatted Tvaranon of ——T
forroton ot Samp"
fecoser winTongx +t _|_1___la99
se inks °
—
mi Yerk i
Recloer Fase it
25K Fuse ,7C- Li a
aot Fusesto—N || hema |g
ripest |
\ LelEa;|"s25 amos | c
Tene Oetey |! E
204 jpesioser
fue Openings
Instantaneous. est
‘auoner pennds resem |,
Ronge of
Coardination |
ml
ons x Fese
‘70 amos I
1098001000 S000
Curent in Aeeres
TC= Tata! Qeoring
it~ imines Mate
Fig. 7. Coordination of Type 36A Type HA recoser with
“Type T ane Type K fuse links
2. A sectionalizer may be used to replace lateral reclosers on
new lightly loaded laterals close to a substation where the fault
current level is higher than the intecrupting capsbility of a
recloser
3. A sectionalizer may be used to provide an additional
sectionalizing point on an existing lateral resulting in improved
service continuity without the time and expense of adding
‘another level of overcurrent coorcination,
‘The Durabute sectionalizer can also be obtained with 2
Joadoreaker. The loadbreak ratings are the same as those
previously listed for the Durabute cutout loadbreeker
For application information, see GET-2463,
3 Coordination Requirements
Characteristics of branch or feeder sectionalizing devices
should be determined by ccordination with the next protective
‘device farther out on the line. Based on the short-circuit current.
‘at the location of the protective device farther out on the line,
the minimum size of the source protective device can be
etermined by a comparigon of the time-current curves or from
ppablished coordination charts for the particular devices being
sed.
Publication GET-1751, Application Manual for Overcurrent
Protection for Distribution Systems, tolls how to select and
coordinate overcurrent protective devices and gives necessary
data including coordination charts ard GET numbers for the
time-current characteristic curves for GE primary fuses, auto:
atic circuit reclosers, and cirouit breaker relays.
‘Recloser-elay Woordination
Relays of each feeder should be adjusted so they can protect,
the circuit to a point beyond the first recloser in the main
feeder, but with enough time delay to be selective with the
recloser during any or all of the operations within the complete
recloser cycie,as illustrated in Fig. 46,
It isa good rule-of-thumb that there will bea possible lack of
selectivity if the operating time of the relay at any current is less
than twice the time-delay characteristic of the recloser. The
method of calcula
GET-1751
Recloser fuse Coordination
When a correctly rated fuse link is applied and properly
coordinated with 2 recloser it should not be melted or even
camaged by 3 temporary fault beyond it, Le., the recioser
should open the circuit on instantaneous operations one, two,
(r three times, depending on its adjustment, withaut damaging
‘the fuse link. On a permanent fault, the fuse link on the source
side of the fault should blow on the third or fourth (time-delay)
‘operation of the recloser. The fault will be isolated by the fuse,
and the recloser will reset autometically, restoring service
‘everywhere except beyond the blown fuse. Figure 47 illustrates
these principles.
“The recloser should never lock out on 2 permanent fault
‘beyond the fuse if the fuse has been properly coordinated with
the recloser,
‘Fuse Link-to-ink Coordination
Fuse-link-to-Fuselink coordination is ilustrated in Fig, 48,
Published total clearing time-current (Curve A) of a pro-
‘wcting fuse tink is plotted to maximum values so al! manufac:
‘uring veriebles will be minus and thus out of the range of
comparison with curves to the right.
Published melting time-current (Curves B and B') of
protected fuse links are plotted to minimum values so all
‘manufacturing variables will be plus and thes out of the range of
comparison with curves to the left.
Curves C and Care plottad for 75 percent of the time of
Curves B end B', respectively, to provide for such operating
49 OVERCURRENT PROTECTION OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
variables as preheating by load and to avoid melting of the
fusible wire, but not the strain wire of the fuse link.
“The maximum current to which the fuse link of Curve A will
protect the fuse link of Curve B is indicated at D, the current at
‘hich Curve A crossos Curve C.
The maximum current to which the fuse link of Curve A will
protect the fuse link of Curve B’ is shown as E. This is the
‘aurrent at which Curve C’ erosses the 0.8 eyee line indicating
‘that it will be melted at this and at higher currents before a
smaller fuse link ean protect it.
