" ,

.2

11

13

16

20

.6

23

.7

25

.8

27

30

.1

.3
.4

 .5

.9

.10

. ( ) 
. .

A  B A

:H

()

2n n

.( )

()

,
.

/ (1, 4)
/ (1, 2)
(1, 3)
;
x
x
x
x
x
x
xx
xx
xx
x
x
x
x
x
x
{xx
{xx
xx
(2, 1)
(2, 4)
(2, 2)
(5, 3)
x;
x;
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
xx
xx
xx
x
x
x
xx

xx
{xx
(3, 3)
(3, 1)
(3, 2)
(3, 4)
;
x
xx
xx
x
xx
x
x
x
x
xx
xx
xx
{xx
{xx
xx
(4, 1)
(4, 2)
(4, 3)
x;
x
x
xx
x
xx
{
(5, 1)
(1, 1)

.( )

10

1 0

, .

()

a1 = (a11 , a12 , a13 , a14 , . . .)

a2 = (a21 , a22 , a23 , a24 , . . .)
a3 = (a31 , a32 , a33 , a34 , . . .)
a4 = (a41 , a42 , a43 , a44 , . . .)

bn 6= ann

b = (b1 , b2 , b3 , b4 , . . .)

ann = 1

bn = 0

. ,

ann = 0

bn = 1

aij

bn

b , n .b 6= an
NS

 .1

R a . 

. "" "" ,"" ,

x X

. 

x
/X

x .x X

, 

:H

1, 2, 3 {1, 2, 3}

()

{1, 2, . . . , 100}

()

N = {1, 2, 3, . . .}

()

Z = {0, 1 2, 3, . . .}

()

Q = {m
n | m, n Z, n 6= 0}

()

.
.
.
.

{x X | P

x }

(0, 1) = {x R | 0 < x < 1}

,H .

.( )

()

1 0

{1, 2, {1}, {1, 2}} ,H . 

.
,H

. ,

X = Y

{1, 2, 3} = {1, 1, 3, 2} = {2, 1, 3}

.
.

( )

X 6= Y

XY

XY

XY

XX

()

X = Y = Y X X Y

()

X Z = Y Z X Y

()

.
.

X
/X

S
/S

Russel ()

S = {A W | A
/ A}

 .

S
/S

SS

SS

. .

= {x X | x 6= x} . . ,

= {n N | 1 < n < 2} ,

.
:

A, B

A B = {x | x A x B}

A B = {x | x A x B}

,
,

A r B = {x | x A x
/ B}

.
.

A .B r A = {x B | x
/ A}
.

A :

AB =

A B

A B = B A ,A B = B A :

.
.

(A B) C = A (B C) ,(A B) C = (A B) C

()

()

A (B C) = (A B) (A C) ,A (B C) = (A B) (A C) :t

()

A r(A r B) = A B ,A = A ,A = ,A A = A ,A A = A

()

AB =AAB =B

AB

()

X r A B = (X r A) (X r B) ,X r A B = (X r A) (X r B) :-

Ai

iI

Ai

iI
T

iI

IX

()

Ai .Ai 
Ai

Ai = {x | (i I)[x Ai ]}

iI

Ai = {x | (i I)[x Ai ]}

iI

S
.
iI Ai

Tn

i=1

Ai

Sn
i=1

i, j I

Ai A1 , . . . , An
5

Ai Aj =

I = {1, . . . , n}

P (X) (Power set)

P (1) = {, {}} 1 P () = {} ,H
2

2n

P (A) . n A

(x, y)

(x, y) = {{x}, {x, y}}

: .

(x1 , y1 ) = (x2 , y2 ) = x1 = x2 y1 = y2

xX

(x, y) Y X

X Y

R2 = {(x, y) | x, y R} ,H .X Y = {(x, y) | x X y Y }

:
:

yY

A 4 B = (A r B) (B r A) B A

.
:

P (X)
.

AB =AB

: ;

A+B =A4B

1 0 ." 2 P (X)
.

4 H

()

 .2

yx

(x, y) R

z 6= 0 x < y
.

X=Y
R

X X

: ,H .

R2

x R

(x, x) R

( )

xRy

< , .y x = z 2
R

()

(x, y) R (y, z) R = (x, z) R ) .(x, y) R = (y, x) R

(x, y) R x y

R R
X

: 

x, y A x y

(1)

y A ,y x y X ,x A

(2)

.
.

