aq is material may be protected by Copyright law ie 17 0.8. Code). n the building of his shelter primitive mau faces one supreme and absolute tation: the impact of the environ. iment in which he finds himself must be met by the building materials which that environment afvords, Th ment iy searcely ever genial, and the building materials are often appallingly meager in quantity or restrited in kind, ‘The Eskimo has only snow and ice; the Sudanese, mu and reeds; the Siberian herdsman, animal hides and felted hair; the Melanesian, palm leaves and bam: boo. Yet primitive architecture reveals a very high level of performance, even when judged in the light of madera technology. It reflects « precise and de tailed knowledge of local climate con- ditions on the one hand, and on the other a remarkable understanding of the per formance characteristics of the building materials locally available. OF course primitive architecture, like primitive me icine or primitive agricul ture, often has a_magico-religious ra tionale that is of interest only to anthro pologists, But its practice—that is, how things are done, as distinct from the rea- sons offered for doing them-is apt to be sumprisingly sensible, (This illogical situation is characteristic of prescientific technologies: the Roman architect Vite vis, writing during the reign of Augus tus, gives excellent formulas for concrete and stucco, but his explanation of their chemistry” makes no sense at all.) The primitive architect works in an economy of scarcity-his resources in materials and energy are severely restricted. Yet hie has little margin for error in coping with natural forces: gravity, heat, cold wind, snow, rain and flood. Both his theory and his practice are strictly deter- mined by these conditions An understanding of this primitive by James Marston Fitch and Da Despite meager resources, primitive people have designed dwellin se > P P 8 shelters often outperform the structures of present-day art ustrialization and urbanization of the Western world, there is a growing tend. tency to minimize or ignore the impor- tance and complexity of the natural en- Vironment. Not only is the modern arch tect quite removed from any direct experience with climatic and geographic cause-and-effect; he is also quite per suaded that they “don't matter any more.” Yet the poor performance of most moder buildings is impressive evidence to the contrary. Many recent buildings widely admired for their appearance ac- tually function quite poorly. Many glass walled New York skyscrapers have leaked badly during rainstorms, and hhave had to be resealed at large cost The fetish of glass walls has ereated fur- ther problems. The excessive light, heat and glare from poorly oriented glass places insuperable loads on the shading and cooling devices of the building—a problem that is often compounded in the winter when the air-conditioning ma- chinery is turned off [see “The Curtain Wall," by James Marston Fitch; Sctes- uric AneeRicax, March, 19. ‘Thus Western man, for all his im pressive knowledge and technological apparatus, often builds comparably less well than did his primitive predecessor A central reason for his failure Ties in consistent underestimation of the en: Vironmental forces that play upon his buildings and cities, and consistent over estimation of his own technological ea- pacites. Stil, the worst he faces is a dis. satisfied client. When the primitive architect errs, he faces a harsh and) une forgiving Nature, A, £00 definitions are pert in order. £V As used here, the term “primitive” describes the buildings of preliterate so cieties, whether historical or current, Primitive Architecture and Climate es that successfully meet the severest climate problems. These simple phitects | cl P, Branch prenticeship, whose industry is hand craft and whose tools are pre-Tron Age Although the folk architectures of mod: | erm civilization often display the same | kind of pragmatic sagacity as the primi tive, they are of a qualitatively diferent order. The iron tools and the measure ment systems of civilization immediately introchice factors such as modular build: ing material (e.g., brick, tile, dimen sioned lumber) and repetitive structural systems (eg { | | Roman cade, vaulted Gothic bay) which ae antithetical tothe | plhsticty of primitive structure Lite. fey, on the other hands intxtces the dlaconcerting concept of a spectrum af Duslding stylesman Tnconceivable sits tion tothe primitive architect, to whom it has never occurred that there is more than one way to build. It is obvious that changed ad evolved gradually aver mi Tenn, but at any given tne he print lve architect was spared this unrecorded and forgotten history of styles, Indeed, Inowledge of prehistoric