50
B. Secondary Circuits
When the impedance of a secondary circuit extending from a
istribution transformer limits the fault current to a value at
which the primary fuse does nat afford the desired protection,
the use of a fuse in the secondary circuit may be advisable.
Secondary faults, however, are considered rare and ate usually
salf-clearing, hence fault protection is usually provided by the
‘vansformer’ primary link or the secondary breaker in a
sal-protected transformer.
X — SYSTEM DESIGN — LOADING DATA
A. Estimating Load
One of the first considerations in planning a system is to
determine how much load can be expected from the proposed
project. Where the load to be served is chiefly of an industrial
neture the problem is relatively simple: for the magnitudes of
the concentrated loads to be served ean be readily determined,
and the system planned accordingly. Where the load to be
served is primarily residential, the problem of load estimation
becomes more complex. Individual loads may vary from a few
hundred watts to several kilowatts, as ranges, heaters, and
refrigorators are installed, Hence, previous experience must be
Used asa basis for the planning of residential systems.
Fig. 49 shows estimated diversified demands of various
classes of residential consumers, Because of differences in living
habits, geographical locations, temperatures, and summer and
winter peak loads, these demands can vary considerably
between utilities, These curves merely represent the kind of
information which ean be derived by utilities and are not
necessarily accurate for any specific utility. The 1.5 kVA curve
represents the calculated average residential consumer and the
24 cure is the diversified demand for a consumer with range
‘and water heater. The curves designated 4.8 and 7.2 kVA
represent homes with different degrees of air conditioning, The
‘emnaining curves correspond to homes with electric heating
B. Load Factor
‘The load factor is defined as the ratio of average power
demand over a stipulated period of time, to the peak or
maximum demand for that same interval. One convenient and.
frequently used method for determining load factor is to use a
kilowatt-hour meter with a 30-minute maximum-demand
attachment. The kilowatt-hours and the maximum demand for
any particular period are nated, and the load factor caleulated
from these readings is simply the average number of kilowatts
divided by the maximum demand,
Analysis of field data obtained during 1962 from 6 electric
utilities. indicates that average load factor measured at the
clstribution transformer is 26.6%, Results relating to loss factor,
power factor and other load characteristies have also been
‘obtained from this basic data.”
*Diswibution Trnstormer Load Charactarstis, EEE paper 31 T6550,
MLM Gangel ana RF. Propst
of
a0) L 240Kva,
= !
g \
j CH He
2° SEA,
3 = fae
:
i
I
23 4710 20
“406060100, 300 1009 2000 6000"
Number of Homes
Moximum Deversities Demand pi
Home versus Various Number of Homes
Fig 49, Probable maximum diversified demands of various numbers of residential customers and
205 a time of astibuton veut peak domand (5:45 pam)
51 SYSTEM DESIGN AND LOADING DATA
oso]
oso
iden, tose
030]
te FONG From eonedence foe relglonsip of eleetviesurvice Joos
‘loractenaner" contontas Gury, eect! engineering, Se
{G- oomestic = With air constining from Mr IL Wilzon, Oklahome Gas ond Electr CO
1945
0 20) 30 v00
Fis, 50, Domestic consumer coincidence factor eurves
C. Coincidence or Diversity Factor
‘The coincidence factor is defined as the ratio of the
maximum demand of the load as a whole, measured at its
supply point, to the sum of the maximum demands of the
‘component parts of a load. The diversity factor isthe reciprocal
(of the coincidence factor, Coincidence factors can be applied to
known consumer demands for estimating the loading of
distribution transformers, lines and other facilities. Coincidence
factors for domestic consumers can vary over a wide range for
difforont types of consumers. Fig. 50 shows representative
coincidence factor curves for low use and high use consumers.
D. Distribution Transformer Size
‘Transformer loads can be estimated from the various date
and curves as described, The kVA rating of the transformer
selected will depend on the practice of the particular electric:
service company.