.(2) (1) 

A, B X

, .

xX

x
= {y X | y x}

P (X)

xx
, .X

xX

X = AX A (Partition) .X

BA

= {
X
x P (X) | x X}
S
.x, y Ai i I  x y :X X =
iI Ai ,
.

X0

R X

. .

:H
.

()

()

()

X Y

f (x) = y

.
.

range)  Y

xX

yY

function)

( (

(x, y) f

f (x) = f (x0 ) (injective) f

f (x) = y

map)

surjective) f

. (

f: X Y

xX

domain) X

) (

:

x, x0 X

bijective) f

x = x0

:H

xX

xX

2N N

f (x) = y0

()

()

N f (n) = 2n

()

idX (x) = x idX

id: X X

.(

X0

X0

x 7 x
X

xx
,R X

, . ,H .

()

f : Xn Y

()

. .

composition)

,(

g: Y Z

h (g f ) = (h g) f

f 0 f = idX

f0

x g(y)" g: Y X
f 1

g f = idX

h: Z H

f 0: Y X

f: X Y

associative) .(g f )(x) = g(f (x)) g f : X Z

.

f0

f: X Y
.

f: X Y

"

g: Y X

f f 0 = idY

f (x) = y

f: X Y

n!

: H

f |A : A Y

Af

X A f : X Y

()

R0 = {x R | x 0} R x 7 x2 , .x A f |A (x) = f (x)
.

x(i) = xi

x: {1, . . . , n} X

i = 1, . . . , n xi = x0i

x(1) = x1

.1

R0

(x1 , . . . , xn ) -n

(x1 , . . . , xn ) = (x01 , . . . , x0n ) .i = 1, . . . , n

x: {1, 2} X

(x1 , x2 )

n=2

{{x1 }, {x1 , x2 }} (x1 , x2 ) .x(2) = x2

.

(x1 , x2 )
8

()

x(i) = xi

n X

x: N X

n X

(x1 , x2 , x3 , . . .) ()

()

i A: I P (X)  X

XY

()

{Ai | i I}

()

Ai

|X|

|X Y | = |X||Y |

xX

A : X {0, 1}

f (x) g(x) f g
X

n
A (x) =

f, g: X R

:
:

1
0

xA
x
/A
:

A B A B

()

AB = A B = min(A , B }

()

AB = A + B AB = max(A , B )

()

X r A = 1 A

()

A4B = |A B |

()

.
.

Ai = {f : I

iI

f 1

Ai | i I

f (i) Ai }

iI

i ai Ai

{Ai | i I}

(a1 , . . . , an ) -n

n Rn

An

, .

f (A) = {f (a) | a A} A X

f 1 (B) = {x X | f (x) B}

P (A)

P (B)

BY

Qn
i=1

P (B)

A n

f: X Y

Ai

P (A)

image)

inverse image)

f (f 1 (B)) B

, .

A f 1 (f (A)) 
.

( 1 (B)) = B

(x, y) = x : R2 R ,H
BX

.
.

f 1

Bi i I f : X Y :
T
T
S
S
1
.f
( iI Bi ) = iI f 1 (Bi ) f 1 ( iI Bi ) = iI f 1 (Bi )
S
S
.f (
iI Ai ) =
iI f (Ai ) .X Ai i I
T
T
.f (
A
)
=
6
i
iI
iI Ai

|c| + |d| 6= 0

a, b, c, d

ad bc 6= 0

f (x) =

10

ax+b
cx+d

 .3

AB

A  B

A0 B 0 = A B = ,B B 0 ,A A0

. , ,

A B A0 B 0

Card a X

a = |A| A (cardinality) X
.

|A| |B|

cardinal number) a

n n = {0, 1, . . . , n 1} ,H

, .

|A| |A|

Card 

|A| |B|

BA

|A| < |B|

|A| = |B| , |B| |A| |A| |B| . |A| |C| , |B| |C|
. .

:
.

|A| < |B|

b 6= c B = {b, c} , A = {a}

n 7

1
n

()

|N| |Q [0, 1]|

()

|N| < |{0, 1}N |

()

|2X | = |P (X)|

()

XY

()

()

.
.
.

AX AY

. () .

