TRNG I HC BCH KHOA H NI

Vin Cng ngh Thng tin v Truyn thng

BI TP MN HC

Truyn thng a phng tin

v ng dng
ti:

Phng php nn Video tin tin

v ng dng

Gio vin hng dn: PGS.TS. Nguyn Th Hong Lan

Sinh vin thc hin:
Nguyn Hng Nht

SHSV: 20111940

Nguyn Vn Thin

SHSV: 20112282

H NI 2014
1

Mc lc
1. Tng quan ................................................................................................................................ 3
2. Gii thiu H.264/AVC .............................................................................................................. 3
3. Cu trc ca b quy chun H.264/AVC ................................................................................. 4
3.1.

Network Abstraction Layer (NAL)................................................................................................... 4

3.2.

Video Coding Layer (VCL) trong NAL Unit v phng thc ng gi ............................................ 4

4. Qu trnh nn ca H.264/AVC ................................................................................................ 5

4.1.

D on ........................................................................................................................................ 5

4.1.1.

Intra-prediction........................................................................................................................ 5

4.1.2.

Inter-prediction........................................................................................................................ 7

4.1.3.

B lc kh khi vung ............................................................................................................ 9

4.2.

Bin i v Lng t ha .............................................................................................................. 9

4.3.

M ha Entropy ........................................................................................................................... 10

5. Qu trnh gii m video H.264/AVC ................................................................................ 10

6. Chun H.264/AVC ............................................................................................................... 11
6.1.

Cc h s - profile. ...................................................................................................................... 11

6.2.

Cc cp - Level. ...................................................................................................................... 12

6.3.

Kch thc buffer cho nhng hnh nh c gii m.............................................................. 13

7. So snh phng php nn ca H.264/AVC vi MPEG-1 ........................................... 13

8. nh gi th nghim H.264/AVC v MPEG-1 ............................................................... 14
9. Ti liu tham kho .............................................................................................................. 15

Phng php nn Video tin tin

v ng dng
MPEG-4 Phn 10 - H.264/AVC

1.

Tng quan
MPEG-4 l mt phng php nh ngha cch thc nn m thanh v cc ni dung trc quan.
MPEG-4 bao gm nhiu chun, hay cn c gi l cc phn. MPEG-4 hin nay bao gm tt c
30 phn (1 phn ang trong qu trnh pht trin), a s cc phn hin nay vn cha c trin
khai.

2.

Gii thiu H.264/AVC

H.264/AVC l mt chun nn video dng trong cng nghip, n l mt qu trnh bin i video s
thnh mt nh dng khc chim t dung lng lu tr hoc truyn ti hn. thc hin c iu
ny, chng ta cn c mt encoder (b m ha) bin video v dng nn v mt decoder (b gii
m) chuyn dng nn ny thnh d liu video hin th ln thit b nghe nhn.
H.264/AVC l mt phn ca MPEG-4 gi l MPEG-4 Phn 10. MPEG-4 Phn 10 bao gm AVC v
s dng b profile c cp cao hn ngi tin nhim MPEG-4 Phn 2 (hay cn gi l MPEG-4
Visual). Do vy cn kh nng tnh ton ln v thut ton phc tp hn.
H.264/AVC l mt vn bn nh ngha nh dng ca video nn v phng thc gii m nh dng
c th ti to li c chui hnh nh to nn video. Vn bn chun khng cp ti cch
thc nn video s - iu ny c dnh cho cc nh pht trin encoder - nhng trong thc t, qu
trnh m ha thng lm ngc li nhng g m qu trnh gii m thc hin.

Hnh 1: qu trnh m ha v gii m video theo chun H.264/AVC.

L mt nh dng video, tt nhin nhim v chnh ca H.264/AVC l ng vai tr lm chun m ha
v nn video. Hin H.264/AVC c s dng trong rt nhiu thit b, dch v. n c l cc thit b
3

u Blu-ray, cc dch v pht video trc tuyn qua internet nh YouTube, iTunes Store, Vimeo,
cc phn mm nh Adobe Flash Player, Silverlight, VLC, v cc dch v truyn hnh HDTV, truyn
hnh v tinh.
Ngoi ra H264 cn c cc hng cng ngh pht trin phc v cho cc mc ch khc nh:
- XAVC: nh dng thu video c th h tr phn gii ln ti 4K (40962160) v tc khung
hnh / giy ln ti 60.
- AVCHD: c pht trin bi Sony v Panasonic, dng thu video phn gii cao, c s
dng trong nhiu a Blu-ray v my PlayStation 3. V c bn l H264 nhng c thm mt
s tnh nng c bit phc v cho cc thit b ca hng.

