Opening the Gates A Century of Arab Feminist Writing EDITED BY Margot Badran and Mian Cooke INDIANA UNIVERSITY PRESS ‘and Indianapolie1s ao of te, hn es i, pitiless esent Selo erica nega thera tac nat nee ei wnt cic s ees te wnt aan Se eae alee Eph deer guts asec eet SSTiais rch mn ee tt Spel of a one hae ea Te aris nog gros nfs i Garnet ine SiR Rdfe ie mone eae a iets can (rie NAST Se tad ee ae sorta sel toca Seca ie eel temas Nesey ‘Spe tetatint a fe Nosed ‘Feed hes he att kee eileen eas te nora ase ie ica accent ec Ele Rovgus'ber ahuies usgonme Bonltae Map ana ts Ee ip een ing al cela Sees eet abner roan entry Gatien trance, ‘Soa amitgouy wo carted ey by content Po tas there no tnambiguaustermfoyenimaciaAitee ne SY octs Arab women rere tem can eden Seda ei elore ere wa exper ean Tae Brg ten evden ena nthe poo of an Ars Nomen pedi the 86h Ths means Yr about Mf ete Shai ea nee sructarth tht eed tng ne tn Palade ena seer, Shes mearana icane np aes wearers Ete nL eetauea of laes ves as oo cate ti lite re EE Ses ren ame ESET as ie nee ores Seren sate Fh Fan rt cries meg masa ae he trap tg wir content vo fet itt that seme te istiseritnansteareae Reel ehh erentminngyr terrane sc Stl ie py rte ieee tse mp cate PS peciece ame hon ene. fee meats es gen pence ele itr omcmoreteadcn Eas cts eeenraiaae ae ebeahaeaty jean ee fe see eats at’ BSG eae meee ee AS eh elt ie tn beat ee nies ran tie acento eS cence Sorte woul sss Sualaiaesrs comune cals en rapa en ten Seegcla Foster a em emma ery Saeco al ceenenete tanto mane dis bok we employs boa working deinen of Fei Cte fn te exreon of rab wan toes and ey ‘he nearly a cntury and quarer hives one or more othe Sry pach is Sasivtnael pion eee seg, ‘of enforceebehaour ad ght and seems eawi Iraroduetion {heir oun experiences and then to improve ther posiion or ves x “Tent in this book indkate, contrary to popular thinking hat feminist debates dado begin nthe Ara reid in 1809 wth he publication of the Egyptian mate lawyer Qasim Amin's book, Tis eration of te Woman Iis important to ditnguish beeen the feminism of women and the fein of men, Margot Sadran has soted fundamental differences between carly fetale and ale {enerated feminist discourses m Egypt® The sartng pints of he “wo course wre diferent. Mets poems srose oe ‘of conace with European society in which women were general ‘isle. Women’s feminitm wot intial 'an upper dass Phenom. nom and it grew out of expanded learning and absertaton of thc own lives ding times of great change” Musiin women, argued that Islam guarantced wen tights of which ey had ison deprived because of ‘customs and traditions imposed i the name of religion. Through the correct understanding and praciee ‘ot Islam women could regain base rights and thls famiies sad sedaties would als benefit “The more visible male-generated feminist debates were known ‘hrough books including Qasim Amin’ The Libation of he Woman, anda the Egyptian Mingus Fats Woman he nt Ara #aLSharg, 1894) and the Tunistn Tahir ak addad’s Our Ws fn Flame Law and Socey Imraatuna fai Sharia ‘wa ak Mujer 1900,"These men argu hat Arb society was bakeward Because women were back var, and women were Backward because of nck ‘oF education and because of social contrat such a ling 2 ‘clon proctedn the mile and upper dass Ty a that these practices were not sanctioned by religion, These pro- feminist men ho ao nods he Egypt nce And auth al-Sayi, founder of Aare, Si the Tra poet Jol al-Zahawiy imprisoned in 1911 for” advocating’ umveligg. demanded chat women be liberated from bondage fo constrasing Serial practices $0 that thei countries might advance, The tee dlparatestarcing points of womer's and men’s Feminism help explain