I.

FLUIDMECHANICS
I.1 BasicConcepts&Definitions:
FluidMechanicsStudyoffluidsatrest,inmotion,andtheeffectsoffluidson
boundaries.
Note:Thisdefinitionoutlinesthekeytopicsinthestudyoffluids:
(1)fluidstatics(fluidsatrest),(2)momentumandenergyanalyses(fluidsin
motion),and(3)viscouseffectsandallsectionsconsideringpressureforces
(effectsoffluidsonboundaries).
Fluid Asubstancewhichmovesanddeformscontinuouslyasaresultofan
appliedshearstress.
Thedefinitionalsoclearlyshowsthatviscouseffectsarenotconsideredinthestudy
offluidstatics.
Twoimportantpropertiesinthestudyoffluidmechanicsare:
PressureandVelocity
Thesearedefinedasfollows:
PressureThenormalstressonanyplanethroughafluidelementatrest.
KeyPoint:Thedirectionofpressureforceswillalwaysbeperpendiculartothe
surfaceofinterest.

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Velocity

Therateofchangeofpositionatapointinaflowfield.Itisusednot
onlytospecifyflowfieldcharacteristicsbutalsotospecifyflowrate,
momentum,andviscouseffectsforafluidinmotion.

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I.4DimensionsandUnits
ThistextwilluseboththeInternationalSystemofUnits(S.I.)andBritish
GravitationalSystem(B.G.).
Akeyfeatureofbothisthatneithersystemusesgc.Rather,inbothsystemsthe
combinationofunitsformass*accelerationyieldstheunitofforce,i.e.
Newtonssecondlawyields
S.I.1Newton(N)=1kgm/s2

B.G.1lbf=1slugft/s2

Thiswillbeparticularlyusefulinthefollowing:
Concept
momentum

Expression

Units
kg/s*m/s=kgm/s2=N

V
m

slug/s*ft/s=slugft/s2=lbf
manometry

kg/m3*m/s2*m=(kgm/s2)/m2=N/m2

gh

slug/ft3*ft/s2*ft=(slugft/s2)/ft2=lbf/ft2
dynamicviscosity

Ns/m2=(kgm/s2)s/m2=kg/ms

lbfs/ft2=(slugft/s2)s/ft2=slug/fts
KeyPoint:IntheB.G.systemofunits,theunitusedformassistheslug
andnotthelbm.and1slug=32.174lbm.Therefore,becarefulnotto
useconventionalvaluesforfluiddensityinEnglishunitswithout
appropriateconversions,e.g.,forwater:w=62.4lb/ft3(donotusethis
value).Instead,usew=1.94slug/ft3.
Foraunitsystemusinggc,themanometerequationwouldbewrittenas

g
h
gc
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Example:
Given:Pumppowerrequirementsaregivenby

W p =fluiddensity*volumeflowrate*g*pumphead=Qghp
For=1.928slug/ft3,Q=500gal/min,andhp=70ft,
Determine:ThepowerrequiredinkW.

W p =1.928slug/ft3*500gal/min*1ft3/s/448.8gpm*32.2ft/s2*70ft
W p =4841ftlbf/s*1.3558*103kW/ftlbf/s=6.564kW
Note:Weusedthefollowing,1lbf=1slugft/s2,toobtainthedesiredunits
Recommendation:

Inworkingwithproblemswithcomplexormixedsystemunits,
atthestartoftheproblemconvertallparameterswithunitsto
thebaseunitsbeingusedintheproblem,e.g.forS.I.problems,
convertallparameterstokg,m,&s;forB.G.problems,convert
allparameterstoslug,ft,&s.Thenconvertthefinalanswerto
thedesiredfinalunits.

Reviewexamplesonunitconversioninthetext.
1.5

PropertiesoftheVelocityField
Twoimportantpropertiesinthestudyoffluidmechanicsare:
Pressure

and Velocity

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Thebasicdefinitionforvelocityhasbeengivenpreviously.However,oneofits
mostimportantusesinfluidmechanicsistospecifyboththevolumeandmass
flowrateofafluid.

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Volumeflowrate:
Q V n dA Vn dA
cs

cs

whereVnisthenormalcomponentof
velocityatapointontheare aacross
whichfluidflows.
KeyPoint:Notethatonlythenormal
componentofvelocitycontributesto
flowrateacrossaboundary.

Massflowrate:

V n dA Vn dA
m
cs

cs

NOTE:Whilenotobviousinthebasic
equation,Vnmustalsobemeasured
relativetoanymotionattheflowarea
boundary,i.e.,iftheflowboundaryis
moving,Vnismeasuredrelativetothe
movingboundary.

Thiswillbeparticularlyimportantforproblemsinvolvingmovingcontrol
volumesinCh.III.

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1.6ThermodynamicProperties
Alloftheusualthermodynamicpropertiesareimportantinfluidmechanics
PPressure

(kPa,psi)

TTemperature

(oC,oF)

Density

(kg/m3,slug/ft3)

Alternativesfordensity
- specificweight=weightperunitvolume(N/m3,lbf/ft3)
=g

H2O:

= 9790N/m3=62.4lbf/ft3

Air:

= 11.8N/m3=0.0752lbf/ft3

S.G.specificgravity= / (ref)where(ref)isusuallyat4C,butsome
referenceswilluse(ref)at20C
liquids (ref) = (waterat1atm,4C)forliquids=1000kg/m3
gases (ref) = (airat1atm,4C)forgases=1.205kg/m3
Example:Determinethestaticpressuredifferenceindicatedbyan18cmcolumn
offluid(liquid)withaspecificgravityof0.85.
P=gh=S.G.refh=0.85*9790N/m30.18m=1498N/m2=1.5kPa
IdealGasProperties
Gasesatlowpressuresandhightemperatureshaveanequationofstate(the
relationshipbetweenpressure,temperature,anddensityforthegas)thatisclosely
approximatedbytheidealgasequationofstate.