3.

Cu trc ca b quy chun H.264/AVC

B quy chun H.264/AVC bao gm 2 phn chnh:

3.1.

Network Abstraction Layer (NAL)

c s dng nhm to tnh thn thin vi mi trng mng cho nh dng H.264/AVC. Cng
vi nhiu h thng khc nhau nh:
RTP/TP cho mi loi giao tip c dy v khng dy thi gian thc.
Cc nh dng file (ISO, MP4, MMS,).
H.32x cho dch v m thoi.
MPEG2 cho truyn hnh.
D liu video c m ha, v cha trong cc n v thuc lp NAL, gi l cc NAL Unit. Ngoi ra
cn cc gi NAL Unit cha cc thng tin khc, nn NAL Unit c chia lm 2 loi:
VCL NAL Unit: NAL unit cha thng tin v video m ha.
Non-VCL NAL Unit: NAL unit cha cc thng tin khc.
Header Byte: Byte u tin ca mi n v NAL, cho bit loi thng tin m NAL ny cha.
Enumeration Prevention Bytes: Byte c chn vo d liu ti trng nhm ngn vic to ra tip
u m (net code prefix ngoi mun).
Gii thch: Net Code Prefix c s dng nhm nh danh nh dng file. Trong H264, code ny
c a vo gia cc lp NAL, gm 3 bytes, ch khng c a trc tip vo lp NAL trong
cu trc Byte Stream (dng byte). Code c t cui NAL unit ny l tip u m ca NAL unit
tip theo (EOF).

3.2.

Video Coding Layer (VCL) trong NAL Unit v phng thc ng gi

Mi NAL Unit (NALU) bao gm 1 byte NALU Header, sau l dy byte ni dung video m ha
(VCL) hoc thng tin iu khin (Non-VCL).
Byte header cha thng tin v loi NALU v tnh quan trng ca NALU (NALU c cha
thng tin v slice s dng tham chiu khng? v nu khng c cc slice ny s gy kh khn
cho vic gii m cc ni dung cn tham chiu).
NALU c th c truyn pht (stream) di dng cc dng bit hoc ng gi di dng cc file.

Hnh 2: NAL Unit

4.

Qu trnh nn ca H.264/AVC
Qu trnh nn / m ha ca H.264/AVC bao gm 3 cng on (xem hnh 1): D on, Bin i &
Lng t ha v M ha Entropy.

4.1.

D on
Cng on ny x l mt khung hnh video theo tng khi nh c gi l cc Macroblock
(kch thc 16x16 pixels). V cng l l do ti sao cc video hin nay c chiu ngang v
chiu dc u l cc s chia ht cho 16 m bo nn cao nht (VD: 1280720,
720480,). Vy i vi nhng video c phn gii khng chia ht cho 16? Dng hoc
ct cui cng s c lm gi (clone). V d video 19201080 s c thm 8 dng cui
tr thnh 19201088, sau s ch nh cho decoder ct bt cc dng / ct gi ny
trong qu trnh gii m (decode).
Cng on ny phng on macroblock da theo cc d liu c m ha t trc: t
chnh khung hnh video hin ti (intra prediction) hoc t cc khung hnh trc c
m ha v truyn ti (inter prediction). Sau , encoder s tr phn phng on ny t
macroblock hin thi to ra phn d (residual).
Vic tm kim mt d on interframe hp l cho macroblock cn c gi l c lng chuyn ng.
Vic tr d on interframe vi macroblock gc c gi l b chuyn ng.

Cc phng thc phng on trong H.264/AVC linh hot hn cc nh dng trc , cho
ra kt qu phng on tt hn cng nh kh nng nn cao hn.

4.1.1.

Intra-prediction

Intra-prediction s dng cc block 1616 v 44 d on cc macroblock t cc pixel

m ha xung quanh n, trong cng 1 khung hnh.
d on intraframe, H.264/AVC cung cp.
9 phng php dnh cho d on intraframe ca thnh phn Luma (Y) trong khi
4x4.

M A B C D E F G H
I

L m n

Hnh 3: Cc nhn ca cc pixel c s dng d on.

