Electrical Machines - Ill U. A. Bakshi M. V. Bakshi Technical Publications Pune*Unit - VII (Chapter - 6) Single Phase Motors : Single phase motors : Single phase induction motor - Constructional features - Double revolving field theory - Elementary idea of cross-field theory - Split phase motors - Shaded pole motor. Unit - VIII_ (Chapter - 7) Special Motors : Principle and performance of A.C. series motor - Universal motor - Principle of permanent magnet and reluctance motors. Chapter-1 _ Basies of Synchronous Generator (1-1) to (1 - 66) Chapter-2 Characteristics of Synchronous Generator (2 - 1) to (2 - 22) Chapter-3 Regulation of Synchronous Generator (3-1)to (3-90) | Chapter-4 Synchronization and Parallel Operation of Alterators (4-1)to (4-92) Chapter-5 Synchronous Motors (5- 1) to (5 - 90) Chapter-6 __ Single Phase Motors 6 = 1) to (6-40) Chapter-7 Special Motors (Z-1)to (7-20) Chapterwise University Questions with Answers (P - 1) to (P - 32) @) vted ervataialFeatures of Book {® Self explanatory and simple text book. # Well balance between theory and problems. '# Simpler but exact explanation. # The concepts are highlighted using Key Points in all the sections. Informative diagram explaining the conceptual understanding of the topic. Best of Technical Publications As per Revised Syllabus of JNTU-2005 Course Third Year, Semester - I Computer Organisation ‘© Electrical Measurements ‘= Power Electronics © Electrical Machines-Ill (4)@ as Electrical Machines - III ISBN 81 - 8431-253 -9 All sights reserved with Technical Publications. No part ofthis book should be reproduced in any form, Electronic, Mechanical, Photocopy or any information storage and retrieval system without prior permission in writing, from Technical Publications, Pune. Published by Technical Publications Pune” #1, Amit Residency, 412, Shaniwar Peth, Pune - 411 030, India Printer Alen DTPintes, Sec. 10/3 Sishagad Rosd, Pine - 411 041Preface The importonce of the various electrical machines in the field of engineering is well-known. Mos! of the engineering opplicalions use one or the other type of electrical machine. In this context it is necessary for the engineering students to leam the basics of electrical machines and the various methods of analysis of electrical machines. This book covers the entire revised syllabus of | the subject ‘Electrical Machines - III". The overwhelming response 10 our previous books on similor subjects encouraged us 10 write this book. This book covers the entire syllabus ond various aspects of the subject ‘Electrical Machines - II" The book uses @ plain, lucid and everyday language to explain the subject. The book prepares very carefully a background of each topic with essential illustrations and practical exomples and then step by slep gives the complex derivations and explonotions. Each chopter is supporied with large number of solved problems. The important aspects of various topics are highlighted using the Key Points, included in the respective discussions of the topics, throughout the book. The theory of electical machines can be digested through the working of mony problems, solutions of which are known. From this point of view, ot the end of each chapter the exercise including theory questions and the problems, alongwith the onswers ore added. The exact and clear representation of complex phasor diagrams ond circle diogioms is the feature of this book. The stepwise methods given to solve the problems on various topics, greatly simplifies the onalysis and the understanding of the problems. The solved problems from University Popers ore olso odded in this book. The synchronous machines are dassiied os synchronous generators and the synchronous motors. Hence the entire topic of synchronous machines, included in the syllabus is split as synchronous generators ‘ond synchronous motors in this book. The chapter 1 is devoted to the theory of synchronous generaiors which are popularly known os altemators. It includes the working principle, construction, operation, e.m.f, equation and effect of harmonics on the induced e.m.f. of three phase oliemotors. In the anolysis of the aliemators, the parameter like voltage regulation plays on important role. The chapter 2 explains porameters of armatire winding, armature reaction, voltage equation, phasor dogram and regulation of on alternator. The chapter 3 conlinues with the detail discussion of vorious methods of colculoting the regulation of three phase altemators. The stepwise solutions ond clear grophs drawn io the scole is the feature of this fopic. In on interconnected systom it becomes ‘necessary to synchronize the given oliemator with the busbar. The chapter 4 includes the various methods of synchronizing the alternators. It also includes the porailel operation of two altemators, lood sharing, operating characteristics, concept of synchronizing ower, synchronizing current ond the effect of change in excitation and the input on the power angle. The chapter 5 exoloins in simple longuage the fundamentols of three phase synchronous moiors including the starting methods, variable load and voriable excitation behaviour of motors, hunting and methods of minimizing hunting ond the use of synchronous motors os power factor correcting device. It also includes the Blondel diagram which explains the concept of constant power circle for the synchronous motors. The commonly used electrical machines in the commerciol and domestic applications are single phose induction motors. The chapter 6 is devoted to the theory, types ond applications of single phase EEE CLE OLSALOOE LE ELE N REE BEE LE IAN. REinduction motors. The equivalent circuit and performonce analysis from the equivalent circuit, of the single dhose induction motors is also included in this chapter. The chapter 7 exolains the theory, types and applications of various special purpose fractional horse power motors. It includes the discussion of Reluctonce motors, Hysteresis motors, A.C. series motors, Universal motors and Permanent magnet A.C. ond D.C. motors. In all, this book explains the philosophy of the subject ‘Electrical Mechines - Ill. The book will be very much useful not only to the students but also to the subjec' teachers. The students have to omit nothing and possibly, have to cover nothing more. We wish to express our profound thanks to oll those who helped in making this book o reolily. Much needed moral support and encouragemen’ is provided on numerous occasions by our whole fom Finally we wish to thonk the Publisher and the entire teom of Technical Publications who have taken immense pain to get this book in time with quolity printing Any suggestions for the improvement of the book will be acknowledged and well opprecialed. Authors U. A. BAKSHI Im. UV. BAKSHI Dedicated to Our Respected Parents Mrs. Nisha & Mrs. Sushama Bakshi1.2.4 Conoapt of Sip Rings and Brush Assembly... 0... sss eessveeseeeeseeeeeeeees 1.3 Advantages of Rotating Field Over Rotating Armature... ml 15 Stator .. 1.6 Rotor 1.6.1 Salient Pole Type .. 1.6.3 Difference between Salient and 3d Cyindcal Type of Rotor 1.7 Excitation System ..... mI 1.7.1 Brushless Excitation System........... sess ese 1-6 1.9 Working Principle... 1.9.1 Mechanical and Electical Angle 1.9.2 Frequency of Induced E.M. 1.9.3 Synchronous Speed (N,)- 1.10 Armature Winding 4.10.4 Winding Terminology. 1.11 Types of Armature Windings.......sssesrsesrsrrne 1.11.4 Single Layer and Double Layer Winding 1.11.2 Full Pitch and Short Pitch Winding... 1.11.2.1 Coil Span 1 11.22 Advantages of Stor Pith Coi 1.11.3 Concentrated and Distributed Winding . 1.42 Integral Slot Winding...1.13 Fractional Slot Winding.... 1.13.1 Advantages of Fractional Slot Winding . 1.14 E.M.F. Equation of an Alternator. 1.14.1 Pitch Factor or Coil Span Factor (Kc) 4.14.2 Distribution Factor (Ke). 1.15.1 Slot Harmonics 1-31 1.16 Effect of Harmonic Components on an Induced E.M.F... i 1.16.1 Effect of Harmonic Components on Pitch Factor. .... 1... sesecesseesseereesersees 1.16.2 Effect of Harmonic Components on Distribution Factor . 1.16.3 Total E.M.F. Generated due to Harmonic Components. Examples with Solutions... 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Parameters of Armature Winding... 7 2.3 Armature Resistance oc eeesennneesstinnnsnenitnsnssssnmsrinnnnd = 4 2.4 Armature Leakage Reactance..... 2.5 Armatur i eI 2.5.1 Unity Power Factor Load. . oo... esses see esse eee e tees sees eee e esses ees 2.5.2 Zero Lagging Power Factor Load... .. ss... sess sees sees eee ee ee eases eens 2.5.3 Zero Leading Power Factor Load 2.5.4 Armature Reaction Reactance (Xu) .. . eee 2.6 Concept of Synchronous Reactance and Impedance. 2.7 Equivalent Circuit of an Alternator ..... 2.8 Voltage Equation of an Altemator....... 2.9 Phasor Diagram of a Loaded Altemator 2.9.1 Lagging Power Factor Load ............. 2.9.2 Leading Power Factor Load ..........2.9.3 Unity Power Factorioad....... 2-14 2.10 Voltage Regulation of an Altemator .. 2.11 kVA Rating of an Alternator .. Examples with Solutions . 3.2 Voltage Regulation by Direct Loading..... 3.3 Synchronous Impedance Method or E.M.F. Method ... 3.3.1 Open CircuitTest oe. 33.2 Short CicuitTest 3.3.3 Determination of Z; fom 0.C-C. and $.C.C......... 8B 3.3.4 Regulation Calculations........... 3-7 3.5.5 Advantages and Limitations of Syntvonous Impedance Method . 3-8 3.4 M.M.F. Method of Determining Regulation ... 3.5 Zero Power Factor (ZPF) Method... 3.5.1 Open Circuit Test ............. : 3.5.2Zero Power Factor Test. 3.5.3 Use of Potier Reactance to Determine Regulation . . . 3.6 ASA Modification of MME. Methad 3-28 3.7 Blondel's Two Reaction Theory (Theory of Salient Pole Machine). 3.7.1 Direct and Quadrature Axis Synchronous Reactances.......................- 3.7.2 Detail Analysis of Phasor Diagram . feces 3.8 Determination of Xs and Xq using ‘a Slip Test... Examples with Solutions... 4.1.1 Necessary Conditions for Synchronization. . 4.2 Synchronization of Single Phase Alternators ...42.1 Lamps Dark Method : 42.2 Lamps Bright Method... .sessssseecereeteeeeeeees severe bed 4.3 Synchronization of Three Phase Alternators ... 4.4 Synchronization by Synchroscope 4.5 Synchronizing Current 4.6 Theory of Cylindrical Rotor Machine: 4.7 Operating Characteristics 4.8 Power Angle Characteristics... 4.9 Operation at Constant Load with Variable Excitation... 4.10 Operation at Constant Excitation with Variable Load. 4.11 Synchronizing Power.. 4.14.1 Expression for Synchronizing Power (Psv) 4.13 Expression of Synchronozing Power for Salient Pole Machine... 