(B) = B

(B) = B

: P (X) P (X)

|2X | = 2|X|

: R

B P (X)  , R . A B = (A) (B)

B=

S
AA

A A = {A P (X) | A (A)}

A , . () . 
S
AA (A) (B) (A) (B) ,A B ,A A
AA A
.

B=

(B) B

(B) A

. ,

Y Y

(B) ((B))

, .

(B) = B

:-

11

: P (X) P (X)

(B) = B

g|Y

rB

g: Y X f : X Y

X r B = g(Y r f (B))

h: X Y

h(x) =

(A) = X r g(Y r f (A))

X r g(Y r f (B)) = B

X rB

Y r f (B)

f (x)
xB
(g|Y f (B) )1 (x) x X r B
Y

|X| = |Y | , |Y | |X| |X| |Y |

()

|X| < |Z| , |Y | < |Z| |X| |Y |

()

|X| < |Z| , |Y | |Z| |X| < |Y |

()

|X| < |P (X)|  X

|X| |P (X)| , .P (X) X

,
,

a A

P (X)

f (a) = A

a X

a A

a
/ f (a)

A = {x X | x
/ f (x)}

a
/ A

x 7 {x}

a
/ A

a
/ f (a)

|X| < |P (X)|

12

m < 2m

 .4

:
.

n = {0, 1, . . . , n 1} ,. . . ,3 = {0, 1, 2} ,2 = {0, 1} ,1 = {0} ,0 = :

N = {1, 2, 3, . . .} = {0, 1, 2, . . .}

: 

.(

transitive)  X

X0

X0

X0

Z0 X
.

, .

X=

Y0

Y0 = Z0

, .

X0 Z0

, .

X0

x {x} X

 

xX

0 n 0 = n

()

x {x} n x {x} = n , x n

()

x {x} x

A n

Z0

: ()

X0 = Z0

= {0, 1, 2, 3, . . .} . X

Z0 X0

X0 = Z0

,
.

Z = X Y

x {x}

m n n m .

m, n

n < m m < n , m 6= n

()

l < n , m < n l < m

()

A n
13

|X r {x}| = n 1 , x X |X| = n

.( )

n0

X 6=

n = |X| 1

X 0 = X r{x}

A0 X 0

f (x) 6= x

f f 0 = idY

x X rA

A0 X 0

f 0 = f | A0

A0 = A r{f (x)}

n ,|X 0 | = n 1 f 0 : X 0 A0
.

f 0 (y) f 1 (y)

A X r{x}

f (x) X 0 r A0
.

f 1 (y)

f: X X

yY

f: X Y

f (f 0 (y)) = y (. f 0 (y) )
f

f: X X

f0

f 0: Y X

f 0: X X

A , A

AB A B , A B , A B

()

P (A) A

()

A, B

|A|

. ,() ,

h: A B mn

h(a, b) = f (a) + mg(b)

h(b) = m + g(b) h(a) = f (a) h: A B m + n , B A

. ()

A A B

g: B n f : A m

()

m, n 1

A B = A (B r A)

|AB | = mn

B = {0, . . . , n 1} A = {0, . . . , m 1}

h: {0, . . . , m 1}{0,...,n1} {0, . . . , mn 1}

14

: {0, . . . , n 1} {0, . . . , m 1} h
h() = (0) + (1)m + + (n 1)mn1
.

h , m 

|P (A)| = 2|A|

15

() .

2A

P (A)

 .5

. 

f |n : n n .n

= {0, 1, 2, . . .}

f : n 

f (m) = f (n) m n  .f (n) < n

{x1 , x2 , x3 , . . .}  .(countable)
0

. ,4 ,
.

 a 

. -

xi

:
.

()

()

()

N N ,

()

.
.

F: N X

 .

f: X X X
.

.(=)

a , X

n N F (n + 1) = f (F (n)) f (1) = a

0 |X| X

f: N X

. (8 )

16

f (x) = x

nN

.(4 ) ,

f (n) = n + 1

X r{1} X

|Y | = 0

f: X X

,- .