Hnh 4: Cc phng php intra-prediction dng cho d on thnh phn Luma (Y)
trong khi 4x4
Phng php th 2 (DC) c thay i ty thuc vo vic mu A-M c tn ti hay
khng, cc phng php khc ch c thc hin khi tt c cc mu cn thit u
c sn (nu cc mu E, F, G, H khng c, gi tr ca mu D s c sao chp vo
v tr thiu ca chng).
Sau khi p dng ln lt c 9 phng php d on trn, vic tip theo encoder
s phi tnh ton gi tr sai s tuyt i (SAE - Sum of Absolute Errors) ca tng
block c d on so vi block hnh nh gc. Phng php no cho gi tr SAE
nh nht s c chn. (p dng cho c d on Luma 16x16 v 2 thnh phn
Chroma).

= | |
=1 =1

4 phng php dnh cho d on intraframe ca thnh phn Luma (Y) trong khi
16x16.
6

Hnh 5: 4 phng php d on interframe 16x16 ca thnh phn Luma(Y).

4 phng php dnh cho d on intraframe ca 2 thnh phn Chroma (Cr v Cb).
Hai thnh phn ny lun c dng chung 1 phng php d on. V s dng
khi c kch thc 8x8.
4 phng php d on ca 2 thnh phn ny tng t nh 4 phng php c
s dng d on thnh phn Luma trong khi 16x16 ch khc th t: DC (ch
0), Ngang (ch 1), Dc (ch 2), Cho (ch 3).

4.1.2.

Inter-prediction

Inter-prediction s dng kch thc khi (block size) trong mt khong (t 1616 n 44)
d on cc pixel trong khung hnh hin thi t cc khung hnh trc v cng nm trn
mt vng tng t.
Cc thut ton dng trong d on interframe: Diamond Search, Hexagon Search, Four
Step Search,...
Chng xoay quanh mt hm tiu chun i snh. Cc hm thng dng l:
Sai khc trung bnh tuyt i MAD:
1 1

1
= 2 | |

=0 =0

Sai khc trung bnh bnh phng MSE:

1 1

1
2
= 2 ( )

=0 =0

Trong : l kch thc ca Macroblock, v l cc pixel tng ng.

Trong a s trng hp, encoder s thnh cng trong vic thc hin d on interframe,
nhng khi tm c cha hn hon ton trng khp vi khi trc c m ha.
Do vy encoder phi thc hin tnh ton sai s gia chng. Phn d sinh ra trong php tr
l sai s d on, n s c chuyn i v gi ti cho decoder.
Tm li, nu encoder thnh cng trong vic tm ra khi trong khung hnh tham chiu, n s
tr v mt vector chuyn ng tr ti khi tm c v km theo l mt sai s d on.
S dng 2 thng tin ny, decoder s c th khi phc li cc pixel nguyn thy ca block.

Hnh 6: Qu trnh m ha interframe.

u im v nhc im ca phng php d on ny:
Nu thun li, thut ton s tm ra c khi ph hp vi sai s b. V th sau khi
bin i, kch thc ca vector chuyn ng cng vi sai s d on s b hn kch
thc m ha nu s dng nh gc.
Nu khng tm c khi ph hp, kch thc m ha s ln hn kch thc m
ha nh gc. Lc ny, encoder s sinh mt ngoi l v gi km m ha ca nh
gc cho khi .
Nu frame trc cng c d on interframe th c th dn ti sai s chng
cht khi ti to hnh nh.
a phn trong cc thit k, c 2 loi interframe, l: P-frame v B-frame. Hai loi khung
hnh ny km vi I-frame to thnh mt GOP (Group of Pictures). Cc I-frame khng cn
thm thng tin g gii m nn n c th c dng lm khung hnh tham chiu. Cu trc
ny cho php ta c c I-frame theo mt chu k tun hon, gip ng b ha vic gii m
ca decoder.
P-frame
P-frame l hnh nh c d on k tip. D on c thc hin nh hnh nh trc ,
a phn l mt I-frame, cho nn n chim dng t khng gian lu tr hn (vo khong
50% so vi kch thc ca I-frame).
D liu thc hin d on bao gm cc vector chuyn ng v cc h s d on
qua bin i.
B-frame
B-frame l hnh nh c d on theo 2 chiu, t frame trc v sau n. B-frame chim
dng t khng gian lu tr hn P-frame (vo khong 25% so vi kch thc ca I-frame).
Tng t P-frame, B-frame cng c th hin qua cc vector chuyn ng v cc h s
bin i. trnh sai s chng cht khi ti to hnh nh, B-frame t khi c H.264/AVC s
dng l frame tham chiu.