‘The normal load cycle of distribution transformers is
characterized by a relatively low load during the greater patt of
the day, with ono-ar more peaks lasting for a few hours. Such a
characteristic permits the operation of the transformer at loads
in excess of its continuous self-cooled rating during short-time
peaks following light loads, since the heat-storage capacity of
‘the transformer insures a relatively slow increase of internal
temperatures, Furthermore, sinee the deteriorating effects of
heat encountered under ordinary operating conditions is
cumulative rather than critical, it is possible to obtain satis:
factory life from transformer insulation with temperatures
much in excess of those permitted for continuous loading,
provided the duration of these temperatures is sufficiently
restricted.
In operating General Electric distribution transformers,
advantage can be taken of the short-time overload capability
‘ven by American National Standards C57.91, entitled Guide
52
{for Loading Mineral Oil Immersed Overhead-Type Distribution
Transformers with 55C or 65C Average Winding Rise. This guide
includes tables of data on loading based on ambient tempor
ture, oll temperature, and average winding temperature rise
The loading profile was chosen as a representative daily cycle
Loss of life was determined by computer computation of the
actual hottestspot profile for the load cycle and ambient
‘conditions. The assumed transformer characteristics were ob-
tained by @ concensus of users and manufacturers as being the
best typical characteristies for modern transformers.
In connection with overcurrent protection, the short-time
loads, following full-load, to which oibimmersed transformers
can be subjected is given in ANSI C57.92. This is shown in
Figure 51
Goneral Electric padmounted transformers can be sized and
‘operated the same as overhead type transformers. General
Electric subsurface transformers are designed in accordance with
ANSI C57.12.23— 1969 so that when installed according to GE
30
Bed
3
a
a
E,|
a
i,
P8680 w a0 | 2 4-6 81020
SSconde ince
Fi. 1 Shere on ng fl ta fmm
‘ranstormars (ANSI C57-92)
SYSTEM DESIGN AND LOADING DATA
AOR ES TS 8585 WO aO8O SO 708030
ru oe
recommendations, they can be operated in the same manner as
‘outlined above for overhead-type distribution transformers
The sizing of direct-buried transformers is different then
‘outlined above, The reason for this is that:
A. Thermal capability of direct-buried transformers. is,
directly related to their environment.
B. Their enviconment is dramatically different from that
normally experienced by other residential distribution
transformers.
C. Proper sizing for drect-buried transformers is more nearly
assured when utility engineers relate transformers thermal
capability to factors such as soil resistivity and soil
ambient,
‘Therefore, for General Electric direct-buried transformers a new
rating system has been devised. The ratings for these direct:
buried units are designated 25 DB-1, DB-2, DB-3, DB-4, DBS,
‘and DB-6. The thermal capability of these ratings was
‘determined by relating the continuous loading capability of the
Unit as a function of its environment. Thus, with a selected soil
resistivity (RHO) end ambient, the continuous kVA load which
will give a 65C average winding rise may be determined. The
direct-buried environment must be used as a basis for applying
direct-buried transformers and not some thermal rating which
right be given the transformer,
‘A computer program is available which uses the thermal
‘equation and transient load ealeulating procedures to determine
loading guides for GE direct buried transformers under various
load cycles, soil resistivities, and soll ambients. An example of
the peak kVA outputs with no loss of life of these direct buried
‘vansformers when loaded according with a specific load cycle
ate shown in Fig. 82.
Sometimes it is desirable 10 estimate the amount of
single-phase load which can be taken from an isolated Y-delta
Fi, 62, Loading guide for GE diactboriod transformers
‘transformer bank which is carrying a three-phase load, Fig. 53,
54 and 56 will give this for combined loads of unity-power:
factor, single phase load and three-phase load at 100 percent, 80
percent, and 60 percent power factors, respectively. These
figures may also be used regardless of the actual magnitude of
power factor whenever the power factor angle of the three-
‘phase load is more lagging than that of the singlesphase load by
0, 369, and 53.1 degrees, respectively. In these curves, units B
and C are assumed to be the same size, and unit A, across which
the single-phase load is connected, is of equal, or greater, kVA
‘capacity. R in the curves isthe ratio of the kVA capacity of unit
‘Ato the kVA capacity of unit B
Fig. 56 can be used to estimate the KVA capacity of the
transformer of an isolated Y-delta bank necessary to carry a
specific combined single-phase and three-phase load.