subsequent developments and challenge she nin Sf ‘monolithic dsourse. ‘Arab feminism has been grealy misunderstood and misrepre- ented both im the Arab workt and in the West Datortons Sac ack to the end of the nineteenth century when Amis Tle Liberation of the Women uiggsted acrimonious public debate ia Egypt and became particularly shrill again, for examples wal the pubeaton of Nica Zain al-Din's book, Unceang and Veling (AlSufur wa al-Hijab) in Beirut in 1998 and Tale ab Hadas Introduction veil x Women in Isamic Law ond Society in Tunis in 1929 and Naval law's Women and Sex (ALMara wa al-[ins, 1971), Some Arabs ve attacked feminism as being: western ~ the cultural army of imperialism or neo-mperialsm ou wo destabilise lca society ad to destoy indigenous cule wntipy antslanie-updatni the religious foundations ofthe family and society, and else and therefore irrlevantto the major me Arab women have cme Ut Ara eminiiat once indigenous tothe Arab world and par of nivsral phenomenon thers that if a wenern hnport ino the Arse wor tk ontlees assumes an adversarial relationship wih wear Ct sey tha yo gre Mere hve any Contended that an indigenous Arab feminiem is imposible because of an Islam tht is interpreted as being oppressive of women or that ic was exported from the West tothe Arab worlds or that it sy atau Argh phenomenon, or al wanton of a universal feminism.” While affirming the universality as well as che diversity of feminism, scholars have begun to vse tae tctm “Teminismy: acknowledge the plurality within the unity, Within de context of the third world, Badran* work on the history of the Temtist, movement in Egypt from the 1920s through the 1940s and Sansaian’s study of feminism in Iran duving this century dein straie tha feminist agendas in thse two Mide Eastern countries axe grounded in nationalism and Isla, At the same time, they ilysrate divergent roles of the state: the Egyptian government tolerated the existence of an independent feminks movement ‘hsereas the Franian governmeri from the mid-1980s ut he end Of the 19705 orchestrated women's advance Both studies ako iluminate universal dimensions of womet's experience. Kumar Jayawardena observes common threads inthe. carly eiinist experience of Asian women. She assert that this commonality aes ou of similar colonial and socioeconomic pasts and situates ‘Aslan experience in the context of global feminist ‘While eastern feminisms are being uncovered and studied, understanding of western feminism is Being relined. For example, Karen Offen's work on European feminisin notes essential differ: ences between Anglo-Saxon and Hench feminine. She dit fuishes the former as primary individual and the lace as Easily relational, or family bared. Elaine Mivks and Isabelle de ouruvron discuss muliple feminist traditions in'a single coun {Gy-® Diack feminist theorists Fike Barbara Chviston aid Baybara Smith demonstrate differences between Back and white emis in America.!! Nancy Cott’s recent history of carly twenticth cen-sil Inston ‘wry. American feminisins provides data and a vocabulary for dea with this plurality "Ths new scholarship undertinethe tmyth Of a monolithic western feminim and refines our under: sanding of feminisms as prodvets of particular times, places, classes and races, Ie also senizes the reader to the danger of ntallsing Arab feminism, the Arab wot the Period Grom the 1850s othe cary 19208 witnessed the evolution of invisible feminism’ We find expresion ofthis in books produced by middle and upper dass women which vere circulated it the harems and in wornens journals such ay AL Fath (1892), Ani al Jas (1893), and Fata Shay (1906) and in Some men’s journals such az