4.1.3.

B lc kh khi vung

Vic x l khung hnh theo cc Macroblock s sinh ra cc nh gi (nh gi l cc yu t

nh to ra bi s sai lch trong qu trnh tip nhn, x l, ti to d liu nh sng ca
sensor, ng knh, thut ton... ) ti ng bin gia cc khi. Nhng nh gi theo khi ny
c th c gim bng cch p dng mt b lc kh khi vung vo cc pixel gia hai
khi, thng th chng s lm mn qu trnh chuyn i pixel t khi ny sang khi khc.
Trong H.263+, tnh nng ny l ty chn, nhng trong H.264/AVC th n gip ci thin ng
k cht lng hnh nh.
Hn na, b lc kh khi vung c p dng trc khi s dng hnh nh lm khung hnh
tham chiu, iu ny s lm tng hiu qu ca qu trnh b chuyn ng.

4.2.

Bin i v Lng t ha
Khi d liu phn d sau cng on d on s c bin i thng qua mt b chuyn
i s nguyn (tng t bin i Cosin ri rc - DCT). Php bin i ny s cho ra mt
tp cc h s, mi thnh phn s l mt gi tr trng s cho mt nn chun c trc. Khi
c kt hp vi nhau, cc nn chun ny s c th ti to li khi d liu phn d ban
u.

Hnh 7: Chuyn i ngc, kt hp nn chun vi cc h s ti to khi nh

u ra ca php chuyn i trn, mt khi h s, s c lng t ha. V d: mi h
s s c chia cho mt gi tr nguyn. Qu trnh lng t s gim chnh xc ca b h
s theo mt tham s lng t cho trc (quantization parameter). Do vy, nu ta t tham
9

s lng t qu cao s dn ti nhiu h s b lng t v 0, cho ta kt qu nn vi h s

nn cao nhng cht lng nh ti to li xu. Nu t tham s lng t qu b th ta s c
nhiu h s c gi tr khc 0 hn, dn ti cht lng nh ti to tt hn nhng b li h s
nn li thp.
Qu trnh m ha video phi to ra mt s cc gi tr cn phi m ha c c dng bit
nn. Cc gi tr ny bao gm:
- Tham s lng t.
- Thng tin cung cp cho b gii m (decoder) to li phng on.
- Thng tin v cu trc ca d liu nn, v cng c s dng nn.
- Thng tin v ton b trnh t video.

4.3.

M ha Entropy
Kt qu m ha t 2 cng on trc s cho mt dng cc bit, vic cui cng l m ha
dng bit ny bng cc thut ton m ha entropy. H.264/AVC s dng 2 thut ton m ha
entropy l CABAC (Context Adaptive Binary Arithmetic Coding) v CAVLC (Context
Adaptive Variable Length Coding).
CABAC cho cht lng nn tt hn nhng gii m phc tp hn. 2 thut ton ny u l
cc thut ton nn khng mt thng tin nn s dng CABAC c th gim c bitrate so
vi CAVLC m vn gi c cht lng. CABAC c th ci thin cht lng nn khong
10-15% so vi CAVLC.
Cng on ny c thc hin Network Abstraction Layer (NAL).

5.

Qu trnh gii m video H.264/AVC

Hnh 8: S khi ca b gii m H.264/AVC

Gii m bitstream:
B gii m nhn c dng bit H.264/AVC, gii m cc thng s v tch ra cc thng tin
c lit k phn trn.
Chia li t l v chuyn i ngc:
Cc h s lng t c chia li t l. Mi h s c nhn vi mt gi tr s nguyn
phc hi li kch thc ban u. Qu trnh chuyn i ngc kt hp cc phn nn chun,
nh lng li bng cc thng s c chia li t l trn, to li cc khi d liu
phn d. Cc khi d liu phn d c kt hp tip, to thnh cc macroblock phn d.
10

6.