Examples:
1. Assume KA ratings of transformers A, 8, and C ae 18,10,
and 10, respectively. Thre-phase load is 10 KVA at 80 peroont
power factor. Find. the maximum single-phase, unity power
factor load which can be supplied without overloading any
transformers
R= 15/1015
39 KVA in percent of kVA, = 10/10 x 100 = 100 pereant
Following vertical dotted line in Fig, 64 to line R= 1.5
Single-phase load is 182 percent x 1OkVA= 18.2 KVA
2, Assume @ 20KVA single-phase load and a 27-kVA three
‘hose load both at 80 percent power factor. Find the sizeof
transformers needed to cary the load
Ratio T/S = 27/20 1.35
Following vertical dotted line, in
1.11.20 kVA = 22.2 BVA
“Transformers & and C. (each
kVA
ig. 56, transformer A=
68 percent of 20kVA= 13.6 ‘SYSTEM DESIGN AND LOADING DATA
oa
£m
8.
2 wl
rou Vin pe ent of VA rating of Unit B=
|
pe An pr cat of AVA ting of unt 8 = YA2® «100,
Fi, 63. Estimated single-phase Io
Srv isoated Yedala transformer
tity power foetor
hich canbe taken from
ying a threa-phoss lod
Tae prone eso TOR
esses eaas
Fig, 85. Estimated singlo phate loed which ean be akon from
tn ieolated Y-elta‘raneformer carrying a thee-phase lod at
(0.8 power factor
g
i
t
Fig, St. Estimated single pha load which ean be taken from
am laolated Y-delts transformer carrying a three-phase oad at
0.8 power factor.
If delta connection is to be used, there are two choices: the
dosed delta, using three transformers with the one on the
single-phase load larger than the other two, and) open delt
‘using one large transformer on the single-phase load and
smaller one on one of the other phases. When the single-phase
load does not exceed approximately one-half the three-phase
load, it is usually more economical in transformer capacity to
‘use the closed delta, However, where the single-phase load
becomes more than anehalf the value of the three-phase load
‘the open delta ig more economical. The use of open delta may
be limited by the voltage regulation imposed on the single-phase
toad by the three-phase load. This should be checked for 2
particular installation before using an open delta connection.
se 5
HE'S th
Fie iesiomar Bande
ae E
Bos} Tire Se
a el
OE OF OF OF 10 1 te ee 0 ae
“he +
‘Saie-oho AVA oad "8
Fig, 56. Estimeted capacity necessary to carry combined
single phase and tivee phos toa.
E, Thermal Loading of Underground Cables
‘The thermal loading capability (ampacity) of underground
cables is given in two volumes of Power Cable Ampacities, =
joint IPCEA-AIEE publication, Caution should be observed in
‘using these tables for other than the intended use in 39 balanced
circuit loading, For example, single-phase concentric neutral
‘cables having full conductivity in the neutral are not included,
nor are the capabilities of single conductor cables having high
‘conductivity shielding, operated bonded and grounded,
‘Typical ampacities of single-phase concentric neutral cables
are given in Table 6, Section Il
‘A preliminary calculation of ampscities of single-conductor,
cables with bonded and grounded shields was made by the Cable
Characteristics Subcommittee (No. 3) of the IEEE Insulsted
Conductors Committee. It shows that ampacity may be reduced
‘a much a 35% below that which would be possible by
reglecting circulating currents in the shields.
F. Design of the Secondary System
The starting point in making an actual secondary layout is
the determination of the load density per 1000 feet. A number
fof different, methods are used in estimating the load density.
‘One method is to use demand curves like those shown in Fig.
49. The diversified demand per customer, as obtained from
‘hese curves, multiplied by the number of customers per 1000
‘eet, provides the necessary estimate of the load density,
Having the load density, the transformer spacing may be
determined, based on the wire size selected. Numerous studies
‘have shown the advantage of using secondary conductors sized
between No. 4 and 2/0 copper or between No. 2 and 4/0
‘aluminum, The economic conductor size for a given set of
conditions is best determined by means of generalized planning
studies of the secondary system. Such a study could also
indicate distribution transformer economic size and changeout
practice as is discussed in the following paragraphs.
The next step involves the practice of transformer loadings.