architecture as exprened in ordinary humble vel ings. 30 scanty that tis rte il deal almost eattely with examples of Primitive dvellings sill being bule tious parts of the word As used here, the tem "performance rciers tothe actal physi! behavior of the building in response to environmen: tal stresses, whether they be mechanical (snow load, wind pressure, earthquake) ‘or purely physical (heat, cold, light) Civilization demands other sorts of performance from its architecture, but those faced by the primitive architect are basic and must be satisfied before more sophisticated performance is possible For the purposes of this discussion we are not concerned with plan, that is, the shape, size, seale or compartmentation experience is of more than academic in- whose general knowledge comes by _ given to architecture by problems of so. oe ferest today because, with the rapid in- word of mouth, whose training is by ap- cial exigency or cultural convention. For ara 134‘Twy THATCHED HUT: the north of th+ wsnsivestryeture 66 shsorb the intone salar fet he: hte are ‘of adobe finite on 9 maid cock fovndasion, hich prosecte thems from the waner that youre slows the hillsides when it raina 3ccample, the exigeney of organized war- fave would adel s moat and a wall to one piou, and the convention of polygamy vould introduce a harem into another, Nether will have any significance except in relation to the culture that gave it hth. The significance of architectural structure, on the other hand, fs absolutes anf either supports load of snow oF itellapsess a wall either stands up to the vind or it falls. Even the simplest buat oil have a plan, just ay the most primi- tive society will have its taboos and con= vwolions. But the simpler the plan re- sqtements of a building, the clearer will Leits aspect of environmental response, V[ber se contemplate the work's enormous range of temperature and presipitation, whose summation largely Aesribes climate [see illustrations at righ and at top of pages 138 and 139), wemust be imprested by man's ingentc i. OF these two chief components of liste, it is heat and cold that present theprimitive arehitect with his most dif- feat problem, In culture after culture the solutions he has found show a sur- pring delicacy and. precision, Since thamal comfort is a finetion of four scurate environmental factors (ambient and adiant temperatures, ar movement, fumidity), and since all four ace in con sant fs, any precise architectural m niulation of them demands real analytic abity, even if intutive, on the pat of the designer. In the North American Actc and in the deserts of Ameria, AL- nea and the Middle Bast he has pro- faced two classic mechanisins of ther- rl control: the snow igloo and the smdwvall hut Ona purely theoretical basis it would le hard to conceive of a better shelter aust the aretie winter than the igloo. 1b excellent performance is a function 6t both form and material, The hemi- spherical dome offers the maxim es tince and the minimum obstruction to winter gales, and at the same tine ex- goses the least surface to their chilling tect. The dome hus the Further merits of enclosing the largest volume with the smallest stricture; at the same time it yields that volume most effectively heat- ed by the point souree of radiant heat alfred by’ a ol lamp. The infense and steady cokd of the Arete dictates a wall material of the lowest posible heat capacity: dy snow tneets this eriterion admirably, though at frst glance it seems the least likely structural material imaginable. The Eskimo has evolved a superb method of building. quite strong shell of it composed of snow blacks (each seme 18 136 iches thick, 36 inches Ton soul six inches high) laid in one continuous, in sloping spiral. The insulating value of {his shell is further improved by a glaze df ice that the heat of an il lamp and the bodies of occupants automatically add to the inner serface. ‘This ive film seals the tiny pores in the shelf and, like cumare ARCTIC AND SUBARCTIC (CONTINENTAL STEPPE IMPACT OF CLIMATE and available building materials on the design of primitive dwell: in this char. It deseribes the Four l ye found, ings 1 sume ‘variety of primitive architertare ist the aluminum foil on the 1 wall insilation heat reflector. When, finally, the Eskimo rapes the interior of his snow shell with furs, thereby’ preventing the chilling of his body by either radian tive heat loss to the cold floor and walls, he has completed an skins cond nthe first ner face of netsasa radiant= of next nostril, thing t a small of the matter, almost per- ‘Hemiat crawacrenisrics | PECURED At ‘e5FC INTENSE, CONTINUOUS COLD oy HEAT CAP» LUTTE SOLAR UGHT OR Hear [ND ROOF wc wn IMUM SURF ae MUM STAB SUM MODERATE TEMPERATURES INTENSE