HES, Pll: Clerstal dh. Helylystes Grammarians and Early Manuals of Debate 39 —tConshterng Carly Vaisesika To represent more the ontological dimensions of the later philosophy and early Nyaya the epistemic and logical, we may say, speaking roughly, that pre-classical grammarians tend more decisively to presage Vaigesika positions. Early Nydya, in contrast, may be imagined to be rooted more firmly in early manuals of debate, now lost, but discernible in the Nydya-siitra itself, c, 200 cE, the founding text of the Nyaya school and the oldest extant Nyfya text. Given the large numbers of this type of book for various ‘trades and practices of Indian society (¢.g., textbooks on dramatic dance, sexual love, courtly advice, yoga, etc.), the compiler of the siitras of the Nyaya-sittra probably drew on earlier ‘‘how-to books"* conceming staged disputation. The Nydya-sitra spells out both rhetorical strategies and veritable (proto-)scientific methodologies to be used in contexts ranging from legal and medical controversies to debates about metaphysics and religion. ‘We know that philosophical debates were staged in courts of kings from very early on: witness the exchanges in the court of King Janaka reported in the Brhaddranyaka Upanigad? The evidence abounds that organized philo- sophical debate was a common practice long before Nagarjuna and the final redaction of the Nydya-siitra. A textbook of debate seems a subset of the Nydya-siitra as a whole, most evident in the fifth of its five chapters, In the 6340 Early Systematic Realism Buddhist Canon, Jaina Agamas, early grammatical literature, early works on law and social conduct, and, surprisingly, early medical literature, there are numerous references to debate, with types of debate differentiated and rules specified." Brahmin pundits—the keepers of Sanskrit grammar as well as the priests of Brahminism, and perhaps also professional debate coaches or even professional Naiyayikas—can be imagined as contributors to the science of debate. Consequently, the Nydya-siitra should be regarded as the product of centuries of development. (Gautama, Nyaya’s legendary founder, may have been an ingenious and original metaphysician, but he was also, most probably, a compiler and editor.) In the Great Indian Epic, the Mahdbhdrata—a poem of more than 100,000 verses probably itself composed over several centuries, from approxi- mately 400 BcE—courtly debates are reported. In a few instances, details of thetoric and informal logic are spelled out explicitly, including enumeration and elaboration of various fallacies. (The Nydya-siitra analyzes fallacies in its fifth chapter.) For exatnple, scholar Ester Solomon draws our attention to the Mahabharata story of a beautiful young woman named Sulabha, who approaches King Janaka and inquires about the means to mukti, “liberation of the soul.”” Janaka upbraids her for asking the question, assuming that no such vibrant young woman could really be serious about this, and uses rather indecorous language in his reply. Sulabhd counters with a serious statement, and in the course of her response specifies a broad range of criteria for judg. ing what should count as a good speech (vacana). She identifies various fal- lacies, such as irrelevance, that ate listed in the Nydya-sdtra as “grounds for rebuke’” (nigrahasthdna) in its more comprehensive theory. It is safe to assume, therefore, that long before the final redaction of the Nydya-sitra, attention and reflection had been devoted to matters of proper reasoning and successful debate strategies, In sum, the Nydya-siitra appears in significant part to be the result of a long tradition of working these matters out and, especially, of framing them succinctly (in ‘‘definitions,"* laksana) so that they might be easily appreciated by students. The more speculative and sys- tematically philosophic portions of the work may be viewed as overlays on the textbook of debate and logic. On the other hand, the overlays are in them- selves so important that it would be wrong to say that the Nydya-siitra is somehow basically or principally a textbook of critical reasoning. ‘The Nydya-siitra also expresses not only much epistemology but a wide-ranging metaphysics: the text formulates a veritable world view. It is as though a phi- losopher stuffed a logic textbook with so many positions ranging over a great breadth of philosophic interest that the textbook almost disappears. In fact, the textbook is recognizable, but its concerns are not predominant in the Nydya-siitra as a whole. Finally, without impugning the motives of those reflecting on debate in theGrammarians and Early Manuals of Debate 41 carly periods, we may imagine that funding for monasteries and schools as well as the attracting of pupils depended in many instances—and were recog- nized as depending—upon success in debates held in the courts of kings and princes. In some instances, patronage may have been won because of a repu- tation for logical professionalism; later the pundits would have had the leisure to develop more wide-ranging views. But here we begin to indulge a taste for historical fiction. Materially, Nyaya—and Vaisesika, too—begin with their respective siftra texts. 