“The ratio of the final over the initial transformer load is applied
10 the estimated load density to determine the load density
whieh will exist when the load approximates the distribution
‘vansformer capacity. Assuming 8 three-percent drop, the curve
in Fig. 57 can be used to determine the secondary length from
‘the transformer which would be 50 percent of the actus!
Fig, 57, Loud density s length of secondly.
‘SYSTEM DESIGN AND LOADING DATA
transformer spacing. The distribution transformer size would
then be equal to the transformer spacing in thousands of feet,
‘multiplied by the load density per 1000 feat, multiplied by 100,
and divided by the percent inital load on the transformer
For example, if the spacing came out to be 600 ft, the
present load density were calculated st 40 kW per 1000 ft; the
initial loading of the transformer is 90 percent; and the final
loading 180 percent; then the required distribution transformer
size would be 26.6 kVA, and a 25KVA transformer would be
instalie.
1 a distribution transformer is loaded up to capacity, and it
is desired to determine whether to replace it with # larger
transformer or to interspace additional transformers, the same
procedure is followed: except in this case the load density could
be figured from the transformer load, rather than estimated by
some other method.
The curves, of Fig. 67 are based on an assumed imbalance of
15 percent in the secondary loads, the percent imbslance being
defined as the percentage which the neutral current is of the
sum of currents in the two other conductors. The smount of
imbalance in the secondaries has a very marked effect on the
voltage drop, and is frequently the cause of low customer
voltage,
For the 1S-percent imbalance assumed, the secondary drop
fon the side of the secondary which carries the most load is 45,
percent greater than if the secondary load were balanced, based
‘on full neutral drop. Similarly, for a 25-percent imbalance, the
‘drop would be 75 pereent greater than for balanced secondary
load, If the neutral is grounded at various points throughout its
entire length, the extra drop due to imbalance may be
1000
500
300
100 LL Lond foctor
50| 0.1 Ao.266)
30|
‘Transformer peok lood-k VALY)
Empirical dato
73+ 3523K- 0.022?
2 orange —|
yea 30 60100
Peak month mWh (x)
Fig, SB. Empirical relationship for the monitoring of sist
bution transformer loading by he kilowatt hour method.
55 SYSTEM DESIGN AND LOADING DATA
20
TT T_T
ia Consumer KW versus kwh
The slope ot tne ie yllae he Conversion
5 Factor) used in DisrToutionTronstormer
- 16 lo08 coleulations
3 1
3
3 The GAT decreases with The mune of
ein Shed dont in ke pase month
Bie
= 8
2 6
. 4
t
2 3
o lt
200 400 600 800 1000
2000 3000
kwh
Peok month consumption per consumer
Fig 59. Consumer kW versus KW
somewhat less (75 percent to 80 percent) than the value given
‘above, because of the effect of the ground return in paralel
with the neutral conductor.
Secondaries for underground systems can be designed in @
manner similar to that outlined above, except of course, using
‘able characteristics for making calculations rather than open
wire. Many utilities are finding it less complicated and more
convenient to omit the use of secondaries in underground
systems and use instead individual service drops from the
transformer to consumer served by the distribution transformer.
G. Monitoring Transformer Loading
“Thare are several methods of monitoring transformer loading,
‘One method which has wide acceptance in the utility industry
56
relates the peak load at the transformer to accumulated kW-hrs
supplied by the transformer during the month in which peak
load occurs. Each user of this method generally prefers to
develop his own empirical relationship between these variables,
Fig. 58 illustrates one empirical relationship which was obtained
from the results of an industry-wide investigation. This
particular relationship should not be used beyond the 20 range
in which most of the data points appeared. Within this range,
the equation yields statistically accurate results.
Fig. 69 gives the consumer kW versus kWh telation and the
range of conversion factor determined by this utility for their
‘summer peak condition. Their coincidence factor is shown as
Curve C in Fig. 60. With these values the consumer demand and
transformer load can be estimated.
XI — LOSSES AND ECONOMIC DATA
“The economic problems of distribution systems involve so
meny variables, and differ 90 widely in objectives from one
system to another, that itis impossible to set any rules that can
be applied to all of them, The mast economical is not always
the one which is lowest in first cost.