Bahithac alBadiyyas.areles su ‘Alavida The feminism ofthis period was mainly centred in Baype "second period from te 1920s t0 the end af the. {60s witnessed the ste of womens public organtsed movement There vere active movements in Egype between the 1920s and mid-[95ts, in Lebanon, Syia and frag it the 1980s and Ie40s and Sudan fs {he 1950s." In the 1950s" and 1960s, sates started. to cope independent feminist movements, repressing but nt totaly chee inating women's independent, publ Teminst votes, States for their own, purposes arcuate their own agendas Tor womens advance: ‘The third period from the 1970s t the present witnessed a seargpcgotlemo npresionm ome cout otha gy sho, Syria a fowever, during this same period Hany ther Arab countries ekperienced their st wave feminins, ‘This period was fuelled to some extent by the United. Netons Decade of Women (1975-1985). Outside’ simulus encouraged Arab staes 10 support titted publi debate on the worsen question, However the rise of Islamic fundamentalist fores hag Jncreasingy inhibited these same states from promoting. and even sustaining, women's advance” We shall explore: th’ historical experience more fll below. Methodology ‘The selections in this anthology question embedded patterns of dominant ideology and prescribed behaviour. As Rachel Blau Du Plesis writes: ‘One of the major powers of the muted isto thigk against the current."° Questioning the inherited ‘wisdom passed \down by patriarchal authorities and surrogates, the women hathor logised here shape a new ideology veflecing their changing every. day lives. Through their words they reject imposed. patterus, of hough, and they breach walls of silencing. By affexing. thar Ievducion i signatures to ther words, they eradicate namclesness. Ths isa Fadlal at for women in tai where womens ves sre not Supposed 10 be heard nor User names prononnecd. Womens ‘ours were-cven considered by some te be wun (comahing Shameful oben: sualyreters to private parts ofthe ody, ‘The feminise discouree of Arab women writs destroys path axchally produced female archetypes and replaces them wih es ‘own prototypes: women who have thelr own aspirations, desis, need ‘We. have organised our selections within a deliberately ‘hid dassiteatory framework that opens up new way of thinking about women” rings there ene he are “Awareness, Rejecuon, and Actin. These are not frm eate- rr icy nes areas at donot ps den he eros ce rather open ie up for debate and’ alow complexe) to emerge, 1s interesung to note that there are move aeleons Under Awareness and’ Actvim than there are under. ejection, “This sugges.» predominantly pose mode: the importance of awareness and i catalysing of acs. How Ca this would Wold Tor the entre corpus of feminist discourse we cannot say, but rovorative (0 P*Gome texts all tore realy ito’ one eategory than another. Others asthe readers il se, express two oF even tires ein sions In these instances we have laced the pce in the secuon ‘thot we believe te mont sing dimension highlighted, For ample, ie eway by MariesAimee’ Lele Lucas involves both Stee and ain, Hey arcane coco ies finaly fred from imprisonment within a nationalist agenda {quarter ofa century ater the Algerian War of Independence was Sm stcring adept pany pan scat {peas i seemed more appropriate to include i the secuon 0 ‘Moree: Amal ahs tor wh nates her merging awareness inthe Yemen ofthe seventies and igh her rejection of certsn institutions tal her atv sand, spa the modes and indocd connects therm, We chee ta plsce tis ier clon on Atom he nt a a dea in er life story is hex selfconstrucuon resulting from her daring inative. Readers will find, and we hope debate. many more ‘examples