4.14 Parallel Operation of Two Alternators... 4.15 Effect of Change in Excitation... 4.15.1 Alternator on No Load 4.15.2 Alternator on Load eeccccee 4.15.3 Phasor Diagram .... 2.2.22... poe 4.15.4 Division of Load between Two! Atemalors 4-29 4.16 Effect of Change in Input or Mechanical Torque... 4-31 4.16.1 Alternator on No Load... ..... 4-34 4.16.2 Alternator on Load. 4.17 Alternators Connected to Infinite Bus Bar..... . 4-34 4.17.4 Effect of Excitation............ asee . 4-35 4.7.1.1 Alternator on No Load. rere aa . 4-36 4.47.4.2 Alternator onload... A 4.17.2 Effect of Driving Torque... 1... sce eee eee ce sees eee tees pete OB 4.18 Capability Curves. 4.19 Short Circuit Transients ... 4.19.1. Constant Flux Linkage Theorem . Material com direitos autorais4.19.2 Analysis of RL Series Circuit 4.19.3 Short Circuit Phenomenon 4.19.4 Stator Currents During Short Circuit. . 4.20 Single Phase Short Circuit... Examples with Solutions .... Review Questions... 5.2 Rotating Magnetic Field (R.M.F.) 5.2.1 Production of Rotating Magnetic Field 5.2.2 Direction of Rotating Magnetic Field a . 5.3 Construction of Three Phase Synchronous Motor... 5.4 Principle of Working .. 5.5 Why Synchronous Motor is Not Self Stai 5.6 Procedure to Start a Synchronous Motor. 5.7 Methods of Starting Synchronous Moto! 5.7.1 Using Pony Motos... 2.2... 5.7.2 Using Damper Winding. .......... 5.7.3 Asa Slip Ring Induction Motor 5.7.4 Using Small D.C. Machine .....00.000cccceeereseees 5.8 Behaviour of Synchronous Motor on Loading. 5.8.1 Ideal Condition on No Load. ...... . 5.8.2 Synchronous Motor on No Load (With Lostes).. boebeeeseceues 5.8.3 Synchronous Motor on Load... 1... sees see eveeseeeesneeen eres ereeteerenss 5.8.4 Constant Excitation Circle... . 5.9 Analysis of Phasor Diagram 5.10 Operation of Synchronous Motor at Constant Load Variable Excitation 5.10.1 Under Excitation . 5.10.2 Over Excitation ..... 5.10.3 Critical Excitation. ...Chapter - 5.11 V-Curves and Inverted V-Curves .. 5.11.1 Experimental Setup to Obtain V-Curves . . 5.12 Expression for Back E.M.F. or Induced E. M.F. Per Phase in ‘Synchronous Motor (Eppn)..- 5.13 Power Flow in Synchronous Motor 5.14 Alternative Expression for Power Developed by a Synchronous Motor. 5.15 Condition for Maximum Power Developed... 5.15.1 The Value of Maximum Power Developed ....-......6.20++ 5.15.2 Condition for Excitation When Motor Develops (P., )muye <2+-+00see0eceeeeeeeeees ee 536 5.16 Blondel Diagram [Constant Power Circle]. 5.17 Salient Pole Synchronous Motor... 5.18 Hunting in Synchronous Motor. 5.18.1 Use of Damper Winding to Prevent Hunting 5.19 Synchronization with Infinite Bus Bar 5.20 Synchronous Condensers... 5.20.1 Disadvantages of Low Power Factor. ........... fesse : 5-45 5.20.2 Use of Synchronous Condenser in Power Factor Improvement . 5.21 Applications of Three Phase Synchronous Moto! 5.22 Comparison of Synchronous and Induction Motor .. 5.23 Synchronous Induction Motor... 5.23.1 Performance Characteristics of Synchronous Induction Motors 5.23.2 Advantages of Synchronous Induction Motor. 5.23.3 Disadvantages of Synchronous Induction Motor . o 5.23.4 Applications of Synchronous Induction Motor. .......csseseeecseeseeeeeeeeereee Examples with Solutions... Review Questions ...5 - 49 Single Phi 6.1 Introduction ..... 6.2 Construction of Single Phase Induction Motors .. 6.3 Working Principle .. Motors OSEAN EE ee6.4 Double Revolving Field Theory. 6.4.1 Torque-Speed Characteristics. 6.5 Cross Field Theory... 6.6 Types of Single Phase Induction Motors ... 6.7 Split Phase Induction Motor 6.7.1 Applications. . 6.8 Capacitor Start Indaction Motors .. 6.8.1 Applications........... 6.9 Shaded Pole Induction Motors 6.9.1 Applications... 0... cccseceeeeeeseeeeeeeeeetseeeeene 6.10 Equivalent Circuit of 4 Single F Phase Induction Motor . 6.10.1 Without Core LOSS. ... 62... 6s see eeeeeeeeeee es : 6.10.2 With Core Loss . 6.11 Conducting Tests on Single | Phase Induction Motor 6.14.4 No Load Test... 2. e ec cece cee ceeeeeeeeeees 6.11.2 Blocked Rotor Test . Examples with Solutions Review Questions....... EEE 7.1 Single Phase Commutator Motors 7.1.1 Single Phase AC. Series Motor...... 7.1.2 Universal Motor. . . TAZA Phasor Diagram ofA Sere | Motor oe 7.2 Permanent Magnet D.C. Motors... 12.4 Construction 1.2.2 Working and Performance Characteristics........... pesstrtrsresessceies ‘12.3 Performance Characteristics TR 7.2.4 Advantages ... 7.2.5 Disadvantages . 7.2.6 Applications . . 7.3. Permanent Magnet AC Motors. 7.3.1 Construction. ...7.32 Operation... eeeeeeeee 7.33 Advantages... 7.3.4 Disadvantages .... 7.3.5 Applications . wee eeeee woe 1.4 Reluctance Motor .......sccssssssssusssecssesssunsesscssessssnasessssnnssessensnssnmnal = 12 7.4.4 Working Principle a 7-13 7.4.2 Mathematical Analysis. 27-13 7.4.3 Torque-Speed Characteristics. 7-14 cesses 7-15 7.4.4 Advantages 7.46 Applications 7.5 Hysteresis Motor... 7.6.1 Mathematical Analysi 7.52 Torque-Speed Characteristics. 7.8.3 AdVANIAQeS . eee eee 7.54 Applications......... Examples with Solutions Review Questions...Basics of Synchronous Generator 1.1 Introduction It is known that the electric supply used, now a days for commercial as well as domestic purposes, is of alternating type. Similar to d.c. machines, the a.c. machines associated with altemating voltages, are also classified as generators and motors. The machines generating ac. emf. are called alternators or synchronous generators. While the machines accepting input from a.c. supply to produce mechanical output are called synchronous motors. Both these machines work at a specific constant speed called synchronous speed and hence in general called synchronous machines. All the modern power stations consists of large capacity three phase alternators. In this chapter, the construction, working principle and the e.m-f. equation of three phase alternator is discussed. 1.2 Difference between D.C. Generator and Alternator It is seen that in case of a d.c. generator, basically the nature of the induced emf. in the armature conductors is of alternating type. By using commutator and brush assembly it is converted to d.c. and made available to the external circuit. If commutator is dropped from a d.c. generator and induced e.m-f. is tapped from an armature directly outside, the nature of such e.m.f. will be alternating. Such a machine without commutator, providing an a.c. e.m.f. to the extemal circuit is called an alternator. The obvious question is how is it possible to collect an e.m.. from the rotating armature without commutator ? Key Point: So the arrangement which is used to collect an induced e.mf. from the rotating armature and make it available to the stationary circuit is called slip ring and brush assembly. 1.2.4 Concept of Slip Rings and Brush Assembly Whenever there is a need of developing a contact between rotating element and the stationary circuit without conversion of an emf. from a.c. to dc., the slip rings and brush assembly can be used a-4Electrical Mac! Ml 1-2 Basics of Synchronous Generat In case of three phase alternators, the armature consist of three phase winding and an ac. emf. gets induced in these windings. After connecting windings in star or delta, the three ends of the windings are brought out. Across these terminals three phase supply is available. But the armature i. these terminals are rotating and hence stationary load can not be connected directly to them. Hence slip rings, made up of conducting material are mounted on the shaft. Each terminal of winding is connected to an individual slip ring, permanently. Hence three phase supply is now available across the rotating slip rings. The brushes are resting on the slip rings, just making contact. Key Point: The brushes are stationary. Hence as brushes make contact with the slip rings, the three phase supply is now available across the brushes which are stationary. Hence any stationary load can then be connected across these stationary terminals available from the brushes. The schematic arrangement is shown in the Fig. 1.1. 3 Rotating (Stationary terminals ‘armature to stationary load) Fig. 1.1 Arrangement of slip rings Not only the induced e.m-f. can be taken out from the rotating winding check outside but an induced em-f. can be injected to the rotating winding from outside with the help of slip ring and brush assembly. The external voltage can be applied across the brushes, which gets applied across the rotating due to the springs. Now the induced e.m-f. is basically the effect of the relative motion present between an armature and the field. Such a relative motion is achieved by rotating armature with the help of prime mover, in case of a dc. generator. As armature is connected to commutator in a d.c. generator, armature must be a rotating member while field as a stationary. But in case of alternators it is possible to have, 1) The rotating armature and stationary field. 2) The rotating field and stationary armature. Key Point: But practically most of the alternators prefer rotating field type construction with stationary armature due to certain advantages.Electrical Machines - Ill 1-3 Basics of Synchronous Generator 1.3 Advantages of Rotating Field Over Rotating Armature The various advantages of rotating field can be stated as, 1) As everywhere a.c. is used, the generation level of ac. voltage may be higher as I1kV to 33 kV. This gets induced in the armature. For stationary armature large space can be provided to accommodate large number of conductors and the insulation. 2) It is always’ better to protect high voltage winding from the centrifugal forces caused due to the rotation. So high voltage armature is generally kept stationary. This avoids the interaction of mechanical and electrical stresses. 3) It is easier to collect larger currents at very high voltages from a stationary member than from the slip ring and brush assembly. The voltage required to be supplied to the field is very low (110 V to 220 V dc.) and hence can be easily supplied with the help of slip ring and brush assembly by keeping it rotating. 4) The problem of sparking at the slip rings can be avoided by keeping field rotating which is low voltage circuit and high voltage armature as stationary. 