SOLAR RADIATION. fics HEAT CAP: D WAUS WINTER InsINSe, CONTINUOUS COLD NEGUGIBLE SOLAR HEAT HEAT CAP» 10 ROOF Coes iNIMUM PO: MUM STAB sumer LONG, WARM DAYS (ADE, VENTIA cob NIGHTS HEAT CAP LUTTUE 08 NO SEASONAL VARIAT HOT DAYS-COLD NIGHTS INTENSE SOLAR LIGHT AND He VERY LOW HUMIDITY ume ean INO SEASONAL VARIATION, pouon HEAT CAPA WARM NIGHTS IND ROOF INTENSE SOLAR RADIATION stag HGH Hummes cUM VENT HEAVY RAINFALL of tem where the greatest lary ree elimate zones, control the pecol with the stor and repsrics us cow RES ‘anon ss cow fect instrument of control of his thermal cqvironment [see illustration at bottom of next page]. For the civilized Western nostril, the ventilation may leave some: thing to be desired (it usually consists of small opening somewhere near the top the igloo). But odor is a subjective smatter, and the oxygen supply is ade- URED ARCHITECTURAL SPONSE "AVALA at CAPACITY WALLS 100F yO SUREACE, 1 STABLITY snow HEAT CAPACITY ROOF alls EAT CAPACITY WAUS 3008 AN EXPOSED SURFACE AM STABLITY RAW MATERIALS TURF, EARTH, DRIWOOD quate for breathing and keeping the oil lasnp alight. Nonnally the glo is a temporary structure, Like most primitive architec- ture, it sacrifices permanence to high performance. The wife of the noted ex- plorer Vilhjakmur Stefansson, Evelyn Stefansson, reports on one that she ob- ‘TYPE OF TENANCY i SEASONAL (HUNTING) SEASONAL | GUNTINGRSHING) roma ren smn served. The inside walls began to drip when the outside tempera degrees Fahrenheit, collapsed the next ay, when the tem- perature rose to 39% degrees F, and it ‘began to rain. But the Balfin Land Eski- ros build permanent igloos of several units, connected by vaulted tunnels and STRUCTURAL SYSTEM EVOLVED SNOWOOME, ICE-AND FURLINED 2 Ny IDE AND FELT MEMBRANES ON FRAME ANAL SEINE KAR nowoie pais | ONE) fp vNATion ea CAPACITY WALLS coe Lvanario as | HEAT CAPACITY ROOF ‘AND HEAT #BWAILS wo, stones renwaneut IM VENTILATION. REEDS, PALMS, SAPLINGS AGRICULTURE) NATEBROOF | sa0N : : | HEAT CAPACITY Ws | | cron fin sane ‘ss, st€08, soo, souanent | Nemanon | PAUAFIONDS, FOURS” | CAGHEUTUR, BANG) | i | i | | \ | | | all of temperature is the crucial architectural problem. In the fourth tet teary lcasnal Flay tothe dificalty, To solve be pebleme trol ‘the primitive architect shrewdly ¢ ‘the limited materials ment SOUD, LOAD-BEARING MUD.MASONRY WALLS ROOFS; MUD CEMENT ON WATTLE OLE OR PALM TRUNK RAFTERS SKELETAL FRAME, THATCHED ROOF, WALS SLOPING PARASOL ROOF STLTED FLOORS, available to him and works them into a structural form that ad- mnirably meets both the demands of the climate and the require ot his particular culture: nomaCLIMATE MAP identifies seven principal regions all once oe: imitive man, He fis now heen largely pushed out of caied by aislocks to subsidiary units for food stor= age, dogs and equipment. In any ease, the igloo melts no sooner than the Eskimo isready to discard it, It dids’t take him Jong to build, and it gives him first-class prnteetion while st lasts [fore eam to quite another type of ther ial regime, that of the great deserts of the lower latitudes, we find an archi- tectural response equally appropriate to radically different conditions. Here the characteristic problem is extremely high daytime temperatures coupled w comfortably low temperatures at night Sometimes, a¢ in the U. S. Southwest, wide seasonal variations are superim: posed upon these diurnal ones. Against such fluctuations the desirable insula- tion material would be one with a high hheat-eapacity. Such a material would absorb solar radiation during the day- Tight hours and slowly reradiate it dur- ing the night. Thus the diurnal tempera- ture curve inside the building would be fattened out into a mich more eomfort- able profile: cooler in daytime, warmer 138 at night [see dlustration at bottom of op- posite page]. Clay and stone are high hheat-capacity materials; they are plenti- fal in the desert, and it is precisely out of them that primitive folk around the ‘world make their buildings, Adobe brick and terra pise (molded earth) as well as TomeRaTUne (OEGREES F) 6AM NOON cen sae rewrsnaTune) the two most genial elimate zones ‘Thus the primitive architet, where fe ail exists hn 80 cope with he temperate and subteopieal mud and rubble masonry, appear in the Southwest; massive walls of sun-baked brick in Mesopotamia; clay mortar os reed or twig mesh in Afriea from the Nile Delta to the Gold Coast. And the native architect evolves. sophisticated orm, ‘MONIGHT oaM = SLEEPING PLATFORM, Sno uve = oursioe renwerarune ICLOO TEMPERATURES may rum as much a8 65 de- srees Fabrenheit higher than external sir temperatures. ‘The heat source: a few oil lamps and a few Eskimo bodies. Outside temperature is typical more di confront