More important than first cost can be any of the various
‘operating costs — total annual carrying charges, cost of losses, or
‘consumer satisfaction.
When determining the cost of losses, eae should be taken to
use the proper methods of calculation,
A. Line Loss
Line losses, which are the sum of the IR, or resistance
losses, can be found easily when the currents at peak load are
known. Simplifying assumptions can often be made. For
instance, if the load can be considered as being uniformly
distributed along the feeder, the losses are the same as if the
{otal load were concentrated ata point one third of the way out
fon the feeder. This is mathematically correct for @ very large
‘number of loads. This and other simplifications are shown in
Fig. 60. However, for a small number of distributed loads the
error may be large and the loss in each section between loads
should be calculated. When the load can be divided into a
‘number of large concentrated loads distributed along the lines,
the line can be divided into the sections between loads, and the
TPR lass of each section can be calculated.
B. Transformer Losses
For a given voltage, the transformer no-load loss ie in
pendent of load, The load loss will vary as the squere of the
current, The load loss {corrected to ANSI reference temperature
fof 85C) corresponding to fulllosd current is obtained from
Table 27 as the difference between total and no-load losses.
When a transformer is operating at rated load and voltage,
the load oss and no-load loss can be easily determined.
Occasionally, itis necessary to estimate these losses when the
transformer is operating above or below rated voltage, To
determine approximately the losses of @ 60-hertz transformer
when operating at other than rated voltage, the losses at rated
voltage should be multiplied by the factors given in Table 28. It
should be borne in mind that these correction factors are only
approximate, because the variation with the varying voltage
depends largely upon the quality of steel and the density at
which the transformers are operated,
‘Table 29 is an example which gives correction factors which
apply to transformers of cortain specific rated voltages when
‘operated at certain other voltages, The same results will be
‘obtained by the use of either table, but Table 29 will be found
more convenient for the voltages to which it applies.
C. Evaluation of Energy Losses
‘The evaluation of energy losses i of prime importance, for it,
represents the loss of @ real, salable product. The problem of
converting kilowatt-hours of energy lost, into dollars and cents,
fas resulted in considerable controversy among system
operators, because of the difficulty of determining the value of
this energy. For these reasons, the economic data given herein
are of very general nature, and eepresent a cross section of
generally accepted practices,
If the peak conductor losses of line and transformer have
been calculated, as explained above, it will stil be necessary to
know the loss factor or percent equivalent hours before it is
possible to calculate the actual conductor losses over a period of
time. The term equivalent hours is defined as the number of
hhours of peak load necessary to produce the same conductor
loss that actually produced by the load over the selected
period of time. In Fig. 61, Curve A shows the maximum percent
‘equivalent hours possible for the range of values of load factor.
Curve B shows the minimum possible values, and Curve C shows
values which have been computed from typical feeder load
fog
(A) Uniformly distributed too
(B) Unitormly distributed load over port of line
ond concen
Fig. 60. Assumptions for diteibu
Toads ~ power loss
57 hi ae
| LOSSES AND ECONOMIC DATA LOSSES AND ECONOMIC DATA
‘Table 27. Distribution transformer losses
Taaooraaaao | aaso0 GRO¥7 Cone A
awooricov | aeooeaay | ravonavev | ““Gnoww ‘coun sre
. ‘4 . : : Gurve €
\ 120/240 Volts: 120/240 Volts. 120/240 Volts: 120/240 Volts 120/240 Volts. 3 feeder
\ Vit Lose | Wats ne Ws toss | ~ Wns Lon 235 leineo
KVA ‘No Leed| Total ‘No Load | Total No Load] Total (No Lood | Tota! (No Load | Total g [distribution
| 3 a6 [vs] 36 | 193) 6 | 198 | 26 |r | — — 3
| 10 wo | to | |i | o | te | s | 200 | so | ao .