5) Due to low voltage level on the field side, the insulation required is less and hence field system has very low inertia. It is always better to rotate low inertia system than high inertia, as efforts required to rotate low inertia system are always less. 6) Rotating field makes the overall construction very simple. With simple, robust mechanical construction and low inertia of rotor, it can be driven at high speeds So greater output can be obtained from an alternator of given size. 7) If field is rotating, to excite it by an external d.c. supply two slip rings are enough. One each for positive and negative terminals. As against this, in three phase rotating armature the minimum number of slip rings required are three and can not be easily insulated due to high voltage levels. 8) The ventilation arrangement for high voltage side can be improved if it is kept stationary. Due to all these reasons the most of the altemators in practice use rotating field type of arrangement. For small voltage rating alternators rotating armature arrangement may be used. 1.4 Construction ‘As mentioned earlier, most of the altemators prefer rotating field type of construction. In case of alternators the winding terminology is slightly different than in case of d.c. generators. In alternators the stationary winding is called ‘Stator’ while the rotating winding is called ‘Rotor. Key Point: So most of alternators have stator as armature and rotor as field, in practice. Constructional details of rotating field type of alternator are discussed below.Electrical Machines - Ill 1-4 Basics of Synchronous Generator 1.5 Stator The stator is a stationary armature. This consists of a core and the slots to hold the armature winding similar to the armature of a d.c. generator. The stator core uses a laminated construction. It is built up of special steel stampings insulated from each other with varnish or paper. The laminated construction is basically to keep down eddy current losses. Generally choice of material is steel to keep down hysteresis losses. The entire core is fabricated in a frame made of steel plates. The core has slots on its periphery for housing the armature conductors. Frame does not carry any flux and serves as the support to the core. Ventilation is maintained with the help of holes cast in the frame. The section of an alternator stator is shown in the Fig. 1.2. conductor Stet with an insulaton lining around Fig. 1.2 Section of an alternator stator 1.6 Rotor There are two types of rotors used in alternators — 1) Salient pole type, 2) Smooth cylindrical type. 1.6.1 Salient Pole Type This is also called projected pole type as all the poles are projected out from the surface of the rotor. The poles are built up of thick steel laminations. The poles are bolted to the rotor as shown in the Fig. 1.3. The pole face has been given a specific shape. The field winding is provided on the pole shoe. These rotors have large diameters and small axial lengths. The limiting factor for the size of the rotor is the centrifugal force acting on the rotating member of the machine. As Fig. 1.3 Salient pole type rotor mechanical strength of salient pole type is less, this is preferred for low speed alternators ranging from 125 r.p.m. to 500 rpm. The prime movers used to drive such rotor are generally water turbines and I.C. engines.Electrical Machines - Ill Basics of Synchronous Generator 1.6.2 Smooth Cylindrical Type Fig. 1.4 Smooth cylindrical rotor This is also called non-salient type or non-projected pole type or round rotor construction, The Fig. 1.4 shows smooth cylindrical type of rotor. The rotor consists of smooth solid steel cylinder, having number of slots to accommodate the field coil. The slots are covered at the top with the help of steel or manganese wedges. The unslotted portions of the cylinder itself act as the poles. The poles are not projecting out and the surface of the rotor is smooth which maintains uniform air gap between stator and the rotor. These rotors have small diameters and large axial lengths. This is to keep peripheral speed within limits. The main advantage of this type is that these are mechanically very strong and thus preferred for high speed alternators ranging between 1500 to 3000 rpm. Such high speed alternators are called ‘turboalternators'. The prime movers used to drive such type of rotors are generally steam turbines, electric motors. Let us list down the differences between the two types in tabular form. 1.6.3 Difference between Salient and Cylindrical Type of Rotor Salient Pole Type Smooth Cylindrical Type surface. Air gap is non-uniform. Poles are projecting out from the Unslotted portion of the cylinder acts as poles hence poles are non- projecting. ‘Ait gap is uniform due to smooth cylindrical penphery.. small. Mechanically weak. Diameter is high and asial length is ‘Small diamater and large axial length is the feature. Mechanically robust. turbines, 1.C. engines. than cylindrical type. provided. Preferred for low speed alternators. Prime mover used are water For same size, the rating is smaller ‘Separate damper winding is Preferred for high speed altemators i.e. for turboalternators. Prime movers used are steam turbines, electric motors. For same size, rating is higher than salient pole type. Separate damper winding is not necessary.Electrical Machines - Ill - 1-6 Basics of Synchronous Generator 1.7 Excitation System The synchronous machines whether alternator or motor are necessarily separately excited machines. Such machines always require dc. excitation for their operation. The field systems are provided with direct current which is supplied by a d.c. source at 125 to 600 V. In many cases the exciting current is obtained from a d.c. generator which is mounted on the same shaft of that of alternator. Thus excitation systems are of prime importance. Many of the conventional system involves slip rings, brushes and commutators. 1.7.1 Brushless Excitation System With the increase in rating of an alternator, the supply of necessary magnetic field becomes difficult as the current values may reach upto 4000 A. If we use conventional excitation systems such as a dc. generator whose output is supplied to the alternator field through brushes and slip rings then problems are invariably associated with slip rings commutators and brushes regarding cooling and maintenance. Thus modern excitation systems are developed which minimizes these problems by avoiding the use of brushes. Such excitation system is called brushless excitation system which is shown in the Fig. 1.5. Mein alternator field Permanent magnet stationary armature alternator| Rotating armature AC.excitor L Feedback of generator ‘output voltage for control and regulation Magnetic amplifier Diode rectifier Fig. 1.5 Brushless excitation system It consists of silicon diode rectifiers which are mounted on the same shaft of alternator and will directly provide necessary excitation to the field. The power required for rectifiers is povided by an a.c. excitor which is having stationary field but rotating armature. The field of an excitor is supplied through a magnetic amplifier which will control and regulate the output voltage of the alternator since the feedback of output voltage of alternator is taken and given to the magnetic amplifier. The system can be made self contained if the excitation power for the magnetic amplifier is obtained from a small permanent magnet alternator having stationary armature which is driven from the main shaft. The performance and design of the overall system can be optimized by selecting proper frequency and voltage for a.c. excitor. The *dditional advantage that can be obtained with this system is that it is not necessar, to make arrangement for spare excitors, generator-field circuit breakers and field rheostats.Electrical Machines - tt! 1-7 Basics of Synchronous Generator 1.8 Methods of Ventilation 1) Natural Ventilation : A fan is attached to either ends of the machine. The ventilating medium is nothing but an atmospheric’ air which is forced over the machine parts, carrying away the heat. This circulation is possible with or without ventilating ducts. The ventilating ducts if provided may be either axial or radial 2) Closed Circuit Ventilating System ; An atmospheric air may contain injurious elements like dust, moisture, acidic fumes etc. Which aré harmful for the insulation of the winding. Hence for large capacity machines closed circuit system is preferred for ventilation. The ventilating medium used is generally hydrogen. The hydrogen circulated over the machine parts is cooled with the help of water cooled heat exchangers. Hydrogen provides very effective cooling than air which increases the rating of the machine upto 30 to 40% for the same size. All modern alternators use closed circuit ventilation with the help of iiydrogen as a ventilating medium. 1.9 Working Principle ‘The alternators work on the principle of electromagnetic induction. When there is a relative motion between the conductors and the flux, em.f. gets induced in the conductors, The dec. generators also work on the same principle. The only difference in practical alternator and a dic. generator is that in an alternator the conductors are stationary and field is rotating. But for understanding purpose we can always consider rélative motion of conductors with respect to the flux produced by the field winding Consider a relative motion of a single conductor under the magnetic field produced by two stationary poles. The magnetic axis of the two poles produced by field is vertical, shown dotted in the Fig. 1.6. 1 Velocity | parallel to fux By = velocity Flux direction ona fev Velocity EEE perpendicular to flux Magnetic axis, Fig. 1.6 Two pole alternator Let conductor starts rotating from position 1. At this instant, the entire velocity component is parallel to the flux lines. Hence there is no cutting of flux lines by-the. conductor. So st at this instant is zero and hence induced e.mf. in the conductor is also t zero.Electrical Machines - III 1-8 Basics of Synchronous Generator As the conductor moves from position I towards position 2, the part of the velocity component becomes perpendicular to the flux lines and proportional to that, e.m.f. gets induced in the conductor. The magnitude of such an induced emf. increases as the conductor moves from position 1 towards 2. At position 2, the entire velocity component is perpendicular to the flux lines, Hence there exists maximum cutting of the flux lines. And at this instant, the induced emf. in the conductor is at its maximum. As the position of conductor changes from 2 towards 3, the velocity component perpendicular to the flux starts decreasing and hence induced em. magnitude also starts decreasing. At position 3, again: the entire velocity component is parallel to the flux lines and hence at this instant induced em.f. in the conductor is zero. As the conductor moves from position 3 towards 4, the velocity component perpendicular to the flux lines again starts increasing. But the direction of velocity component now is opposite to the direction of velocity component exsisting during the movement of the conductor from position 1 to 2. Hence an induced e.m-f. in the conductor increases but in the opposite direction. At position 4, it achieves maxima in the opposite direction, as the entire velocity component becomes perpendicular to the emf. flux lines. Again from position 4 to 1, induced em4. decreases and finally at position 1, again becomes zero. This cycle continues as conductor rotates at a certain speed. So if we plot the magnitudes of the induced e.m-f. against the time, we get an alternating nature of the induced e.m-f. as shown in the Fig. 1.7. Fig. 1.7 Alternating nature of the induced This is the working principle of an em. alternator. 