ment. 1 wind, # around mornin Where benches shaded J v0 & TOMPERATURE (DEGREES F)jemi fn the aked fs the fd the sted confronting the average modern architet. ment. Here, to avoid a sharp winter wind, the entrance door will be moved tound to the lee; there, to get early ‘moming solar heat, i will face the east, Where aftemoons’ are cool, dooryard benches face the west; where hot, the shaded east —— ROOF SURFACE — outst reveezarure SUBARCTIC. AND TUNDRA (CONTINENTAL STEFFE AND CESERT Teeeeare SUBTRORCAL LOW LATITUDE STEFFE AND DESERT PAINFORIST AND SAVANNA HIGHLANDS. Limited to what for us would be & pitifully meager choice of materials, the primitive architect often employs them so skilfully as to make them seem ideal. ‘Africa, for example, has developed dozens of variations of the structural use of vegetable bers (grasses, reeds, twigs, saplings, palm trunks) both indepen. dently and as reinforcement for mud masonry. In Egypt, where it seldom rains, fat roofs are practicable; hence mud walls carry palm-teunk roof beams which in turn support a mud slab rein: forced with palm fronds. Other regions, although arid, will have seasonal rains; here sloping forms and water-shedding surfaces are necessary. The beautiful beehive hut appears. Bui like a conical basket on an elegant frame of bent sup- Tings and withes, the beehive hut is sometimes sheathed with water-repellent thatch; sometimes mud plaster is worked into the wattle; sometimes the two are combined, as in the huts of the Bauchi Plateau of Nigeria ‘The Nigerians construct a double- shelled dome for the two seasons. ‘Th inner one is of mud with built-in pro- jecting wooden pegs to receive the outer shell of thatch. An air space separates ona MONGHT o AM. ADOBE HOUSE TEMPERATURES compare favorably | ‘with those obtainable ia modern aircon oned homer. Moreover, the solar heat trapped by the roof slab in the daytime keeps the interior warm through the chill night. INSIDE TEMPERATURE Modern BURGESS BATTERIES CHROME PROTECTED SEALED-IN-STEEL SELF RECHARGEABLE GUARANTEED LEAKPROOF Faden bights CORROSION PROOF reporated head ond ‘otery design BURGESS BATTERY COMP) DEPARTMENT OF SCIENTIFIC AND INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH invites applications from young Bitsh honours graduates in scionca and tock nology at prvart in North Amarice for doctoral NATO SCIENCE FELLOWSHIPS tenable in UNIVERSITIES, COLLEGES ‘AND OTHER APPROVED LABORA. TORIES IN THE UNITED KINGDOM Further datatle may be obteined from UK SM, 1907 K Stoo, NW, Wash ington 6, D.C, to whom all applica tions should be sont by let January 1961 139the two, This construction accomplishes three things: the thatch sheds water and. protects the clay dome during the rainy season; the air space acts as additional insulation dnring hot days and the mud dome conserves heat for the cool nights. The principle of reinforcing is well understood. The Ashantis of West Africa build truly monolithie structures of mud beaten into a reinforcing web of woven bovigs. Moreover, we find that the mass of the wall is adjusted to meet varying temperature regimes. In the colder des: cert areas the walls will be very thick to inerease their heatholding capacity, Often, in fact, to benefit from the more stable earth temperatures, the houses will be built into a southern elif face (U.S. Southwest, southern Tunisia Shensi province in'China). In. warmer desert regions, where diurnal oF seasonal variations are smaller, the wall mass can be greatly reduced by the reinforcing techniques deseribed above, In these gions, too, intense radiation and glare are the source of discomfort. Here again we find the primitive architect alertly responsive, Door and window openings are rechced in size to hald down interior light levels, and walls are painted or stuccoed white to reflect a maximum amount of radiant heat. TT[hs inner topical zones of the earth confront the primitive architect with quite another set of comfort problems Here heavy rainfall and high humidity are combined with moderate air temper- atures and intense solar radiation, There and very litte diurnal, perature, Thus. shade and maximum ventilation are the eritical components of comfort. To reduce the heatcholding capacity of the walls and to maximize the aie flow across the in- terior, the primitive architect reduces the wall fo a minimum, or gives it up alto: gether. The roof becomes the dominant Structural element: a huge parasol, steeply sloping to shed torrential rains, ‘opaque to solar radiation and of mini. ‘mm mass to avoid heat build-up and subsequent reradiation into the living space. This parasol roof usually extends far beyond the living space to protect the inhabitants against slanting sun and blowing rain, And the floors af