| 15 76 232 76 m2 a 255 a 263 76 290 =
& ws | | ss | a0 | so | aoe | we | ao | ace | oe A
7s we | 465 = sat 188 | 850 = ‘565 198 567 Oo 2 4 6 8 W i2 4 16 18 2 22 24 ‘0 20 40 60 80 100
so re fcr | see [ors | se | or | so | a7 | sos | ov wours % Loos-tactor
i ma | Sie | as | Ste | 2m | Sor | ase faces | on | der uate hur = Te eunber of hours of peak oe 0 product the same condor et th podcnd By test! od throughout yar
100 319 | 1192 319 1146 319 | 1200 39 1300 319 | 1247, Loss jin kiAhr/ Vr = (% Equiv Hr) (87.6) (Loss at Peak Load) " “
1% sso |208s | 890 [oss | a [200s | soo [aos | to |2a36
L | Fin 6. ation betwetn od fet and ego hour
200/80 one 201880 20/80 07880
2 exe Jzeon | eas fame | ees Jamo | os [seco | eas |zap0 toed on the system. This los factor can be estimated from the incandescent famps varies approximately asthe 1.6 power of the
32] a [aso | sto [s1o0 | soo Jasoo | 800 2400 | 500 | ato average curve given in Fig. 61. Thus, for load factor ofthe voltage, while the input to refrigerator motors and to motorized
= tond of 50 pereent, the loss fector, as computed from typical appliances does not vary sny apprecioble emount. All these
“125 KV BIL
“The following empirical relationship between load factor and
loss factor at the distribution transformer has been determined
and is shown as Curve D in Fig. 52:
Le F= 0.15 LaF + 0.85 La F2
‘The cost of conductor losses per year = (percent equivalent
hours) (KW loss at peak load) (cost per kW-hr) (87.6)
‘Transformer core lostes, while relatively small in comparison
with the total conductor losses, should not be neglected, and
should, of course, be evaluated on the basis of 100-percent loss
factor or equivalent hours.
Table 28, Distribution transformer losses at other
than rated voltages
Fig, 62 can be used as an aid in evaluating the cost per
kilowattshour for losses. This curve gives the average energy
‘costs for loads of different load factors, and is based on average
generation and transmission costs and average costs of coal
Obviously, these values will vary considerably throughout the
country; therefore, this curve should be used only as a quid, It
‘does not apply to hydro systems, and, moreover, includes the
asumption that the peak of the losies under consideration
coincides with the system peak. If this is not the case, lower
values should be used. As an example of its use, transformer
core losses have a loss factor of 100 percent, and, as such, have
‘an average evaluation of 0.64 cents per Kilowatt-hour. Con:
ductor losses of transformers and lines constitute an additional
load curves, will be approximately 33 percent (sev Fig. 61), and,
{as such, an average evaluation would be 1.4 cents per kilowatt:
hour (soe Fig. 62)
Where it is desirable to take into account both conductor and
core losses of transformers, the total loss factor .e., percent
load factor of the total losses} can be determined from Fig. 63,
‘when the load factor of the load is known. The several curves
show the manner in which the total loss factor varies for various
ratios of eopper loss to core loss.
D. Increased Revenue from Increased Voltage
When the average voltage on a feeder is increased, the
Kilowatt-hour consumption Is also increased. Straight resistance
loads, such as ranges and appliances, increase as the square of
the voltage; but because of the increased speed of heating, they
do not exist for as great a length of time. The input to
factors have been taken into account in arriving atthe curves in
Fig. 64, which indicate the increased revenue for correcting the
voltage on a representative load to normal value.
E, Present Value of $1.00
In the design oF expansion of any system where money is to
bee invested in equipment,-there usually arises the problem of
comparing investments for alternative plans, each requiring
expenditures at various intervals over a period of years. In order
to bring all these expenditures to the same basis for a
comparison, it has been found convenient to use the “Present
Value of $1.00" shown in Table 30. By using this teble,
expenditures made at any time during a fifteen-year period can
be reduced to present-day equivalents by simply applying the
factors that correspond to the time at which the expenditure is
to be made and the interest rate on the investment.