1.9.1 Mechanical and Electrical Angle We have seen that for 2 pole alternator, one mechanical revolution corresponds to one electrical cycle of an induced emi. Now consider 4 pole alternator ie. the field winding is designed to produce 4 poles. Due to 4 poles, the magnetic axis exists diagonally shown dotted in the Fig. 1.8. Fig. 1.8 (a) 4 pole alternatorElectrical Machines - Ill 1-9 Basics of Synchronous Generator Velocity penne Flux Flux Perpendicular me WS ‘ec amt) ee instants 1.3.5 and7 Instants 2, 4, 6 and 8 Fig. 1.8 (b) Velocity components at different instants Now in position 1 of the conductor, the velocity component is parallel to the flux lines while in position 2, there is gathering of flux lines and entire velocity component is perpendicular to the flux lines, So at position 1, the induced em.f. in the conductor is zero while at position 2, it is maximum. Similarly as conductor rotates, the induced em-f. will be maximum at positions 4, 6 and 8 and will be minimum at positions 3, 5 and 7. So during one complete revolution of the conductor, induced em.f. will experience four times maxima, twice in either direction and four times zero. This is because of the distribution of flux lines due to existence of four poles. So if we plot the nature of the induced emf; for one revolution of the conductor, we get the two electrical cycles of the Fig. 1.9 Nature of the induced e.m.f. induced e.m.f., as shown in the Fig. 19, Key Point : Thus the degrees electrical of the induced em, ic. number of cycles of the induced e.m.f. depends on the number of poles of an alternator. Induced, So for a four pole alternator we can write, 360° mechanical = 720° electrical From this we can establish the general relation between degrees mechanical and degrees electrical as, 360° mechanical = 360° x 5 electrical where P= Number of poles ie 1° mechanical = G) electricalElectrical Machines - Ill ~ 1-10 Basics of Synchronous Generator 1.9.2 Frequency of Induced E.M.F, Let P = Number of poles N = Speed of the rotor in r.p.m. and f = Frequency of the induced emf, From the discussion, we can write, One mechanical revolution of rotor = 5 eydles of emf, electrically. ‘Thus there are P/2 cycles per revolution. As speed is N rpm, in one second, rotor will complete 3) revolutions. 60 But —_cycles/sec. = frequency = f Frequency f = (No. of cycles per revolution) x (No. of revolutions per second) PON f= a*@ PN Hz (cycles per sec) So there exists a fixed relationship between three quantities, the number of poles P, the speed of the rotor N in rp.m. and f the frequency of an induced e.m.f. in Hz (Hertz). Key Point : Such a machine bearing a fixed relationship between P, N and f is called synchronous machine and hence alternators are also called synchronous generators. 1.9.3 Synchronous Speed ( N,) From the above expression, it is clear that for fixed number of poles, alternator has to be rotated at a particular speed to keep the frequency of the generated e.m-f. constant at the required value. Such a speed is called synchronous speed of the alternator denoted as Ns . 120f So : P where f = Required frequency In our nation, the frequency of an alternating e.mf. is standard equal to 50 Hz. To get 50 Hz frequency, for different number of poles, alternator must be driven at different speeds called synchronous speeds. Following table gives the values of the synchronous speeds for the alternators having different number of poles.Electrical Machines - Ill 1-11 Basics of Synchronous Generator Number of poles P 2 4 8 12 | 24 Synchronous speed N, in p.m. | 3000 1500 ‘| 750 500 | 250 Table 1.1 From the table, it can be seen that minimum number 6f poles for an alternator can be two hence maximum value of synchronous speed possible in our nation ie. for frequency of 50 Hz. is 3000 r.p.m. 1.10 Armature Winding Armature winding of alternators is different from that of d.c. machines. Basically three phase alternators carry three sets of windings arranged in the slots in such a way that there exists a phase difference of 120° between the induced e.m.fs in them. In a de. machine, winding is closed while in altemators winding is open ie. two ends of each set of winding is brought out. In three phase alternators, the six terminals are brought out which are finally connected in star or delta and then the three terminals are brought out. Each set of windings represents winding per phase and induced e.m-f. in each set is called induced emf. per phase denoted as Epy, All the coils used for one phase must be connected in such a way that their e.m.fs help each other. And overall design should be in such a way that the waveform of an induced e.m.f. is almost sinusoidal in nature. 4.10.1 Winding Terminology 1) Conductor : The part of the wire, which is under the influence of the magnetic field and responsible for the induced e.m.f. is'called active length of the conductor. The conductors are placed in the armature slots. 2) Turn : A conductor in one slot, when connected to a conductor in another slot forms a turn. So two conductors constitute a turn. This is shown in Fig. 1.10(a). fonductor [Eonguctor 1 fot 1 slot2 (Tum (b)Muititurn coil Fig. 1.10 3) Coil : As there are number of turns, for simplicity the number of turns are grouped together to form a coil. Such a coil is called multiturn coil. A coil may consist of single turn called single turn coil. The Fig. 1.10 (b) shows a multitum coil.Electrical Machines - III -12 Basics of Synchronous Generator 4) Coil Side : Coil consists of many turns. Part of the coil in each slot is called coil side of a coil as shown in the Fig. 1.10 (b). 5) Pole Pitch : It is centre to centre distance between the two adjacent poles. We have seen that for one rotation of the conductors, 2 poles are responsible for 360° electrical of e.m.f, 4 poles are responsible for 720° electrical of e.m.f. and so on. So 1 pole is responsible for 180° electrical of induced e.m.f. Key Point: So 180° electrical is also called one pole pitch. Practically how many slots are under one pole which are responsible for 180° electrical, are measured to specify the pole pitch. eg. Consider 2 pole, 18 slots armature of an alternator. Then under 1 pole there are 8 2 ie. 9 slots. So pole pitch is 9 slots or 180° electrical. This means 9 slots are responsible to produce a phase difference of 180° between the e.m.f.s induced in different conductors ‘This number of slots/pole is denoted as ‘n’. Pole pitch ~ 180° electrical = slots per pole (no. of slots/P) 6 Slot angle (f) : The phase difference contributed by one slot in degrees electrical is called slot angle As slots per pole contributes 180° electrical which is denoted as 'n’, we can write, I slot angle = 18% 180° B=— In the above example, n= B29, while B= a =20° Note: This means that if we consider an induced e.m.f. in the conductors which are placed in the slots which are adjacent to each other, there will exist a phase difference of B° in between them. While if e.m.f. induced in the conductors which are placed in slots which are 'n’ slots distance away, there will exist a phase difference of 180° in between them. Conductor 1 Conductor 2 y L eyz ems. in = ®t conductor 1 O° Oo eg= emf. in lot 1 2 Slot Slot 2 eo Naoto? (2) Adjacent slots (b) Indication of phase difference Fig. 1.14Electrical Machines Ht 1 Basics of Synchronous Generator 1.11 Types of Armature Windings In general armature winding is classified as, 1) Single layer and double layer winding. 2) Full pitch and short pitch winding. 3) Concentrated and distributed winding, Let us see the details of each classification. 1.11.1 Single Layer and Double Layer Winding If a slot consists of only one coil side, winding is said to be single layer. This is shown in the Fig. 1.12 (a). While there are two coil sides per slot, one at the bottom and one at the top the winding is called double layer as shown in the Fig. 1.12 (b). <— Tums Coil side Coil side 1 + siot Coll side 2 Siot Conductors (a) Single layer (b) Double layer Fig. 1.12 A lot of space gets wasted in single layer hence in practice generally double layer winding is preferred. 4.11.2 Full Pitch and Short Pitch Winding As seen earlier, one pole pitch is 180° electrical. The value of 'n’, slots per pole indicates how many slots are contributing 180° electrical phase difference. So if coil side in one slot is connected to a coil side in another slot which is one pole pitch distance away from first slot, the winding is said to be full pitch winding and coil is called full pitch coil. For example, in 2 pole, 18 slots altemator, the pole pitch is n = % = 9 slots. So if coil side in slot No. 1 is connected to coil side in slot No. 10 such that two slots No. 1 and No. 10 are one pole pitch or n slots or 180° electrical apart, the coil is called full pitch coil. Here we can define one more term related to a coil called coil span.Electrical Machine: 1-14 Basics of Synchronous Generator 141.21 Coll Span Tt is the distance on the periphery of the armature between two coil sides of a coil. It is usually expressed interms of number of slots or degrees electrical. So if coil span is ‘n’ slots : * or 180° electrical the coil is called ‘StotNo. 