2. VaiSesika and Nyaya Literature through Udayana ‘The Vaisesika-sittra, traditionally ascribed to Kanada, is the earliest work of either the Nyaya or the Vaigesika tradition, pre-dating Nagarjuna in its final redaction (150 CB ?). However, this siitra text is not nearly as focal for the approximately one-thousand-year span of early Vaigesika philosophy, i.c., pre-Udayana, as the Nydya-siitra is for early Nyaya. The earliest extant Vaigesika-siitra commentary, that of PraSastapida (c, 530), is less a commen- tary than a wholesale rearrangement of topics; it also adds much that is origi- nal. This, Pragastapida’s “‘bhdgya,"” or Padarthadharmasamgraha (Compen- dium on the Nature of the Fundamental Categories), became the focus of the later tradition (with a few exceptions), buttressed by a commentary by the pivotal Udayana.!? PraSastapada shows marked influence from the Nyaya tradition, Moreover, the extant commentaries on the Paddrthadharmasamgraha written by iva (c. 950), Sridhara (c, 990), and Udayana, further draw upon ‘ika works. Thus, by the last of these, Udayana’s Kirandvali, it is pointless to talk of two separate schools—with one exception (discussed below). Again, much the same can be said for Naiyayika authors’ relation to Vaisesika: that relation becomes tighter over time, culminating in the com- plete merger with ‘Udayana.!* Statements in the works of Buddhists, Jainas, and others indicate that several further commentaries on the Vaifesika-siiira, as well as a few indepen dent Vaisesika treatises, were popular in the centuries before Udayana.* Yet except for one work, recently discovered, by Candrinanda, no others have come down to our time.!* More precisely, no others—except Candrinanda’s commentary—have come down to us in Sanskrit. 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DOES THE MADBYAMIKA HAVE A THESIS AND PHILOSOPHICAL POSITION?! Naghcjonn in recognized as the founder of the ke school of philosophy, the chief S4stra source of which are his Nole-Nadbyenakakdrikis otherwise known as the Madhyenakaszstee or Prajik-atla, In a work closely related in its doctrine to these Madhyouskadbeikhs and entitled Pigrateyybvartaal—Rejection of Conflict~-Migirjuna has mde-whet-are, "for « philosopher, & Series of striking statements that have caused perplexity. dnong his followers, the Midhyemikas, as well as snong aodern interpreters of his philosophy. Thus we read in the Pigrahe- vpwrartent (verse 29): “If T had sone prati jae ("thesis") Tthis] detect (mentioned by’an opponent] would as a con quence attach to me, but I have no pratijad so there in no Getect for se." This is NAgirjuna's reply to the objection, ‘set out in verse 4, that the KAdhyamika's statement "All enti- ther-(othva) are enpty (S0u7s) (of self-nature (svabhiva)]" is a detective assertion or thesis Cpratijna). In addition, as Naghrjuna's opponent is represented as having argued in verse 1 of the Pigrahavydvartani: “If {as you maintain] no self-ni tare (svabikva) exists for alt entities (onava), th own} statewent (vacana) (that all ohivas are empty ure, which is therefore itself] also without, self- cannot controvert self-natuce (which I maintain].” Moreover, Kaghrjuna explains, since according to Madhya- ‘mats philosophy all baivas are empty of svabiiva, any ociti- i Ex by an opponeat wt qismtevalied egainst tha Madbyamal inevitably relate to something not asserted ass thesis in the HGUSEN GGr'Siyc? iS ne stcoceanestaty oe: yeree 60° mager™ june then points oot that the statement "All Shivas are with- out self-aature (offsvabhave)” is not supposed by the Msdhya~ mika to make bhives oon-substantial and hence empty (S0aya); rather, it simply sakes koowe what bhivas really are, namely non-substantial and eupty.. . Conceraing negation (pratigedha) NAghrjuna says (FY 63): NE negate no thing and there exists no thing to de negated: by saying that I negate [some thing] you therefore make & Ualse) imputation Cadhilaya)." and in verse 23 he describes the nature of Madhyamaka negation, ‘the final analysis, then, the Madhyamaka theory of aipsvabbhvath and SUayata, based’ on the fact that things arise ws BK, Maal end B.D, Evans (ode), Buldh Logic end Epiceology, 29-297. (© 1985 by D. 