of overipping modes. “Tae at scton nls estar iuate a range of forms af ravens Inc emote Palin Fd tag tres her grasp of the paradox lewveen her father's demands for politeal poetry and the he of domestic seclusion unt thes pat 2rchal sfsism’ imposed. upon her Shealey showy. howe rors2 ox Inedtion io surrogates upholding at once patriarchat and class orders. Thesior tory by the Palestinian Samia Assam ages understanding hat mer aio are oppresea by pacrarcal Sees ‘The section on ejection displays modes ranging from oveseom- ing some of the isolation ofsrct domestic confer dee fantasy to violent annihilation or mental derangement Ake auteur ‘eed her extreme hon tra neh cone tury cite harem in Egypt through writing tales and sea fe are seclded women. In their more contemporary shbet vera the Egyptian Andree Chedid and the Ira May Msalng fee women’ rejection and physical violence ewe quite diffeee conmonly knew wo or more languages Following independence in the miele of the twentieth centry sd the spread of fee ‘educaon through wnivernty level Arabic gained hacendany ss ‘edi the writen snd spoken lng “The stun was very diferentin the Maghrib, Education was abvorbed into the metropolitan colonial system with destructive incrusion inte indigenous enter. French and Haan replaced Arabic or Turkish) 2b the language of government and schools ‘They alto became the everyday languages across the eases The law ofthe colonser in some case speeded Islamic law includ. ing family law. So pervasive were some forms of enculturation that ven alter independence in the fies and sintes, French and {tata sill remain widespread today as writen languages The ‘ab women from the Maghrib anthlogised in this book all wre French, In the Arabian Peninsula, which was nether under Ietroducion xsi Other Egyptian feminists have written memoirs such 38 Munira ‘Thabit, who has recalled her life in journalism=” and. polities; Nawal al‘Ssadawi and Farida al-Naggash ~ who docs not call herself a feminist —have written prison memoirs. The Palestinian, amonda Tai has pba a oural of He ander oxapation My Home My Prison (1978). We have included part of the 1984 memoir of the Palestinian poet Fadwa Tugan, an autobiographical essay by te Lebanese poctand artist Etel Adnan and extracts from. the Algerian Zoubeiga Bitar's O IMes Soeus Musulmanes, Pleures! (1960) \Wardaa-Yazis poem to Warda a-Turk writen in 1867 wasa fist step towards recognition of sisterhood in wring. One of the first women to evoke 3 self-conscious sense of Iteraty sisterhood as May Zivada (1885-1941), tn 1913, five years after her arial in Catto, she began a weekly salon frequented by men and women = the Iierary luminaries of the day. In her biographies as well in her Press Club Spesch in Cairoin 1988 she prasea Ward a-Variy ‘Nha a'Talmutfya at well as Baithat al Badia, By invoking these tries she was gn pobie egnon to former, women ‘wih whom se could fink herself a line that gave weight and psyco what they and oes ter women igh sy. When Zyada died in T941, the recognition that she had bestowed on ‘omen seers was reciprocated bythe Egyptian Feminist Union ‘hich published a commemorative volume remembering, and Hhonourkng their terary ier "The culation of sucha tradition, while begun ear, achieved 2 new level of activity inthe 1970s and 1980s) when Arab women increasingly wrote introductions to cach others writings as well as citical reviews on cays. Works like these. reveal. growing tradidon of Arab feminist Hterary critics: Mary Eagleton has Irtrction wa written: *... the search for women writers has constituted an importane challenge. To ask the questions ~ where ave the women veers? What a aided or tniibted thr