0 |Y | |X| = 0

Y X

x X rN
:

()

()

()

i=1

Xi | = 0

i=1

Xi | 0

.-

()

X1 , X2 , X3 , . . .

i=1

Xn0 =

n=1

Xn

()

i = 1, 2, 3 . . . , |Xi | 0

()

X10 , X20 , X30 , . . .

i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , |Xi | = 0

()

()

,()

Xn0 = Xn r

Sn
i=1

Xi

fn : Xn N

x Xn

(x) =

p1 , p2 , p3 , . . .
S
:
n=1 Xn N

.( )

f (x)
pnn

|Q| = 0

XY =

S
yY

X {y}

Qn
i=1

|X Y | = 0

Xi | = 0

|Y | = 0 |X| = 0

()

i = 1, . . . , n |Xi | = 0

()

:()

.()

17

:()

|B| 0

a A | 1 (a)| 0

: .

|A| 0

: B A

{I | A}

a0 , . . . , an

f : R R R

n p(X) = an X n + an1 X n1 + + a0

n an 6= 0

.
.

p(z) = an z n + an1 z n1 + + a0 = 0 p(X) z

.

n n

.

AX

f: X X

, , .

:

XN A W

f (A) A

(1, a) A

(1)

(n + 1, f (x)) A ,(n, x) A

(1)

N X A

A  A F

A  F =

T
AA

1M

F r{(1, b)} A

x  n N M

b 6= a (1, b) F

bX

(n, x) F

(1, a) F

F r{(n + 1, y)} W ,y 6= f (x) (n + 1, y) F ,(n, x) F ,n M

(n, z) = (n, x) ,m = n .(m, z) F r{(n+1, y)} .(1, a) F r{(n+1, y)}

18

(m + 1, f (x)) = (n + 1, f (x)) F r{(n + 1, y)} f (x) 6= y

z = x

F r{(n + 1, y)} A .(m + 1, f (z)) F r{(n + 1, y)} m + 1 6= n + 1 ,m 6= n

(n, x) f

(n + 1, y) F

 .

y 6= f (x)
.

, .

n+1M

y X

1M

f (1) = a

, .

(n, x) F

nN

M =N

, .

F (n) = x

F (n + 1) = f (F (n)) (n + 1, f (F (n)) = (n + 1, f (x)) F

.

F r{(n + 1, y)} A

19

(n + 1, f (x)) F

, . ,( )

F (n + 1) = f (F (n)) F (1) = a

(n, x) F

, .

nM

F: N X
F (n) = x

 .6

. [0, 1] = {x R | 0 x 1}

.

[0, 1] .[0, 1] = {x1 , x2 , x3 , . . .}

x1

I1

, .

I1 I2 I3

x2

xn
/ In

, .

1
3n

I2

In

:( )

[0, 1] = [0, 31 ] [ 13 , 23 ] [ 23 , 1]

[0, 1]

I1 , I2 , I 3 , . . .

I1

( " " 58 )
.

n x 6= xn

x In

x
.

. .

|Y | 0

Y rX

, .

X1

0 <
Y

X Y X

X Y X

()

X Y

()

X Y = X (Y r X)

X = X0 X1

n=1 In

[0, 1]

.X Y = X0 (X1 Y ) X0 X1 = X
()

. ,

|X Y | 0

X Y X

2 0 =

0 x .(2 = {0, 1} ) 2N [0, 1]

(1 , 2 , 3 , . . .

.  .

1
2

i {0, 1}

2N E

, ,

= 0.01111 = 0.1000 , .

i = 0 n  (1 , 2 , 3 , . . .) D
.

0.1 2 3

i
i=1 2i

D .E = 2N r D .i n + 1

= (1 , 2 , 3 , . . .) E

.(

20

[0, 1]

= (1 , 2 , 3 , . . .)

= (1 , 2 , 3 , . . .) :
P i
P i
.
i=1 2i 6=
i=1 2i

r > n  .n = 1 n = 0 ,i = 1, . . . , n 1 i = i

r = 1

, .

X
X
X
i X i
1
i i
1
1
1
1

=
+
>

=0
i
i
n
i
n
i
n
n
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
i=1
i=1
i=n+1
i=n+1
P
i

.2 0 , . [0, 1] E 7
i=1 2i
P i
N
, .x =
i=1 2i 2 x [0, 1) ,
Pn1
Pn1
1
n1
.0 y < 1 .y = 2
x 2n1 i=1 2ii .0 x i=1 2ii < 2n1
1 , . . . , n1
Pn i
1
1
1
.0 < x
i=1 2i < 2n . 2 y < 1 n = 1 0 y < 2 n = 0
P i
.x =
i=1 2i

20 =

= [0, 1) 20

- .