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Moy SO4se saLiODeq Xpoq ax 22U0 LOK, !nqpp uy suns ay (ony vax9 2048 U0 p99} wy Yay Apeldey any wets 4 SurEWO a jy 110188 sours ASIA GANGESA from The Jewel of Thought about Reality (Tattvacintamani) From Gaiigeia’s Tatwacintienag, edited by N.S Ramanuja Tatacharye, Volume Mf, Pare 1 aramna-thanda (Tirupati: Sanskrit Vidyapeeth, 1973), pp 192-201. Copyright @ by Stephen H. Phillips Contec: Gages bas argued that indirect proof, which is sald to be one way to grasp an inference-grounding pens- sion (eg, between smoke and fire), is ieself grounded tn a grasping ofa pervason, The wanslation begins with an imaginary opponent expressing an ebjection to cis lew, Later, a historical opponent of Nya, che Vedinuin $i targa sce the Vedinta section), is quoted and refuted by Gages Objection: Since indirect proofis itself grounded in the grasping of a pervasion, there would be an in- fini regress (on your view). Gafigesa: No, Indicect proof is appropriately par- sited only so long as there is coubt. Where there ‘would be pragmatic contradiction (ie, speech or ‘other behavior contradicting the negation of the the- sis to be established) and indeed no doubt oceur- ing—one can grasp the pervasion without resort to indirect proo. ‘As an example, consider the particular doubt Against the indicect proof | earlier said demolishes doubt about concomitance of smoke with fre). I smoke is not produced from a set of causes exclud- ing fire, then (in conformity with the doube about the concomitance) smoke—if ic were not produced from a causal complex including fire—woutd not be produced (a conclusion in contradiction, presum- ably, with the douibter’s belief that smoke is pro- aced), Now the doubt (against this indirect proof Could the smoke come to be from something that is vot fire? Or could it aise, just in some instances, without fite? Or could it come to be simply by chance (ahetuka, iit ‘Were a person ®, who has ascertained thorough- soing postive correlations (x wherever) and nega- tive correlations (wherever no, no), to doubt that an effect might arise without a cause then—to take ‘up the example of smoke anid fire—why should P regularly, as he does, resort to fire for smoke (in the case, say, ofa desite to gerrid of mosquitoes)? (Simi- latly), to food to allay hunger, and to speech to.com- ‘municate to another person? For (there would be a presupposition to P's out, namely) that without the one the other is possible. Therefor, just che resorting to this and that (ie, the causes of the desired effects) blocks nd terminates (pratibandhaka) suck a doubt, ‘When there is doubt, there is no regulae patecn ‘of behavior (with respect ro using x to bring about y). When there is (such) a regular pattern, doubt oes not occur. Thus it has been said (by Udayana): “That is doubted concerning which as doubied there occurs ‘no contradiction with the doubters zetion” For itis not possible at once to resort regularly to fire and the like for smoke and the like and to doubt that fire causes it (it would be meaningless behavior). This is how we should understand ((ds- vyana’s) saying ‘Thus we may reject the argument that contradic- tion—understood as natural opposition (virodha), governing precisely which x catnot occur along ‘with precisely which y(as horsehood and cowbood in the same individval)—cannot block a vicious infinite regress. tis the doubters own behavior chat proves the lie to the doubt, ie, chat blocks it {pratibandhaa), ‘Therefore, the view Srtharsa expresses with the following may be rejected “fthere fs contradiction, then there is doubt. Wfnone, ‘there Is doubc all the more ‘Coniradletion includes douib within its borders; howNYAYA-VAISESIKA EPISTEMIC LOGIC AND ONTOLOGY then ean indisect proof be the border (or end) of dubs)?” For cognition of contradiction) does not depend on (he occurrence of) doubt Rather, behavior blocks dloube with whomever “There is the further difficulty on this (Sriharsa’) view that even with experience of Joubt-resolving) particulars (such 2s ofhands and! feet with respect 10 189 a doubt whether an abject in the distance is a post for 2 person) there would never be cessation of doubt. Moreover, the indirect proof such as was cited above does nat come into play without wide ex: perience of correlation between the terms of the (inference -grounding) pervasion (ofthe presence of smoke by the presence of fire). . 112