ving? How hss iticism responded to their work? — introduces face Merary citi the determinant of gender and exposes literary uadiion a8 construct.” In the 1980s, the number of omen writers as increased so dvamatically that mutual awarcness and acknowledge: zment or compeutive rejection has become the nov Arb woren' emini dicourse has added ner nus uch a education and work, rights concerning marrage: dad suf frage,and athe same ue bas confronted leseunversal sacs ach a breaking out of gender segregation, Like worncn in many other third world counties, and slike nesters womety Atay women have ypialy ado pioner ther fmt xpesion naar sec more egy eaptinng nen tani societies where religion hae Temained an important regulator ot everyday lfe and a Source of dentty. These Arab and ether tind ‘world societies have typically expericnced european colonial rule andor western imperialist hegemony wile Arab women's Teme ‘isms were beginning vo be articulated. Arab womens feminist voices have alvays run the risk of being. dicredied as ants nauonals or antereigious Women in ‘more complex bast fight than have feminists in tne We wath teirstrkingl diferent histories nd circunstanecs. ody, conserve Temi es in Arab counris threaten women's expression in ways that outsiders can scarcely percene We can begin to appreciate the price of feminist expression when yz ssetiatna ol Naval a Sauda twtatayaecratefon like ‘Amina Said fave had roundvtheslonk protecuon’ Uy sate at ate Arab feminisms? Meanings are not the same every! inere that we know, but eacly in what vay ehey differ wears nly discovering. When one woman writes 9 ancuher prasing het Doct expresion, as a-Yarf wrote to Warda al Turk one Bight 2k, How can this be feminin Ie sec tobe no mone than ae xchange of poctns benscen women. Howerer, wie we tell he ‘Sreumstancesin which these wornen lived, when visting was at bese Confined to femate family members, when mest worsen di ot eit because the act of writing was considered infaunmnatory aed ‘moral threat, such a communication takes on spectl meaning. Aa analysisot Arab women’s discourse allows us to See feminiam hore ‘rchad not presively hough to look,soy Introduction vers yeni 2E om iin ae mere one atoms coat dae rs rama Aichi Aeris a tars et aca cee es aad ek eres pcan ot athena ass ess unhee seco barn eens Serena pgs Gibet peta Hae Gg ta its Diada e Sa dnc War ec l'Est eatin hel cera as Aas ‘Basi fa Shales arab at Mi 186). sles Pes teh Sr eeuburs Gutrmer cata iret bake peel ee ge Pee Gre iy of adn Fay ak ropa eC ome oc a jordan, Umno Peni, Saul Aras and Sprit Perec Wet auiga neties soa ace ee cere ne to horror fais Ree bra ops Wace aoe Georee hedia ten aetna te Sats scar ranean ahe dere ae a ‘pes Hoga be aca he (Bie eet ee eb ere sag et cieenatetencoe iGueeeaame 3 SEeEEeadg te monte eng ice er amen rt a reer ier = ie error ete nist cas + Seba ey ate Faroese taeety olen we Nero dfs Poon fonicontag ncn rea TS waar cu eek aes ee ‘Hay, London, Rowedge & Kegan Peal, 1980)" ERS eee erry one Soocerdae ea unricae Pt ne eth Ahmed, Feminism apd Feminist Movement in the Male Eaton Ait Sil eerste ete i Sheri cee oaths oar ieee raarane en Seneca ee emma cen id | eee cen ene Eo ht a sateen sae tpn na ‘Onto DP Thee 197 Er Snare, Te Woes fee Mowe Futrodvction > sox fran, New York, Pacer 1982; and Kens Jeon, Fos end ‘einai Ln ot et vw Bae Mais Saale de Corinon, ew Hal Poni, Now ork, 11 Gl rs B.S and Barbara Sih) Al eon Ws a ei ite aa rae Nas Toe: de Cetin at ts Pape es Wa Neco Regine 12 Ron 05 ey Shim, Now Hen Yak Une Bee oat 1s Baran G7. Scenes 1 Rett ews gt nani on he ‘ct vata gue satan arian Held area are tba ahr we hese TROT sonia este ont Ra eed ‘iste aw Ae gigas ane Pinatas veel" eae Race et werange Sa Seta alee teh a vs Ree Re Rare Wy a 208 Ea timetable PS 2 ve Sciarape i ptr concede ean SiS Aaa eg: ceca cans echoing Sin ates atte we shot anes SABRI cate conor ogenet nea eae, Seo as eg ace ats sree race a eS 18 Joh Toker Way ie onsen Coy Be! Cambs Cant ‘University Press, 1985. we Son oe : es 1g Fran Fanon, yng Carlo, Paris, 1953. 