1 Sot No {n+1) ' 180° full pitch coil. This is shown in the i electrical ———} Fig. 1.13. As against this if coils are used in such a way that coil span is slightly less than a pole pitch ie. less than 180° electrical, the coils are called, short pitched coils or fractional pitched coils. Generally coils are shorted by one or two slots. Fig. 1.13 Full pitch coil So in 18 slots, 2 pole alternator instead of connecting a coil side in slot No. 1 to slot No.10, it is connected to a coil side in slot No or slot No. 8, coil is said to be short pitched coil and winding is called short pitch winding. This is shown in Fig. 1.14. For full pitch ~ Coll span... Tess than 180 Slot Slot Slot No.t No.9 Noto short by 4 1 slot r Fig. 1.14 Short pitch coil 1.11.2.2 Advantages of Short Pitch Colls In actual practice, short pitch coils are used as it has following advantages, 1) The length required for the end connections of coils is less i.e. inactive length of winding is less. So less copper is required. Hence economical. 2) Short pitching eliminates high frequency harmonics which distort the sinusoidal nature of e.m.f.. Hence waveform of an induced e.m.f. is more sinusoidal due to short pitching. 3) As high frequency harmonics get eliminated, eddy current and hysteresis losses which depend on frequency also get minimised. This increases the efficiency.Electrical Machines - Ill 1-15 ics of Synchronous Generator 1.11.3 Concentrated and Distributed Winding In three phase alternators, we have seen that there are three different sets of windings, each for a phase. So depending upon the total number of slots and number of poles, we have certain slots per phase available under each pole. This is denoted as 'm’. m = Slots per pole per phase = n/number of phases = n/3 (generally no. of phases is 3) For example in 18 slots, 2 pole alternator we have, n= and m = So we have 3 slots per pole per phase available. Now let 'x’ number of conductors per phase are to be placed under one pole. And we have 3 slots per pole per phase available. But if all ‘x’ conductors per phase are placed in one slot keeping remaining 2 slots per pole per phase empty then the winding is called concentrated winding. Key Point: So in concentrated winding all conductors or coils belonging to a phase are placed in one slot under every pole. But in practice, an attempt is always made to use all the 'm' slots per pole per phase available for distribution of the winding. So if ‘x’ conductors per phase are distributed amongst the 3 slots per phase available under every pole, the winding is called distributed winding. So in distributed type of winding all the coils belonging to a phase are well distributed over the 'm' slots per phase, under every pole. Distributed winding makes the waveform of the induced em.f more sinusoidal in nature. Also in concentrated winding due to large number of conductors per slot, heat dissipation is poor. Key Point: So in practice, double layer, short pitched and distributed type of armature winding is preferred for the alternators. mp Example 1.1: Draw the developed diagram for full pitch armature winding of a three phase, 4 pole, 24 slots alternator. Assume single layer winding and of distributed type. Note : This example will explain all the winding terminologies discussed earlier. Solution : P= 4, 24 slots , 3 phase n= Slots per pole = a 6 m = Slots per pole per phase = B =" Slot angle = ie 180°Electrical Machines - Ill 1-16 Basics of Synchronous Generator Full pitch coils are to be used so if phase 1 say R is started in slot 1, it is to be connected to a coil in slot 7 so that coil span will be 6 slots ie. ‘n’ slots i.e. 1 pole pitch. As distributed winding is to be used, both the slots per pole per phase (m = 2) available are to be used to place the coils. And all coils for one phase are to be connected in series. So from slot No.7 we have to connect it to coil slot No.2 and slot No.2 second end to slot No. and so on. After finishing all slots per phase available under first pair of pole, we will connect coil to slot No.13 under next pole and winding will be repeated in similar fashion. The starting end R, and final end Ry winding for R-phase are taken out finally. Connections for R-phase only are shown in the Fig. 1.15. Lo» JLs JL» JIL s J l, 13} + I %e B All coils per phase in series H he 1g}20}21]22423]24] Fig. 1.15 Developed winding diagram for ‘R’ phase Now, we want to have a phase difference of 120° between 'R' and 'Y'. Each slot contributes 30° as B = 30°. So start of 'Y' phase should be 120° apart from start of 'R’ ie. 4 slots away from start of R. So start of "Y' will be in slot 5 and will get connected to slot No.11 to have full pitch coil. Similarly start of "B will be further 120° apart from 'Y’ 4 slots apart start of "Y’ will be in slot No.9 and will continue similar to 'R’. Finally all six Starpoint Fig. 1.16 Winding diagram for all three phasesElectrical Machines - tll 1-17 Basics of Synchronous Generator terminals of three sets will be brought out which are connected either in star or delta to get three ends RY and B outside to get three phase supply. The entire winding diagram with star connected windings is shown in the Fig. 1.16. 1.12 Integral Slot Winding ‘The value of slots per pole per phase decides the class of the winding. m = slots / pole / phase Key Point : When the value of m is integer, then the winding is called integral slot winding. Consider 2 pole, 12 slots alternator hence, 2 7 n = slots / pole = Pole pitch = 180° = 6 slots n_6 m= 2 3° 3 ‘As m is integer, the type of winding is integral slot winding. This winding can be full pitch winding or short pitch winding. Let, the winding is full pitch winding. For integral slot winding, coils of one coil group lying under one pole pair are connected in series. Thus the end of the first coil is connected to start of the next coil lying to the right of the first coil. The alternate coil groups must be reverse connected such that em-f. induced in them is additive in nature. Any slot contains the coil sides which belong to the same phase. Such a winding is shown in the Fig. 1.17. Group 1 Fig. 1.17 Double layer integral slot winding If the short pitch coils are used for integral slot winding then in each group of the slots per pole phase, the coil sides of different phases exist.Electrical Machines - Il! 1-18 Basics of Synchronous Generator 1.13 Fractional Slot Winding This is another class of winding which depends on the value of m. Key Point: When the value of m is non-integer ie. fraction then the winding is called fractional slot winding. If S is the number of slots then the value of m is selected as, Ss 3p ..for fractional slot winding m where $ must be divisible by 3. Thus slots per phase is integral. While the pole pitch ie. S/P is also fractional. Thus coil span can not be full pitch. When m is integer then the basic unit under a pole pair N and S keeps on repeating in the winding for any number of pole pairs. In fractional slot winding, in order to construct a basic unit, the ratio $/3P is further reduced to irreducible fraction by cancelling out the highest common factor from $ and P. Thus, s_s SP oP The coil sides under P’ poles form a basic unit which repeats in the winding for P/P’ times. m= In double layer winding, phase grouping of coil sides for bottom layer is same as the phase grouping of coil sides for top layer where corresponding coil sides are located one coil span away. The steps for designing fractional slot winding are, 1. Calculate the slot angle which is also fractional. 2. Starting with 0°, calculate the angle for serially arranged slots. If angle exceeds 180°, subtract 180°, 3. The phase group R is located for 0 < angle 2 60° The phase group B is located for 60” < angle 2 120° The phase group Y is located for 120° s angle 2 180° ‘The ordering of phase group is RB‘ YR’ BY’. 4. The starting points of the phases are located at 0°, 60°, and 120°. 1.13.1 Advantages of Fractional Slot Winding The various advantages of fractional slot winding are, 1. Though appear to be complicated, easy to manufacture. 2. The number of armature slots need not be integral multiple of number of poles. 3. The number of slots can be selected for which notching gear is available. 4. There is saving in machine tools.Electrical Machines - I!’ 1-19 Basics of Synchronous Generator 5. High frequency harmonics are considerably reduced 6. The voltage waveform available is sinusoidal in nature. 1.14 E.M.F. Equation of an Alternator Let = Flux per pole, in Wb P = Number of poles N, = Synchronous speed in r-p.m. f£ = Frequency of induced emf. in Hz Z = Total number of conductors Zpy = Conductors per phase connected in series Zn = % as number of phases = 3. ph = 3 Consider a single conductor placed in « slot. The average value of em.f. induced in a conductor db © dt For one revolution of a conductor, Flux cut in one revolution mductor = 7 avg Per conductor = Te taken for one revolution Total flux cut in one revolution is $x P. Time taken for one revolution is ©. seconds. Ns Cayg Per conductor = a (x) = ths 1) But ¢ = Ms IMs so Substituting in (1), yg Per conductor = 2 f dvoltsElectrical Machines - Ill | 1-20 Basics of Synchronous Generator Assume full pitch winding for simplicity i.e. this conductor is connected to a conductor which is 180° electrical apart. So these two e.m-fs will try to set up a current in the same direction ie. the two e.m.f. are helping each other and hence resultant e.m4. per turn will be twice the e.m.f. induced in a conductor. emf. per turn = 2x (em- per conductor) 2% (269 4 f pvolts. Let T,y be the total number of turns per phase connected in series. Assuming concentrated . _ winding, we can say that all are ved e placed in single slot per pole per ~ | conductor 1 donductor 2 phase. So induced em.fs in all turns will be in phase as placed in 1 tum —> single slot. Hence net emf per Fig. 1.18 Tum of full pitch coil phase will be algebraic sum of the ems per tum. Average Ey = Tp, x (Average em. per turn) Average En, = Ty x48 But in ac. circuits RM‘. value of an alternating quantity is used for the analysis. The form factor is 1.11 of sinusoidal emf. M. ‘Averag Ky = = 111 ...for sinusoidal RMS. value of E,,= K, x Average value LIL x46 6Tp . Eph = 4.44 f § Tpa volts (2) Key Point: This is the basic e.m,f. equation for an induced e.mf. per phase for full pitch, concentrated type of winding. where Tph_= Number of turns per phase Zon Tpn = 7 «+» a8 2 conductors constitute 1 tum. But as mentioned earlier, the winding used for the alternators is distributed and short pitch hence e.m-f. induced slightly gets affected. Let us see now the effect of distributed and short pitch type of winding on the e.m-f. equation.Electrical Machines - 1-24 Basics of