these airy pavilions are sometimes raised on stilts for better exposure to prevailing breezes as well as for protection from snakes, rats and crawling insects, This is the basie architectural formula of the Semni- roles of Florida, of the tribes of the Caribbean littoral and of the Melanes ans, The materials employed are pre variation inter M40 dominantly vegetable fibers of all sorts saplings and bamboo, vines for lashing them together, shredded fronds and grasses, In the absence of iron tools the cutting and fitting of earpentry is totally missing; instead the techniques of as sembly are the tying and weaving of basketry or textiles, Here again, from the point of view of environmental response, the primitive designer shows an acnte ‘understanding of the local problem and a precise understanding of the proper ties of local materials Tn the outer tropical zanes other re fnements appear. Here the climate is characterized by two distinct seasons: PRIMITIVE DWELLINGS, viewed as engineering structures, extract remarkably hish per formance from commonplace materials. Eskimo igloo (a) ek that have insulating value equivalent to tw inches without melting the dome. Summer house of Nanos baile from snow blocks 18 are ho ployed achiew heat a in Sou woode mats. 1 ‘but ie ma tent (eh, Its light aFane pee very wet and one very dey. (Both in dey weuther,permiting the move- Naturally many athe forces beyond ind ABP*e bot) Vegetable fibers are sll em ment of alr through its interstices, ot the purely climate ave at work in shap- phyed, but in varying techniques, to the Abts expand in wet weather, con- ing primitive archtecare. The. etre steve a wide range of permeability to. verting. them ito. nearly waterproof andmeans.of subsistence wil deter Seatand air. Thus certain tres of Natal membranes. Inthe huts of the Khesion nine whether the shelter e permanent, South fica buld a hot whose ight tribe of South fica these ats are de- mobile, seasonal or purely temporary I ronden frame is sheathed in woven ber tichable ml can be moved Irom wall to the vulture fsa hunting oe, ie that of mals The weave of these mats contracts wall according to wind tection. the Indians. who once. inbabted. the per ite is teat (el, fs among the most ingenious and ws ‘of tepee shows ‘uiny types of demountable diel the three poles (solid cirles) th st. Bedouin tent ls lightweight willow walls fold up like a childs safety gate. The (e), urually of woven goat hair, shade, but, when covering is felt, sometimes twosayered with an aie space between, required, mut serve as a pro st sandstorm, 4hGreat Plains of North America; ot a herding one, like that of the peoples of the Asiatic steppes, the architecture will tend to be demountable and mobile. But it will not be expendable, because suit- able building materials are not readily available on the open steppe or prairie (The sod dugout would make sense only ‘TROPICAL DWELLINGS, including one for temperate climate, reflect a great disperity in +0 jon, but all are effective shel- ters. The adobe house (f) of Indians of the Southwest i built of Baked mud bricks with a smooth mudplaster exterior. The massive roof is ideally designed to absorb the midday heat. The Navajo 142 material," the tent (like all tension struc- cloth. } fn a permanent settlement.) Hence the tures) ranks as a very advanced form ol HB Sythe structurally brilliant invention ofthe tent construetion. ‘The basie type has been WE (clone “light in weight, composed of small modified to meet a wide variety of cl: FP the den members and easily erected, disinantled mates: The Ametican Indians covered HF tion is and packed, At the same time, if we the skeleton with skinss the Australian JE Gver th judge it by the modem structural crite- aborigines, with bark; the nomads of FF Ye a rion of “the most work from the least northern Asia, with felted hatr; the no FB taxed ads of the Middle East, with woven heat (a) wath ode rmitng el aed ede PS reat Wooten tame The ane ited ene han mec le Fathnpc hr (sink Pyne notes Coo oe, tected by the deep shade of the forest it does not need masineost.) Congo) leis pro: th. Perhaps the most advanced form, Inthe bitter cold of Siberia, was that de swhped by the Mongol herdsmen. Here the demand for effective thermal insula- tion is met by two layers of felt stetched wer the inside and outside of a collapsi be wooden trellis. The elliptical dome, staked to the earth, furnishes excellent leatabsorbing walls and rool. The Chippewa hut (3) closely re pt that itis covered with bireh hark. ‘against the weather characteristic of the The Seminole Indian house (j) antick ies <0 admired by today’s civilized senbles the Pygmy bs protection against the high winds and bitter cold of Siberia, (ts sould extend