29 Oa utara Ah al i moderna ce er Moye hou nthe ite Ae Ono, 1962 Malaria iment) A Tuo iLGef hey ale dred tl sa ond Worn the Opson ot Ina Metamad Abu) Case 21 Badan, Dual Liberation Femina and Nation i Egypt Scones 22 Sec Baran 1977 35 On Faeinian wryens Fernie ad national nthe 19204 rough the frau ac st Moga The ral ona and Plus Qua 24 Fatina Mernisi,Bojnd se Val, Camyidge, 1275: ew ed Blaming, Fniana Univer Pres. 1987, p 2 25 Malla Asis ork on wena folktales in Morocco na casein poi She ‘explains that ‘under the French proteeort, the et of eral ware, Housed. Arb and Berber taduons si orcs wer souros of pide ad ‘ppestiontoihe Franch. However, {6 when tne Fre lhe ss snipe fete petro om ore nian ane Moron, ednaing cmt round tor rag ove icnng tro rae lone ‘eles had ken aver, and a the old prope ie, 20 dd he oie Aina al Satna: Hyatt. Vas (Papel Tacs Tass of Won thes for Srd Gjdle dactrnte,hahammad V Unies 167) at-Aeint bigs 70-1925:sexsi Introduction cet 240 nore out ofthe Marakea area, the Moroccan capil fo set ‘Sites She de he unas neces ar ean bea {and thoe that can oly be a eighth er ean st for one oe hour and they are ual composed wah seus 25 On the wore alan see Huds ShnaavisHarem Year: The Mews of 09 ‘yon Femina, London Virgo. 198 and Feminist Pes, New Yost 10S, "0-32. 94-88. Eugenie Le Bran wrote two hooks under he peetionyen, ya Salma! Haven Les Marinas Pars 1902 and Ls Repeducs Pe 1. 27 May Zivada Ward of Yas Cano. 1904, 925, £8 Byron Canpon"Mnceeos Coney ings on Women and Soc: the Interim Role a te Mason Press Caro ALL 1856-1899. faces malaria of Mile as Star Vl. 7, 41868 pp 468-64, 29 Jownn Kom Safes Weng, Austin Unieriy of Teas ea 50 armrouceyrote, This the epilogue othe ory of my life which {wren Moxulaader i the: month of August 1916 in memory ofthe fie anniversagy of leaving the shoal of Tadderen-Flan Rasiie Tees epee the noxcok containing he memo) at Ighieal in 1255 bart "eave i would please his (her so fae, ada ud me weno ‘hen T'ruumed the orebook tote drawer which he atone Ra eae engin from his watchhain” Pacha Amrouthe Hate oe mae Pa. Maspero, 1976, p. 198 [31 Teale fom Malmoud Bike Rabie ‘Women Writers nd Cries in ‘Modern Egypt 1888-1963" unpubished Phi: these, Scnocl ef Onna od ‘Atcan Languages, London Uiversiy. 1565 pps sae 5 Suhair Qari vasa member af he youth fou of he Eayptian Fennist ‘Union called de Shiga see adran 1877 pps 83 Estelle eine, Worse iy: Baym Cr, 1960; and Cary Horan, Wrsinze Woman Le New Yk Notion 198 ‘4 On women’s writngs om the Algerian Rercaon se Mian Cooke, ‘Dons incepta airs omer nh gran rao oi apr, 2 Goatees ela a a Her memoirs have been pubished ia Arabic as Aid attra a adie, ‘hn secon by Amon Sl, Car, Dat at, 1S8 8 ope, {Setar Yar The eat of an Epon Fomine pena id 1 Munira Thalacs memoir enced Rentuaon he oo Rss (Thawea f Sur ay Cae 605, 88 On pron memeir see Marya Booth, Pkon, Gender, Prani: Women's Prin Memows in Egypt and Esenbhere. MERIF THE, Moree GT, 39 Mary Eagan Feminist Ltny Tear Oxford Basi che, 1986, AWARENESS « fs Myla, E ness psi, rt boredom Sou ve? Myers an fames ofa boring hart, ‘Thetigh ofall candies fod Why atte orgie yea, eand ner ght : ‘ndastow dea = -extnton Mubcrenomerey, Ome? Myliveisadser, E fence -oppresion ‘Where teighe the dy? alto Zan ‘My Lite ni, 1982) “Trae from he Prenet ‘by Miiam Cooke