Synchronous Generator 1.14.1 Pitch Factor or Coil Span Factor (K.) In practice short pitch coils are preferred. So coil is form by connecting one coil side to another which is less than one pole pitch away. So actual coil span is less than 180° The coil is generally shorted by one or two slots. Key Point: The angle by which coils are short pitched is called angle of short pitch denoted as ‘a’. a = Angle by which coils are short pitched. As coils are shorted in terms of number of slots ie. either by one slot, two slots and so on and slot angle is B then angle of short pitch is always a multiple of the slot angle B “a= B x Number of slots by which coils are short pitched. or a = 180° ~ Actual coil span of the coils. soe Fig. 1.19 Angle of short pitch This is shown in the Fig. 1.19. Now let E be the induccl emf. in each coil side. If coil is full pitch coil, the induced e.m.f. in each coil side help each nore other. Coil connections are such that both le will try to set up a current in the same 180 direction in the external circuit. Hence the resultant e.m.f. across a coil will be Fig. 1.20 Full pitch coil algebraic sum of the two. E, = E+E=2E = for full pitch Now the coil is short pitched by angle ‘a’, the two emf. in two coil sides no longer remains in phase from external circuit point of view. Hence the resultant eam.f. is also no longer remains algebraic sum of the two but becomes a phasor Fig. 1.21 Phasor sum of two e.mfs sum of the two as shown in the Fig. 1.21. Obviously Ep in such a case will be less than what it is in case of full pitch coil. From the geometry of the Fig. 1.21, we can write, AC is perpendicular drawn on OB bisecting OB. WOC) = CB) = ERElectrical Machines 4-22 Basics of Synchronous. Generator and ZBOA = a/2 _ PC. Ex cos (0/2) = Gx 3E Eg = 2 Ecos (a/2) .-- For short pitch ‘This is the resultant e.m-f. in case of a short pitch coil which depends on the angle of short pitch ‘a’ Key Point: Now the factor by which, induced emf. gets reduced due to short pitching is called pitch factor or coil span factor denoted by K,. It is defined as the ratio of resultant e.mf. when coil is short pitch to the resultant e.m-f. when coil is full pitched. It is always less than one. ssn) Kk. < Ex when coil is short pitched _ 2 * “Eq when coil is full pitched 2E KG) where a = Angle of short pitch 1.14.2 Distribution Factor (Ka) Similar to full pitch coils, concentrated winding is also rare in practice. Attempt is made to use all the slots available under a pole for the winding which makes the nature of the induced emf. more sinusoidal. Such a winding is called distributed winding. Consider 18 slots , 2 pole alternator. So slots per pole ie. n = 9. m = Slots per pole per phase = 3 = 180° _ p= Induced e.m.f. per coil and there are 3 coils per phase. Let E In concentrated type all the coil sides will be placed in one slot under a pole. So induced e.m4. in all the coils will achieve maxima and minima at the same time ie. all of them will be in phase. Hence’ resultant em.f. after connecting coils in series will be algebraic sum of all the e.m.fs as all are in phase. As against this, in distributed type, coil sides will be distributed, one each in the 3 slots per phase available under a pole as shown in the Fig. 1.22 (a).Basics of Synchronous Generator 0. E in coll 1 Ein col 2 Ein coil 3 (2) Distributed winding (b) Phase difference between induced e. Fig. 1.22 Though the magnitude of emf. in 0. ae OA=AB=EC=E each coil will be same as ‘E’, as each 0° slot contributes phase difference of f° & ie. 20° in this case, there will exist a ~ phase difference of B° with respect to © each other as shown in the Fig. 1.22 (b). Fig. 1.23 Phasor sum of e.m.fs Hence resultant emf. will be phasor sum of all of them as shown in the Fig. 1.23. So due to distributed winding resultant emf. decreases. Key Point: The factor by which there is a reduction in the emf. due to distribution of coils is called distribution factor denoted as K,. Let us see the derivation for its expression. In general let there be ‘n’ slots per pole and ‘m’ slots per pole per phase. So there will be ‘m’ coils distributed under a pole per phase, connected in series. Let E be the induced em4. per coil. Then all the “m’ e.m fs induced in the. coils will have successive phase angle difference of f = ie While finding out the phasor sum of all of them, phasor diagram will approach a shape of a ‘m’ equal sided polygon circumscribed by a semicircle of radius ‘R’. This is shown in the Fig. 1.24. AB, BC, CD etc., represent e.m.f. per coil. All the ends are joined at ‘O’ which is centre of the circumscribing semicircle of radius ‘R’. c D Fig. 1.24 Phasor sum of ‘m’ e.m.f.sElectrical Machines - lll 1-24 Basics of Synchronous Generator Angle subtended by each phasor at the origin ‘O’ is B°. This can be proved as below. All the triangles OAB, OBC ... are similar and isosceles, as AB = BC = CD =... = E. Let the base angles be ‘x’ 4OAB = 4 OBA = 4 OBC = and ZAOB = ZBOC =... =y say Now in 4 OAB, x+y = 180° while 2 OBA + ZOBC +8 = 180° - @) ie. Xx + B= 180° wa Comparing (3) and (4), y=B so ZAOB = ZBOC = ZCOD=...=8 ° is the last point of the last A? = mx B= mp = Ex= Resultant of all the R R Consider a A OAB separately as shown in the Fig. 1.25. Let OF be the qd perpendicular drawn on AB bisecting angle a gr & 8 at apex ‘O’ as B/2. 2 Fig. 1.25 (AB) = E . 1 (AF) =f and KOA)=R. sin(8) - AP-E/2 2)” OAR E = 2Rsin (3) - &) Now consider 4 OAM as shown in the Fig. 1.24 and OG is the perpendicular drawn from ‘O’ on its base bisecting Z OAM. ZAG = 2 com=3P 1(AM) = Eg rac) = ExElectrical Machines - Ill 1-25 Basics of Synchronous Generator AG _ Ee /2 OA R a(™ bq = 2Ran() This is the resultant e.m.f. when coils are distributed. If all ‘m’ coils are concentrated, all would have been in phase giving Ep as algebraic sum of all the em.ts. g 5 — nz z= Ne] " Ex = mxE ..-for concentrated From equation (5), E = 2Rsin (3) fe = aman(2) This is resultant e.m.f. when coils are concentrated. The distribution factor is defined as the ratio of the resultant e.m.f. when coils are distributed to the resultant e.m.f. when coils are concentrated. It is always less than one. 2R sin( 3) Ep when coils are distributed _ 2 Ka =" By when colls are concentrated ~ amsn() sin ran) where m = Slots per pole per phase = Slot angle = n = Slots per pole. When f is very small and m is large then L\ the total phase spread is mB The phasor sum of coil ems now becomes the chord AB of a circle as shown in the Fig. 1.26. Phasor ~ ga, MB_ AC an o sin S°= OR A Soe ® 2 AC=OAsin BP Phasor sum of e.m.fs Arithmetic . sum = AB=2x AC Fig. 1.26 Ky when 8 is smallElectrical Machines - Ill 1-26 Basics of Synchronous Generator = 2A) sin BE Arithmetic sum of em.fs = Arc AB = OA x [mp] Kk, = __Phasorsum _ 2(0A)sin>~ 4" “Arithmetic sum (OA) mB sin BP Ke= ... mf in denominator in radians 2 Key Point: The angle (m B/2) in the denominator must be in radians. Note: The above formula is used to calculate distribution factor when phase spread is nf and the winding is uniformly distributed. 1.14.3 Generalised Expression for E.M.F. Equation of an Alternator Considering full pitch, concentrated winding, Ep = 4.44 £67,» volts. But due to short pitch, distributed winding used in practice, this Epp will reduce by factors K, and Ky. So generalised expression for e.m.f. equation can be written as Epn = 444K, Ka f ¢Tpn volts. For full pitch coil, K, For concentrated winding Kg = 1. Key Point: For short pitch and distributed winding K, and K, are always less than unity. a> Example 1.2 : An armature of a three phase alternators has 120 slots. The alternators has 8 poles, Calculate its distribution factor. Solution : Slots _ 120 n= sg 2 2s m = slots/pole/phase = 3 = 3 a5 180° _ 180° _ 155 B= eterElectrical Machines - Ili 1-27 Basics of Synchronous Generator = 0.957 imp Example 1.3: In a 4 pole, 3 phase alternator, armature has 36 slots. It is using an armature winding which is short pitched by one slot, Calculate its coil span factor. Solution : B = Now coil is shorted by 1 slot ie. by 20° to full pitch distance. a Angle of short pitch = 20° K, = coe ($= cos (10) = 0.9848 1.14.4 Line Value of Induced E.M.F. If the armature winding of three phase alternator is star connected, then the value of induced em.. across the terminals is 3 E,, where E,,, is induced e.m4. per phase. While if it is delta connected line value of em. is same as Ey This is shown in the Fig. 1.27 (a) and (b). (a) Star connection (b) Delta connection Fig. 1.27Electrical Machines - Ill 1-28 Basics of Synchronous Generator Practically most of the alternators are star connected due to following reasons : 1. Neutral point can be earthed from safety point of view. 2. For the same phase Voltage, voltage available across the terminal is more than delta connection. 3. For the same terminal voltage, the phase voltage in star is rr times line value. This reduces strain on the insulation of the armature winding. mmm> Example 1.4 : An alternator runs at 250 rpm. and generates an emf. at 50 Hz. There are 216 slots each containing 5 conductors. The winding is distributed and full pitch. AUl the conductors of each phase are in series and flux per pole is 30 mWb which is sinusoidally distributed. If the winding is star connected, determine the value of induced emf. available across the terminals. Solution : f Total no. of conductors 24 Slots _ 216 Pole 24 0.9597 1 as full pitch coils. 