, .

x 7

R .

[0, r] , .[0, r] [0, 1] x 7 rx .r > 0

[a, b] .[a, b] [0, b a] x 7 x + a , a < b

.

(a, b) [a, b) ,(a, b] [a, b]

[1, )

(0, 1]

x 7

1
x

[a, ) [1, ) y 7 y 1 + a

, .

[a, )

z 7 z

(a, )

, .

[a, )

(, a) (a, ) (, a]

.  .

R , .(1, 1) = (1, 0) [0, 1) (, 0) [0, ) = R

.

. (

transcendental)  

. , . 

Rtrans , ,Ralg

:( )

|Rtrans | = , , . Ralg

21

. :

R3

R3

A , . Q A 

|R|

: .

BA

AB

A, B A

|A| = , P (Q)

()

.() : .

N B

()

. () R

. 

: .

.() .

22

()
()
()
()

 .7

. ,
.

AB

|B| = b |A| = a B A b a
.

|A B| = |A| + |B| ,  .a + b .b a
:

A {1} A , B A

()

b a  B A a + b ,3

()

.

()

. .

B {2} B

a1 b1 a2 b2 = a1 + a2 b1 + b2

()

m + n m + n , n m

()

b 0 + b = b

()

:
.

n + 0 = 0

()

0 + 0 = 0

()

+=

()

n + a = 0 + a = a  n a

()

.
.(5 )

A B .|B| = b |A| = a B A b a
|A B| = |A| |B| .ab b a

b a ab

()

()

(a + b)c = ac + bc 

()

a1 b1 a2 b2 = a1 a2 b1 b2

()

()

b 0 b = 0

23

()

0 0 = 0

n n0 = 0

()

()

n n = 0 =

()

.( )
.

a AB

|B| = b |A| = a B A b a
ab

b a B A  ab

.(

AB C AB AC

ab+c = ab ac

()

(A B)C AC B C

(ab)c = ac bc

()

(ab )c = abc

()

a0 = 1 ,a1 = a ,1a = 1

()

a b = ac bc ca cb

()

.(

.(

(AB )C ABC

.
.

|P (X)| = 2|X|

= 20 20 = 20 +0 = 20 =

()

()

()

0 =

0 = (20 )0 = 20 0 = 20 =

f : R R

= 2

24

()
()

 .8

.
. 

f: I

iI

Ai

 ,

Ai

iI

xX

>0

iI

xR

f (i) Ai

|x x0 | <

x0
/ X .X R x0

 .

x0 x0 X

Bn = An r An1 , .An+1 An An = {x X | |xx0 | <

1
n}

 , .

1
s

|x x0 | <
R

x Ar

Ar = Ar+1 = Ar+2 =

6= , ,

 .

, .

sr

x0

yY

f (g(y)) = y

x 0 = x Ar X

Bs =

, .

sr

f: X Y

f0 : X0 Y

|Y | |X| Y

f 1 (y) , . Y

g(y) f 1 (y)  y Y

 .

X0 = g(Y ) .g: Y X

f: X Y

f0

 ,

y0 Y

 , ,

Q
yY

|Y | |X|

g: Y X0

f 1 (y) 
.

(xn1 , xn2 , xn3 , . . .) .xni Bni

. 

i Bni 6= (n1 , n2 , n3 , . . .) 

. 

x X r X0

f (x) = y0

 ,

|Y | |X|

i I

|Ai | a

25

{Ai | i I} :
S
.|
iI Ai | a|I|

fi : A Ai i I .a A :
S
S
.a|I| = |A I| |
iI Ai | , .f (a, i) = fi f : A I
iI Ai

|I| |X| , Xi X =

S
iI

Xi

. 5
. H

A Pfin (X) , X

0 |X| , X

Pfin (X)

(A) X r A : Pfin (X) X  . X r A

(A) = A {(A)}  : Pfin (X) Pfin (X) .A Pfin (X)

G(n+1) = (G(n)) = G(n){(G(n))} G(1) = G: N Pfin (X)

, .