this eatalogue of human ingenuity indefinitel the examples cited are surely adequate to establish the basic point: that prim tive man, for all his scanty resources, rn Inn My often builds more wisely than we do, and that in his architecture he estab- lishes principles of design that we ignore at great cost. It would be a mis take to romanticize his accomplishinents With respect to civilized standards of amenity, safety and permanence, tual forms of his architecture are Florida dwellers. In the Lake Chad region of Africs the local tribes Duild a eylindrical adobe hat (k) with a conical thatehed root ‘This roo, lke that of the st off New Guines, i most effective in shedding rain, In World War IL the Pacific troops found such roofs much drier then a tent house (1) of the Admiralty Islands 143totally unsuitable, Neither is there any profit in the literal imitation of his hand craft techniques ot in the artifical ve striction of building materials to those locally available. Primitive architecture merits our study for its prineiples, not its forms; but these have deep relevance for our populous and il-housed world. If we are to provide adequate hous for billions of people, it cannot be on the extravagant model of our Western tbs, suburbs andl exurbs. The cost in building materials and in fuels (for both heating and cooling) would be altogether pro: hibitive for the foreseeable future. ‘Wester science may be able to meas sire with gre mental forces with which architecture deals, But Western technology—especial: ly modern American technology too of accuracy the envitos: PUEBLO zw with thatched huts built M44 JU KRAAL in Union of South Afriea answers elim ‘woven framework of Hight branches ten respondls with the mass production of a handful of quite clumsy stereotypes. This is obvious, for example, inthe ther ‘mal-control features of our architecture In the house or the skyseraper, gener speaking, we employ’ one type of wall and one type of roof. The thermal char= acteristics of these membranes will be roughly: suitable to a thermal regime such as that of Detroit. Yet we duphieate them indiscriminately across the coun: try, in climates that mimic those of Scot land, the Sahara, the Russian steppes and the subtropies of Central America The basie inefficiency of this process is masked by the relative cheapness of fuels and the relative efficiency of the ‘equipment used to heat, cool and venti late our buildings. But the social waste of energy and material remains, INDO-CHINESE. V SOUTH SEA VILL Parasol constr problem Contemporary U.S, architecture would be greatly enriched, esthetically as well as operationally, by a sober anal ysis ofits primitive traditions. Nor woul ithe stretching things to include in these traditions the simple but excellent archi tecture of the early white settlers who, i many respects, were culturally closer to primitive man than to 20th-centary man. The preinslustrial architects of Colonial and early 19th-century America pro: duced designs of wonderful fitness: the snug, well-oriented houses of New Eng. land, the cool and breezy” plantation houses of the deep south, the thick walled, patio-centered haciendas of th Spanish Southwest, AID these designs should be studied for the usefulness of their concepts, and not merely be copied for ntiquarian reasons, TLLAGE illuste AGE on Alor Island near Borneo shows lish mm x0 admirable For regions of heavy rainfallTotally usable, Neder & twee any Profi fo the Btor imitation of his hued Grnft teckmiqnes or hy the artificial re ing materials to those extir merits our studly for its principles, not its forms; bot these have deep relevunce for cate poputons loca Is and in duels (ioe both heating architectare ican tochinology—to PUEBLO Jo Ta af two mpulisovied structs Ul the Spent Gerviden jo ten sespons sith the snats production of 4 hawt of qnite clumsy stereotypes. This fs abvious, for example, im dhe ther tases of oue vivhitectare hiethe hone oe the skyscraper, we employ one type of of these «nema roughly suitable to eile ses do tty. in climates thar mime those of Scot fund, the Sahara, the Russian steppes # Detrait. Yet we duplicate sorininately acne Che cot 0d : ‘anteal Aerie fcloney of thas process é reac of of masked by the relative fuels and the relative ete hen, coo) an Contemporary U.S. architectag seve 5 ope ithe sretching trol many respents, wete alee ppiitive nau thy eccenty ‘The prendustrisl acchitects of Colas and early 1oth-oer : ucedl designs of wor is Southwest All these dul stunk be studied for the veel nines canted net mavely be situa rocs heer ise a et ae seen ee IxDO.CHINI tad | PELE KAAS fa Union of South Alsin anewers climate problem sth thatched bake bi VILLAGE Wsstestes how vim ily doe wen eine ele fe abies