Table 29. Loses for eistribution transformers
% Toad toed
Kis | notone Pt | notons | tine cpereting toner thon rated voltages
Vottage | Loss Voltage | Loss ‘Rep. ated Voltage Table 30. Present values (Vn) of $1.00 investments to be made in years (n) from now, based on
a [oss 10 [109 | 190 oe 7000 | 2080 | 2100] 2200 | 2300 [2400 [2800] 2600 Serta fated of tertsrest (I
1 | 062 roi | tos | os stg on
82 0.64 102, 106 [0.98 cna! a Vow (1 +i" _
23 | ose 103 108 |ooe 2000 |e cow |.00 [ogo Jos [are Joe Jase ea ea
seer tort [ees es] |S | a0 [at [ae |e
= —- a es em 2080 |No Load | 1.12 | 1.00 |0.98 |0.86 | 0.78 |0.72 | 0.66 1 |sog901 | $o.9804 | $0.9709 | so.g61s | $0.9524 | $0943 | $0.9346 | $0.9289 | $0.9174 | $o.9091
a fon tos [ris Jose Wont 033 {19 | ie | ins [ae | | ae 2 |*oaens | “Dacre | “aeezs | “osess | “osoro | “ooo | “oaran | “oss | “oan | “ones
wore tor tat [eee 0 (renal ae | on |e [a [te lee lee 3 | omoe | Gar | ooist | ossoo | oss | oasoe | tea | ove | ovraa | oma
= i a bad ae Load 0.91 |0.98 | 1.00 | 1.10 | 1.20 |1.30 | 1.42 4 | 09610 0.9238 0.8885 0.8548 0.8227 0.7921 0.7629 0.7350 0.7084 0.6830
[or too 128 fone He $| Sor | S301 | Saar | Oss | ofa | Ons | O5130 | oemoe | Sisco | oemos
vo | og to [12 |Gss 7200 |Wo tout 132 |1.17 | 1.14 | 1.00 logo Jogo Jars & | S38 | Saaeo | O82 | Sfa0s | oaee | 030 | ses | oscos | seca | oscas
o1 | 078 i [136 | ot \"" 7 | o9s27 | 8708 | osisi | 07809 | 0.7107 | oss | 06227 | 0580 | ose | ostar
v2 {oss ti iw |oao 2200 |vo tow | 52 |1.34 | 1.90] 1.33 | 1.00 Joan lass jos & | 95232 | Sazae | Osa9s | orzo | lanes | tears | seca sore | anes
93 0.83, 113 144 | 0.79 on - i 9 | o91a3 0.8368 0.7664 0.7026 0.6448 0.5919 0.5439 0.4604 0.4241
9 | 08s na aaa | or 2400 |WNo Load 1.58 | 149 | 1.29 |1.12 |1.00 |o.90 |o.82 °
B 10 | 02083 | 09203 | ozs | corse | osise | ose | osces ozs | oes
95 | ose 115 J 182 | 076 bese 7S re [at [abe | |e | 11 | asses | 08043 | 07222 | cease | osser | oszes | oa7st 0.676 | 0.3605,
se | 080 Ne [LS |e 2500 |e tox 1.9 | 1.47 |1.27 [1.32 | 100 /os0 to J ossss | ooses | ozone | cose | asc | gaa | oadeo oaees | O08
o = ae 120 | 0.73 — _ }0:85 |0.92 | 1.00 | 1.08 13 | 0.8787 0.7730 0.6810 0.6000 0.5303 0.4688 0.4150 0.3262 0.2897
ve | 095 nis [res [are 2600 io von 1a [1.26 | 1.12 | 100 ts oars | o3s9 | ser | ass | Sane | Saez | aera Oasez
s__ose [ios fo [154 [oo te 35 foas [a3 | 1.9, ts feasts | oro | cena | asses | Gamo | oars | ates ans
58
59 LOSSES AND ECONOMIC DATA
Fig, 62. Energy cots for various los factors
1a
| :
| ° Ys
f
Re Core Loss
| _ |
|
a
Example: Compensating for 9 Spercent drop
at yearly psak f0xd of 600 KVA fn
‘renee the annual revenue $1260,
componeating for voltage drop at yearly pea.
tone!
60
110 26-39 40 50 60 70 80 90 10
‘Par cent loss tector
Conductor tos
‘cor ls
Standard variations of
Forcesoil, self and water cooled
138 kV and below siete 15275
128 kV and above. : saa 42820
Distribution transformers 2538
Note: Conductor los weighting taken from Curve G Fig. 6
Fig, 63. Total loss factor for transformers for various ra
of conductor
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