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Theexpressionsusedforselectedpropertiesforsubstancesbehavingasanidealgas
aregiveninthefollowingtable.

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IdealGasPropertiesandEquations
Property

Value/Equation

1. Equationofstate

P=RT

2. Universalgasconstant

=49,700ft2/(s2R)=8314m2/(s2K)

3. Gasconstant

R=/Mgas

4. Constantvolume
specificheat

Cv

5. Internalenergy

du=Cv(T)dTu=f(T)only

6. ConstantPressure
specificheat

Cp

u
du
R
C v T

T v d T
k 1

dh
kR
C p T
dT
k 1

7. Enthalpy

h=u+Pv,dh=Cp(T)dTh=f(T)only

8. Specificheatratio

k=Cp/Cv=k(T)

PropertiesforAir
(Rair=1716ft2/(s2R)

=287m2/(s2K)

at60F,1atm,=P/RT=2116/(1716*520)=0.00237slug/ft3=1.22kg/m3
Mair=28.97

k=1.4

Cv=4293ft2/(s2R)=718m2/(s2K)
Cp=6009ft2/(s2R)=1005m2/(s2K)

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I.7TransportProperties
Certaintransportpropertiesareimportantastheyrelatetothediffusionof
momentumduetoshearstresses.Specifically:
coefficientofviscosity(dynamicviscosity){M/Lt}
kinematicviscosity = /

{L2/t}

ThisgivesrisetothedefinitionofaNewtonianfluid.
Newtonianfluid:Afluidwhichhas
alinearrelationshipbetweenshear
stressandvelocitygradient.
dU

dy

Thelinearitycoefficientinthe
equationisthecoefficientof
viscosity

Flowsconstrainedbysolidsurfacescantypicallybedividedintotworegimes:
a.Flownearaboundingsurfacewith
1.significantvelocitygradients
2.significantshearstresses
Thisflowregionisreferredtoasa"boundarylayer."
b.Flowsfarfromboundingsurfacewith
1.negligiblevelocitygradients
2.negligibleshearstresses
3.significantinertiaeffects
Thisflowregionisreferredtoas"freestream"or"inviscidflowregion."

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Animportantparameterinidentifyingthecharacteristicsoftheseflowsisthe
Reynoldsnumber=Re=

V L

Thisphysicallyrepresentstheratioofinertiaforcesintheflowtoviscousforces.
Formostflowsofengineeringsignificance,boththecharacteristicsoftheflow
andtheimportanteffectsduetotheflow,e.g.,drag,pressuredrop,aerodynamic
loads,etc.,aredependentonthisparameter.
SurfaceTension
Surfacetension,Y,isapropertyimportanttothedescriptionoftheinterfacebetween
two fluids. The dimensions of Y are F/L with units typically expressed as
newtons/meter or poundsforce/foot. Two common interfaces are waterair and
mercuryair.Theseinterfaceshavethefollowingvaluesforsurfacetensionforclean
surfacesat20C(68F):

0.0050 lbf/ft 0.073N/m air water

Y
0.033 lbf/ft 0.48 N/m air mercury
ContactAngle
Forthecaseofaliquidinterfaceintersectingasolidsurface,thecontactangle,,isa
secondimportantparameter.For<90,theliquidissaidtowetthesurface;for
>90,thisliquidisnonwetting.Forexample,waterdoesnotwetawaxedcar
surfaceandinsteadbeadsthesurface.However,waterisextremelywettingtoa
cleanglasssurfaceandissaidtosheetthesurface.
LiquidRiseinaCapillaryTube
Theeffectofsurfacetension,Y,andcontactangle,,canresultinaliquideither
risingorfallinginacapillarytube.ThiseffectisshownschematicallyintheFig.E
1.9onthefollowingpage.

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Aforcebalanceattheliquidtubeair
interfacerequiresthattheweightof
theverticalcolumn,h,mustequalthe
verticalcomponentofthesurface
tensionforce.Thus:
R2h=2RYcos
Solvingforhweobtain

2 Ycos
R

Fig.E1.9CapillaryTubeSchematic

Thus,thecapillaryheightincreasesdirectlywithsurfacetension,Y,andinversely
withtuberadius,R.Theincrease,h,ispositivefor<90(wettingliquid)and
negative(capillarydepression)for>90(nonwettingliquid).
Example:
Givenawaterairglassinterface(,Y=0.073N/m,and=1000kg/m3)
withR=1mm,determinethecapillaryheight,h.
h

2 0.073 N / m cos 0

1000 kg / m3 9.81m / s 2 0.001 m 1.5 cm

Foramercuryairglassinterfacewith=130,Y=0.48N/mand=13,600
kg/m3,thecapillaryrisewillbe

2 0.48 N / m cos 130

13,600 kg / m3 9.81m / s 2 0.001 m 0.46 cm

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