216 x 5 = 1080 Z_ 1080 3 ol 2 conductors > 1 tumElectrical Machines - lit 1-29 Basics of Synchronous Generator Eph = 4.44 Ke Ka f 6 Tph 4.44 x 1 x 0.9597 x 30 x 10 x 50 x 180 1150.48 V = JS En .. star connection 3 x 1150.48 1992.70 V. Eline mp Example 1.5 : A 3 phase, 16 pole, star connected alternator has 144 slots on the armature periphery. Each slot contains 10 conductors. It is driven at 375 rpm. The line value of emf, available across the terminals is observed to be 2.657 kV. Find the frequency of the induced emf. and flux per pole. Solution : P = 16, N, = 375 rpm. Slots = 144, Conductor/slots = 10 Eline = 2.657 kV 1206 w= mt 120xf 375 = oe S f = 50Hz Assuming full pitch winding, Ke = 1 n = Shots _ 144 Pole ~ 16 Ke = = 0.9597 Total conductors = Slots x Conductors/Slot ie. Z = 144« 10 = 1440Electrical Machines - Ill Basics of Synchronous Generator Zn = Tn = Ep = = 1534 kV Now Ep = 444 K Ka f lps : 1.534 x 10° = 4.44 x 1 x 0.9597 x x 50 x 240 = 0.03 Wo 30 mWb 1.15 Harmonics In case of alternators, the voltage and currents induced are having sinusoidal waveforms. But practically we can not get sinusoidal waveform when such alternators are loaded. Due to the loading condition, the generated waveform deviates from ideal waveform. Such a non-sinusoidal waveform is called complex wave. By Fourier transform this complex waveform can be shown to be built of a series of sinusoidal waves whose frequencies are integral miultiples of the frequency of fundamental wave. These sinusoidal components or harmonic functions are called harmonics of the complex wave. ‘The fundamental wave is defined as that component which is having same frequency as that of complex wave. The component which is having double the frequency of that of fundamental wave called second harmonic. While the component which is having the frequency three times that of fundamental is called third harmonic and so on. The complex waveform contains both the even as well as odd harmonics. Consider a complex wave which is represented by, € = Eyy Sin (ot + 6) + Egm sin (2 ot + 2) + Eqn Sin (3 wt + $3) + vss + En sin (nwt + ,) where Ejm in (wt + $;) is fundamental component of maximum value Ejq having an angle 4, from instant of zero of the complex wave. Similarly E,,, sin (nat + 6,) represents a” harmonic of maximum value Eyn and having phase angle , with respect to complex wave. Out of the even and odd harmonics a complex wave containing fundamental component and even harmonics only is always unsymmetrical about x-axis whereas a complex wave containing fundamental component and odd harmonics only is alwaysElectrical Machines: ill 1-31 Basics of Synchronous Generator symmetrical about x-axis. In case of alternators the “woltage generated is mostly symmetrical as the field system and coils are all symmetrical. $o the generated voltage or current will not have any even harmonics in most of the cases. The complex waveform of voltage can be analysed experimentally by using the phenomenon of resonance. If voltage waveform containing harmonic content is applied to the circuit containing resistance, inductance and capacitance, then the circuit will resonate at one of the harmonic frequencies. The voltage drop across the resistance can be analysed by using an oscillograph. The values of inductance and capacitance can be changed so that resonance can be obtained at fundamental, third harmonic, fifth harmonic etc. The voltage ‘on the oscillograph indicates the presence of particular harmonics. 1.15.1 Slot Harmonics The voltage generated in armature windings is derived assuming that the surface of armature to be smooth. However in practice armature is not smooth but is made slotted. Due to this slotting certain harmonic e.m.f.s of undesirable order are produced. ‘The reluctance at any point in the air gap depends on whether there is a slot or teeth in the magnetic path. Since in case of alternators armature is moving, the teeth and slots alternately occupy positions at this point. This will vary the reluctance. The ripples will be formed due to variation of reluctance from point to Field point, in the air gap which is shown in the Fig. 1.28. These ripples will not move with respect to PULLS, Amature conductors but glide on the distribution of flux. The : 7 Field ripples due to slotting of armature are always opposite ' waveform . : yt . aA due toripple to slots and teeth which are causing them. Thus the ‘ harmonics which are generated in the em.t. due to Fig. 1.28 slotting is called slot harmonics It can be seen that the main source of harmonics is the non-sinusoidal field form which can be made sinusoidal and the harmonics can be eliminated. The air gap offers maximum reluctance to the flux path. This air gap if made to vary sinusoidally around the machine, the field form would also be sinusoidal. Even the air gap is made to vary sinusoidally, the fleld form can not be sinusoidal due to saturation in iron parts which is unavoidable, But there should not be high degree of saturation so that approximately sinusoidal waveform will be obtained. Thus in general it can be seen that ideal sinusoidal field form is very difficult to obtain whether the machine is salient pole type or cylindrical rotor construction.Electrical Machines - Ill 1-32 Basics of Synchronous Generator 1.15.2 Harmonics Minimization To eliminate or minimize the harmonics from the''voltage waveform, the windings must be properly designed. The different ways to eliminate the harmonics from generated voltage are, J) Distribution of armature windings : Instead of having concentrated type of windings, they should be distributed in different slots. The distribution factor for harmonics is comparatively less than that of the fundamental and hence magnitude of harmonic e.m.f. is small. 2) Chording ; The em. generated in the winding is proportional to cos (x a/2) where a is angle of chording and x is order of harmonic. If proper value of angle of chording is selected then harmonic e.m.fs can be reduced significantly. 3) Fractional slot windings : The output voltage waveform will be free of harmonics by facilitating the use of fractional slot windings as the distribution factor will be smaller compared to that with the fundamental. 4) Skewing : Skewing the pole face will help in eliminating the slot harmonics 5) Large length of air gap : The reluctance will be increased by increasing the air gap and slot harmonies can be reduced. 1.16 Effect of Harmonic Components on an Induced E.M.F. The flux density distribution around the air gap in all well designed alternators is symmetrical with respect to abscissa and also to polar axes. Thus it can be expressed with the help of a Fourier series which do not contain any even harmonics So flux density at any angle @ from the interpolar axis is given by, B = B,, sin+B,,sin3 0+... +B,, sin x0 +.. where x = Order of harmonic component which is odd By = Amplitude of fundamental component of flux density B,3 = Amplitude of 3° harmonic component of flux density B,, = Amplitude of x (odd) harmonic component of flux density ‘The e.m-f. generated in a conductor on the armature of a rotating machine is given by, e. = Biv Substituting value of B, e. = [By Sin 0+ Bas sin3 0+... + By sinx O+ JV 1 = Active length of conductor in metre d= Diameter of the armature at the air gap33 Basics of Synchronous Generator v = Linear velocity = xd n, where n, = Synchronous speed in rp.s. Now n, = POF L =p 10f 26 rr a v= na 2f Substituting in the expression for ec, 2nd f € = [By Sin 0+ Buy Sin 30+ «+ By sin xO]. [pa ad 2f sind + Bas Lo 2 fsin 30-4....4+ Bax nd 2fsin »| nd! Area of each fundamental pole, Ay = “5 e. = [Buy Ay 2 fsin 0+ By A2 fsin3 0+... + Bay A, 2 fsin x 0] nd! _ Ay th . Area of x harmonic pole, A, = > = This is because, there are xP poles for the x" order harmonic. 2. = 2 [ByiA; sin 0+ Bag. 3A; sin 30+... +B, A, sin x 6] Now BytAy = 1m = Maximum value of fundamental flux per pole 6 = 26 im = Average value of fundamental flux per pole Similarly average value of x" harmonic flux per pole can be obtained as, 2 = AL Bro Substituting the values of flux in e, we get the expression for e.m-f conductor as, e, = mF (>, sin® +363 sin3 0+ ... +x >, sin x 0) Instantaneous value of fundamental frequency emf. generated in a conductor is, eg = "f$,sin0 VElectrical Machines - Il 1-34 Basics of Synchronous Generator — Hence the R.MS. value of fundamental frequency e.m.f. generated in a conductor is, _ tb a Hence R.MS. value of x" harmonic frequency e.m.f. generated in a conductor is, Ey = 222 6. .xf =222f 4) But b= E, = = 14132 Aj f Bay Now By = 222 fo, = 22262 By, Ay = 14132 f By Ay Ea _ LADS AEBm — Bae Ey ~ TATA TB Ba Brn B, It can be observed that the magnitude of harmonic e.m.f.s are directly proportional to their corresponding flux densities. The R.MS. value of resultant e.m.f. of a conductor is, Be = J (Ba? +(Bos ? +(Bes ? +220. + (Bex? 1.16.1 Effect of Harmonic Components on Pitch Factor We know that, @ = Angle of short pitch for fundamental flux wave then it changes for various harmonic component of flux as, 3a = For 3“ harmonic component 5a = For 5" harmonic component xa = For x" harmonic component Hence the pitch factor is expressed as, Ke = cos (Ce)Electrical Machines - Ill 35 _ Basics of Synchronous Generator where x = Order of harmonic component 1.16.2 Effect of Harmonic Components on Distribution Factor Similar to the pitch factor, the distribution factor is also different for various harmonic components. The general expression to obtain distribution factor is, __(xmp an) (xp nan() order of harmonic component sin 2B For x = 1, Ka = 2 «+. fundamental msin 5 Ka where x " in 2B sin For x = 3, Key = —2o .. 3 harmonic an OP msin 1.16.3 Total E.M.F. Generated due to Harmonic Components Considering the windings to short pitch and distributed, the emJ. of a fundamental frequency is given by, Ep, = 444 Ka Ka 61 f Tp V where Tp = Turns per phase in series $, = Fundamental flux component While the phase e.m.f. of x'" order harmonic component of frequency is given by, Eypn = 444 Ka Kay x 5 £ Ton V The total phase e.m.f. is given by, Ep = {Enh + (Eh +--+ (Exh Line emf. : For star connected, the line or terminal induced emJf. is J times the total phase e.m. But it should be noted that with star connection, the 3" harmonic voltages do not appear across line terminals though present in phase voltage Eine = (y Bin)? +(Egn YS VVElectrical Machines - Il 1-36 Basics of Synchronous Generator In delta connection also, 3"', 9", 15" ... harmonic voltages do not appear at the Key Poit line terminals. Taking ratio of fundamental frequency emf. and x'" order harmonic frequency emf. we can write, En 444K Ka fT y _ Ka Ky Bas Eq 40K Ra xd fT Ka Kian Bmx Kex Kay Ba Ke Kar Bar Ep = 444 61 £ Ty Ka Kar BK KS => Example 1.6 : A 3 phase, 4 pole, 50 Hz, star connected alternator has an armature with a diameter of 0.25 m and length 0.3 m. The equation for flux density distribution is, B=0.15 sin © + 0.03 sin 30 + 0.02 sin 5 © Wh/m’. The armature has 60 coils with 10 turns per coil arranged in double layer. The phase spread is 60°. 