Do mi decoder c cc cch nh lng v a ra gi tr khc nhau nn cng 1 video, khi

gii m trn cc h thng / phn mm khc nhau s cho ra cht lng hnh nh c s khc
bit.
Ti to:
Vi mi Macroblock, decoder to mt phn on ging nh phn on to ra bi encoder.
Sau thm phn on ny vo phn d c gii m ti to macroblock, s dng
hin th sau khi p dng b lc kh khi vung. Nhng khung hnh c ti to hon
chnh s c lu li 1 phn phc v cho qu trnh b chuyn ng ca vng lp ti to tip
theo.

Chun H.264/AVC
6.1.

Cc h s - profile.
y l cc rng buc dnh cho encoder, thng qua profile m decoder c th nhn ra
nhng yu cu cn thit gii m video. Profile l cch sp lp ng dng nht nh ca
H.264/AVC:
Baseline Profile (BP): Dng cho cc ng dng/thit b gi r vi kh nng tnh ton cn hn
ch. Loi ny c s dng trong hi ngh video v cc thit b di ng.
Main Profile (MP): S dng cho ng dng tm trung, pht hoc lu tr. Thng c
dng cho nh dng pht sng v tuyn phn gii chun trc y.
Extended Profile (XP): S dng cho cc ng dng pht video, vi nn cao, kh nng
chu li tt v tng thch khi chuyn dng pht gia cc server vi nhau.
High Profile (HiP): Loi s dng chnh cho truyn hnh phn gii cao v lu tr trn a
(HDTV, Bluray, HD DVD,).
High 10bit Profile (Hi10P): Ging nh HiP nhng hin nay cc thit b cn c sa i
tng thch vi nh dng s dng 10bit mi mu mu.
High 4:2:2 Profile (Hi422P): S dng cho cc ng dng chuyn nghip vi video interlaced
v s dng video 10bit. H tr ly mu mu dng 4:2:2.
High 4:4:4 Profile (Hi444P): Tng t nh trn nhng ly mu mu dng 4:4:4, h tr ln
ti 14bit mu mu. H tr m ha khng mt thng tin.
Ngoi ra, cc h s ny cn bao gm mt s loi con h tr cho all-intra, tc l mt s thit
b thu / ghi hnh, chnh sa chuyn nghip ch s dng Intra-Frame. Tng ng vi cc loi
profile lit k trn:
High 10 Intra Profile.
High 4:2:2 Intra Profile.
High 4:4:4 Intra Profile.
CAVLC 4:4:4 Intra Profile (ch s dng m ha entropy CAVLC).
Trn PC, Bluray, Mac, ch yu s dng Main Profile v High Profile.
So snh cc tnh nng gia cc profile:

11

Baseline

Extended

Main

High

High 10

High
4:2:2

High
4:4:4

Khng

a khung hnh
tham chiu

B lc kh khi
vung

CAVLC

CABAC

Khng

Khng

M ha interlace

Khng

Chuyn i 8x8
hoc 4x4

Khng

Khng

Khng

Lng t theo ma
trn

Khng

Khng

Khng

iu khin
Chroma ring

Khng

Khng

Khng

M ha khun
mu ring

Khng

Khng

Khng

Khng

Khng

Khng

M ha khng mt
mt thng tin

Khng

Khng

Khng

Khng

Khng

Khng

I / P Slice
B Slice

Bng 1: So snh tnh nng gia cc profile.

6.2.

Cc cp - Level.
y l cc cp yu cu cho decoder c tm tt:

12

Level

Tc gii m ti a

Kch thc
khung hnh ti a

Video bitrate ti a

Mu
Luma/s

Mu
Luma/s

Baseline /
Extended /
Main
Profile

High
Profile

Hi10
Profile

MB/s

MB

phn gii@tc
khung hnh (s
khung hnh lu
trong buffer)

12896@30.9 (8)
176144@15.0 (4)

380 160

1 485

25 344

99

64

80

192

3.1

27 648 000

108 000

921 600

3 600

14 000

17 500

42 000

62 500

1 280720@68.3 (9)
150 000 1 9201 080@30.1 (4)
2 0481 024@30.0 (4)

4.1

62 914 560

245 760

2 097 152

8 192

50 000

720480@80.0 (13)
720576@66.7 (11)
1 280720@30.0 (5)

Bng 2: Tm tt cc level cho decoder.

Ngoi ra cc lp trnh vin hoc cc nh pht trin phn cng / ng dng cng c th da
vo level sn xut sn phm da theo c tnh trn d dng hn. V d nh quy nh
cho chun gii m DXVA.