(G(m)) G(n)

m<n

f (n) = (G(n))

f: N X

(G(n)) G(n + 1) r G(n)

(G(m)) 6= (G(n))

f (m) 6= f (n) , .f (n) = (G(n))

/ G(n) f (m) = (G(m)) G(n) ,m < n ,

26

 .9

.
:

x, y, z X

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xx

x=y

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am

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am


.

m m0
.

xX

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mXAX

m = sup(A) m .A
27

m A m0 m  A m X

m = Inf(A) m .A

1 = sup((0, 1))

.
R .
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xX

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:( R)

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:  (

a0 )  X

A .X

a0

a0 A

(1)

f (A) A

(2)

.
.

sup(C) A , A C

(3)

,H

B A0

A0 = {x X | a0 x} ,

a0 B a0 B

e E .E = {e B | (b B)[b < e f (b) e]}

.Be = {b B | b e f (e) b}
.

Be

B Be

Be

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, .

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, ,

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bC

b e .C

m Be

m .Be

, .

f (b) Be

f (e) b m ,b 6 e b C

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m e

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b Be

28

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E

f (E) E

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a0 E

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b < a0 f (b) a0

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bc

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mb

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b 6 e

b, e E

BE

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. ,

bB

b < f (e) f (b) f (e) .f (b) e f (e)

.(

b < e .f (b) = f (e) ,b = e .b e , .b < f (e) b B

.

bB

b < a0

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E=B

e f (e) b , .f (e) b f (b) e , , .e 6 b

m = f (m) m f (m) m .f (m) B

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CC

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x
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y x x 0 y

C {x} x
<x

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29

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. .

f: A Y

x0 X r B

xB

AX

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(A, f ) (A0 , f 0 ) F

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g0 : B 0 Y

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 .

C=Y

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A A0

X rB

(A, f ) (A0 , f 0 )"

.

a + a = a  a

(B, g)

B 0 = B {x0 , x1 , x2 , . . .}

g 0 (xn , 0) = x2n ,(x, ) B {0, 1}

x0 , x1 , x2 , . . .

(B 0 , g 0 ) .g 0 (x0 ) = y 0

f : A{0, 1} A A X (A, f ) .|X| = a X

y0 Y r C

."

f 0 |A{0,1} = f

 .

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g 0 : B 0 {0, 1} B 0
.

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, .

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|Y r X| = |Y | , |X| < |Y | X

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, |Y | = |Y r X| + |X| a + a = a < |Y |
.

a + b = b . a b b b a
30

A X

A A0

(A, f )

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: .

, .

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aa = a 
.

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,
, .

X rB

B0

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, ,

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j = g h .h: (B B 0 ) (B 0 B) (B 0 B 0 ) B 0

(B, g) B B 0 (B B 0 ) (B B 0 )

ab = b . b a 6= 0 , a b b a

ab = 2b

S
. : . X =
iI Ai
f (x) 6= x X

b a > 1 , a b b a
t

 ,

() 

{Ai | i I}
:

xX

. H

V
.

B0

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31

|B 0 | = |B| , V

()

B0

()

B0

()

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.
, .

B0

j 6= j 0

, .

uj 6= uj 0 i 6= i0

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:()

B 0 = {uj | j J} B = {vi | i I}
|B 0 | = |J| |B| = |I|

vi =

P
jJ

ij uj

ij F

uj =

, .

P
iI

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uj =

ji

iI

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, .

iI

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kJ

1=

XX
kJ

P
iI

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J=

iI

Ji

ji ik uk

iI

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j Ji

.
.

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S
iI

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|B| = |B 0 | ,-

x, y R f (x + y) = f (x) + f (y)  f : R R

.(

Hamel

f : R R 

b B r{b0 } f (b) = 0 f (b0 ) = 1 f : B R ,b0 6= 1 ,b0 B

P
P
,f (
bB b b) =
bB b f (b) , . R f

.
-

f (0) = 0 .x, y R f (x + y) = f (x) + f (y)  . 

x
x
x
1
.f
=
f
(x)
,f (x) = f n
=
nf
n
n
n
n , n .x R f (x) = f (x)
m
x m
. Q f (x) = f (x) . m f
n x = mf n = n f (x)

f (1) 6= 0 , .1 = f (v0 ) = v0 f (1) , . R  , f

.


(X, )

32

[0, 1] Z , N ,

. 

(A, ) (A0 , 0 )

a0 A0 ,a A

AX

: ,

(A, )

AB

. .

a0 A ,a0 a

A x x X r A .(A, )
.

X X = A .A
.

Kurt Godel

20

.  "

a  " .0 < 20

  , .
.

20

20

33


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34

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36