6.3.

Kch thc buffer cho nhng hnh nh c gii m.

Nhng hnh nh c m ha trc bi encoder H.264/AVC s c s dng
xy dng phng on cho nhng hnh nh tip theo. iu ny gip encoder a ra quyt
nh hiu qu nht m ha mt hnh nh. Ti decoder, nhng hnh nh c gii m
s c lu tr trong mt buffer phc v qu trnh b chuyn ng cho khung hnh tip
theo.
V d: trnh chiu mt video vi phn gii 1920x1080 Level 4.1 th decoder s cn
mt buffer c th cha c 4 khung hnh.

So snh phng php nn ca H.264/AVC vi MPEG-1

7.
-

Ging nhau:
Qu trnh m ha u da trn khng gian mu YUV.
u s dng php bin i ri rc cc khi trc khi a h s vo qu trnh lng t ha.

13

Khc nhau:
MPEG-1
-

Thng dng phn gii chun SIF:

352x240, 352x288, or 320x240
Trong php DCT, ch p dng vi kch
thc block bng 8
c lng chuyn ng dng kch thc
block c nh
Mi P-Frame ch c th tham chiu ti 1
hnh nh (n khung hnh tham chiu)
Vector chuyn ng c chnh xc ti
pixel
M ha entropy: RLE, Huffman.

H.264/AVC
-

Dng vi phn gin t 12896 ti

4,0962,304
Php chuyn i s nguyn p dng vi
kch thc block bng 4 hoc 8
c lng chuyn ng dng kch thc
block thay i.
P-Frame c th tham chiu ti nhiu hnh
nh (a khung hnh tham chiu)
Vector chuyn ng c chnh xc ti
pixel
M ha entropy: CABAC, CAVLC.

Bng 3: So snh phng php nn ca MPEG-1 v H.264/AVC

8.

nh gi th nghim H.264/AVC v MPEG-1

Tin hnh th nghim vi 2 video nh dng YUV4MPEG khng nn c ly t ngun:
https://media.xiph.org/video/derf/
Cng c s dng
MPEG-1 Encoder: mpeg2enc trong b cng c mjpegtools trn Ubuntu Linux.
H.264/AVC Encoder: x264.exe trn Windows
Decoder: Media Player Classic trn Windows.
Tin hnh
Tn tp tin: tt_sif.y4m | https://media.xiph.org/video/derf/y4m/tt_sif.y4m
phn gii: 352 x 240
Dung lng: 19 008 946 byte
Cc so snh v hnh nh c thc hin trn cng mt khung hnh.

14

Kt qu
MPEG-1

H.264/AVC

Dung lng
video sau m ha
Cht lng hnh
nh

690 152 byte

591 974 byte

Hnh nh b hin tng blocking

nhng ni c vn g

Khng b hin tng blocking, cc

vn g hin ln r rng

Chuyn ng

Chuyn ng ca chic vt b
nhe, khng nhn r

Chuyn ng ca chic vt c th
hin

Bng 4: So snh kt qu th nghim

Vic th nghim c tin hnh tip tc vi d liu video th 2
(https://media.xiph.org/video/derf/y4m/foreman_cif.y4m) cng cho kt qu tng t, H.264/AVC t
ra vt tri hn hn c v mt cht lng hnh nh ti to ln dung lng lu tr chim dng.
Nguyn nhn l do H.264/AVC c m hnh d on interframe, intraframe tt hn so vi MPEG-1
v kh nng thay i ty theo ng cnh (kch thc block khng c nh, nm trong khong t
16x16 ti 4x4), chnh xc cao hn (vector chuyn ng c chnh xc pixel), kh nng tham
chiu a khung hnh (so vi n khung hnh tham chiu ca MPEG-1).

9.

Ti liu tham kho

[1]
http://www.vcodex.com/h264.html
[2]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H.264/MPEG-4_AVC
[3]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peak_signal-to-noise_ratio
[4]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Block-matching_algorithm
[5]
Block Matching Algorithms For Motion Estimation. Aroh Barjatya, Student Member, IEEE
[6]
Motion Estimation and Intra Frame Prediction in H.264/AVC Encoder, Rahul Vanam,
University of Washington.
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[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inter_frame
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bilinear_interpolation
H.264 / MPEG-4 Part 10 White Paper
Understanding the Application: An Overview of the H.264 Standard

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