4a) Determine voltage generated per coil. b) Determine voltage generated per phase. ©) Determine terminal voltage available. Assume coil span 13/15 of a pole pitch. Solution : The given values are , d = 0.25 m,! = 0.3 m, P=4 A, = Area of each fundamental pole = nal = 0700.8 = 0.0589 m? From the given equation of B we can write, By, = 0.15, Bas = 0.03, Bus = 0.02 a 4; = Average value of fundamental flux per pole = 2B, A,=2 x 015% 0.589 = 562« 10 Wh x ® a) To find voltage generated per coil The RMS. value of the fundamental frequency e.m-f. generated in a single conductor is, Ey = 111% 2 £ 6; = 06238 VElectrical Machines - lil 1-37 Basics of Synchronous Generator Now winding coil span is 12 of pole pitch So coil span = 2 x 180° = 156° a = 180°~ 156° = 24° Ky = Ks = 5a Kg = cost = 05 The RMS. value of the fundamental frequency e.m.f. generated in one turn is, E, = Kax (2 Ea) «+» 2 conductors > 1 turn = 0.9781 x 2x 0.6238 =1.22 V Note : Remember that for a single tum, K, is unity for all harmonic components. Bax Now E. = Fa. ge _ Bas _ 0.03 Ey = Ey gt = 0628 x 5 = 0.1247 V 0.02 and Es = E, = 06238 x Toe = 0.0831 V By = Kg 2 Bey = 0.809 x 2 x 0.1247 = 0.2018 V and Eg = Keg 2 Egy = 0.5 x 2x 0.0831 = 0.0831 V Total emf. per tum = E, = f(y)? +(Ea? +E)? = 124V There are 10 turns in each coil.Electrical, Machines - III 38 Basics of Synchronous Generator Voltage generated per coil = number of turns per coil x total e.m.f. per tum = 10x 124 =124V b) To find voltage generated per phase Eipn = 444 Ka Kar 63 f Thy There are 60 coils with 10 turns per coil Total turns = 60x 10 = 600 600 Toe = = 200 40 The winding is double layer ie. each slot has tums 2 coil sides. 10 In each coil there are 10 turns i. in each coil conductors side there are 10 turns ie. in each coil side there coil side are 10 conductors. Hence total conductors per stot slot = 20 as shown in the Fig. 1.29. Now total tums = 600 ... 2 conductors + 1 Fig. 1.29 turn Total conductors = 2 x 600 = 1200 Total conductors No. of slots = Gor ductors per slot 1200 = ap = 60 Remember that for double layer winding, number of slots is equal to number of coils of armature. n = Slots/pole = % = 15 m = Slots/pole/ph = B = Slot angle = 18° = 12°= 2 0.9567 msin§ ., 3mp sin = 2 = 0647 sin and? = — 5 = 02 min = 444 x 0.9781 x 0.9567 x 5.62 x 10% x 50 x 200 = 23348 V E Kex K, © Ka Ku: Bat 0.809 0.647 0.03 0.9781 =0.9561x 0.15 = 233.48 x = 26.14V 0:5x 0.20.02 T.978Ix0.9561x0.15 ~ * V = 23348 x :.Total voltage generated per phase, = yin? +s P +s? (233.48)? + (26.14)? + 3.32)? = B49V 0 ¢) To determine terminal voltage The 3™ harmonic e.m-f. does not appear at the terminals E1pn ? +(Espn ? = 3 « (233-487 + 6-32? = 4044VElectrical Machines - III 1-40 Examples with Solutions Basics of Synchronous Generator wm) Example 1.7: In a 3 phase, star connected alternator, there are’2 coil sides per slot and 16 turns per coil. Armature has 288 slots on its periphery. When driven at 250 r.p.m. it produces 6600 V between the lines at 50 Hz. The pitch of the coil is 2 slots less than the full pitch. Caleulate the flux per pole. Solution : N, = 250 rp.m,, f = 50 Hz, _ 120xf N= 5 120x50 nn P= 24 ne Slots 288 =12 m= B= T 15° . (mp 4x15 sin(B) sin 208 Ky = = Now coil is short pitched by 2 slots. K. cos ($) = cos (5) =0. 16 Conductors: Fig. 1.30 Total conductors Slots x conductors/slot 288 x 32 man(§) aan) Angle of short pitch = 2 x B= 2x 15 Slots = 288, Ejine = 6600 V = 0.9576 9659 Each coil consists of 16 turns, i.e. in a slot each coil side consists of 16 conductors as shown in the Fig. 1.30 and in each slot there are 2 coil sides. So each slot consists of 16 per coil side x 2 ie. 32 conductors. :. Conductors/slot = 32Electrical Machines - Ill Now E, 3810.51 o ‘mp Example 1.8: A 1-41 Basics of Synchronous Generator = 9216 = Conductors/phase = 3072 zZ, = #- 2 = 1536 .. 2 conductors > 1 turn = = 381051 V 5 = 444K. Ky of Tp = 4.44 x 0.0959 « 0.9576 x px 50 x 1536 = 0.012 Wb =12 mWb single phase 1500 r.p.m., 4 pole alternator has 8 conductors per slot with total of 24 slots. The winding is short pitched by t th of full pitch, Assume distributed winding with flux per pole as 0.05 Wb. Calculate the induced emf. Solution : N, = 1500 r.p.m., P = 4, Slots = 24, Conductors/slot = 8 Note that the alternator is single phase and not the three phase Ky Full pitch PN, = Fag = ~qa9 = 50 He ~ Slow _24_, ~ Pole ~ = n= 6s no. of phases is one = 180 _ 180 nn 6 in 2) sin SE ie 6 slots Coil short pitched by 4 th of full pitch 5 1 ie. by 5 xo = 1slot Angle of short pitch = 1 slot angle a = B= 30°Electrical Machin 1 turn Ey, = 444K. Ky Of Ty, = 4:44 x 0.9659 x 0.6438 x 0.05 x 50 x 96 = 662.74 V mp Example 1.9 : A three phase star connected alternator has 9 slots per pole, carrying full pitch winding. The alternator has 48 poles and driven at 125 p.m. The winding is double layer having 4 turns in a coil. If flux per pole is 51.75 mWb, determine the value of induced emf between the lines. Solution : P = 48, N,=125rpm, n= 9 double layer 4 turns/coil, ¢ = 51.75 mWb 120x N, = P ‘120xf -125 = a8 f = 50 Hz then K, = 1as full pitch winding n= 9 given m = 3° 3 180° _ 180° _ Be soa 20° sin () sin (2 Ky = ——K = ——~ = 0.9597 msn(8)” mon (2) Now winding is double layer means in each slot there are two coil sides. Each coil has 4 tums means in a slot, each coil side contains 4 conductors as shown in the Fig. 1.31.Electrical Machines - tit Col side 1 with 4 conductors Coil side 2 with 4 conductors ‘Slot with 2coil sides (Double layer) Fig. 1.31 Conductors/slot = SOMAUStOFS , no, of coil sides coil side Conductors/slot = 4x2 = 8 Now total slots = Soe x number of poles = nx P= 9x 48 = 432 . Total conductors = sondeiors x no. of slots Z = 8x 432 = 3456 _ Z_ 3456 _ Zu = B= ge 1182 Z, Th = = = um = 576 Hence Ey = 444 K, Kg $f Ty = 4:44 x 10.9597 x 51.75 x 107 50 x 576 = 6350.69 V Eine = YS Ep, = 3 x 6350.69 = 11000 V «+ aS star connection = 11kV dump Example 1.10 : A 12 pole, three phase, 600 r.p.m.,, star connected alternator has 180 slots. There are 2 coil sides per slot and total 10 conductors per slot. If flux per pole is 0.05 Wb determine from first principles, i) rams, value of e.m,f. in a conductor ii) ram.s, value of emf. in a turn iii) rams. value of ems, in a coil iv) per phase induced emf. Assume full pitch coils. = 12, N= 600rpm. PxN, _ 12x600 _ Bo = ag «= 0 He. Solution : f=Electrical Machines - Ill 1-44 Basics of Synchronous Generator i) Average value of e.mJ. in a conductor = 2 f rms. value = L11l«2f>=22260x005 =666 V ii) Average value of e.m.f. ina turn = 4 fo As 2 conductors joined properly form a turn. rms. value = L11x 4 f= 4.44 x 60 x 005 = 13.32 V iii) Now each slot has 10 conductors and 2 coil sides. So conductors/coil side = x 5 Such coil sides are connected to another coil sides to form a coil. So in a coil there are 5 turns as shown in Fig. 132. Coil wth Stuns €89 “rms. value of e.m-f, in a coil Coil side’? = Fig. 1.32 = 1332x5 = 666 iv) Now total conductors Z = SoMuctors «no, of slots coil side Z = 10x 180 = 1800 Z_ 1800 2 = §= 72-600 Zpn _ 600 Ta = = SF = 300 And ne m= p= Ky = Ey, = tims. value per turn x Tp x Ky x K, 13.32 x 300 x 0.9566 x 1Electrical Machines - ttl or 1-45 Basics of Synchronous Generator 3822.88 V 444K Ky Gf Ty, = 444 x 1 x 0.9566 x 0.05 x 60 x 300 3822.8 V mi Example 1.14: A 3 phase, 8 pole, 50 Hz, star connected alternator has 96 slots with 4 conductors per slot. The coil pitch is 10 slots. If the flux per pole is 60 mWb find i) the phase voltage ii) the line voltage iii) if each phase is capable of carrying 650 A, what is the KVA rating of the machine ? Solution : Given values are, P No. of slots n Coil pitch a Ka Total conductors Total turns Ton Eon = 8 f=50Hz, $= 60mWb, coil pitch = 10 slots = % = slots per pole = 9 = 12 = slot angle = 180° - 150 n slot per pole per ph = 2 =4 10 slots = 10 x fb = 150° electrical angle of short pitch = 180° - 150° 30° cos 3 = cos 15° = 0.9659 mB 2 msin5 sin 0.9576 . of slots x conductors/slot 444K. Ky Of TpnElectrical Machines - Ill ii) Evin iti) I, kVA rating 1-46 Basics of Synchronous Generator = 4.44 x 0.9659 x 0.9576 x 60 x 10% x 50 x 64 = 738.497 V = PSE = JS x 788.497 = 1365.71 V = 650 A= In -~-as star connected = 3 Eline I, = 1537.56 kVA nm> Example 1.12 : The flux distribution of a 600 r.pm., 3 phase, 10 pole alternator is given by B= in @+0.3 @ + 0.2 sin 5 6) Tesla where @ is measured from neutral axis. The pole pitch is 35 cm and core length is 30 cm. The stator coil span is 8/9 of a pole pitch. Determine phase and line values of induced emg. if there are 8 conductors per slot in two layers and 3 slots per pole per phase. Solution : The given values are, N, = 600 rp.m.,P = 10, 1= 30cm Pole pitch 35 cm Area of each fundamental pole = Ai = —5~ = 30x 35 = 1050 cm? = 0.105 m? From the given flux density equation we can write, Bux oO N. Coil span = 1 By =03 and By = 02 = 24, By = 2 «0.105 x1 = 0.0668 Wo _ 120f _ 120F ~ Po 0" 10x600 50 Hz 120 = $x pole pitch = 8 x 180° = 160° 180° - coil span = 20° = cos 5 = 0.9848 3a = 08 = 0.866 5a = cos = 0.6427,Electrical Machines - lil Kas Total slots *. Total conductors Total turns ph Bina Eo 1-47 Basics of Synchronous Generator slots/pole/ph = 3 given slots/pole = 3x 3 =9 180° _ na an UB sin 20° = 0.2175 slots/pole « no. of poles = nx P 9x 10 = 90 conductors/slot x no. of slots = 8 x 90 720 20 - 360 .-- 2. conductors > 1 turn 360 0 7 120 444 Key Ku 1 £ Tph 4.44 x 0.9848 x 0.9597 x 0.0668 x 50 x 120 1681.87 V Bmx Ker Kax Bip” Bar Ker Kat 0.3% 0.866 0.6667 Tx 0.9848x 0.9597" «.. x is order of harmonic 1681.87 x = 308.23 VElectrical Mact es - Il 1-48 Basics of Synchronous Generator 0.2x 0.6427 0.2175 1X0. 9848x0.9597_ Fyn = ¥ (Bagh )? + (Eapn )? + (Espn )? = 1710.602 V In a line value, 3" harmonic does not appear Bune = 93% ¥ (Ein 2 +(Esy 2 = 2914.358 V => Example 1.13: A three phase, 6 pole, 1000 r.p.m. alternator has an air gap diameter of 28 cm and a core length of 23 cm. A to layer winding with 60° phase spread is used and the winding is accommodated in 4 slots/pole/phase with 8 conduciors/slot. The coils are short pitched by one slot. The flux density wave consists of a fundamental of 0.87 Whim’, a 3 harmonic of 0.24 Wb/m? and a 5" harmonic of 0.14 W/m’. Estimate the resultant phase and line voltages for star and delta connections. 1681.87 x 49.75 V and Espn Solution : The given values are, P=6, N,=1000rp.m, d=28cm, [= 23cm Bur = 0.87, Bas = 0.24, Bg = 0.14, m= 120f Noe op 120f 1000 = > f = 50Hz Area of each fundamental pole is, A, = nal = 28x25 = 387.1976 cm? = 0.033719 m? Average flux per pole (fundamental component) is 61 = 2A, Bu = 2 x 0033719 x 087 = 0.01867 Wo m = slots per pole per ph = 4 n = slots per pole = 4x 3= 12 Be esa = Coils are short pitched by 1 slot a 0 1 slot angle = B= 15° Ka = cos 3 = 0.9914Electrical Machines - ti Kos Total slots . Total conductors Total turns Tpn Faby and = = 288 = Bipn * Basics of Synchronous Generator 3 = cos $= 0.9238 sin 9576 3mp = ——Sy = 0.6532 5m| sin SB 2 msin 5B 2 = nx P=12x6=72 = conductors/slot x no. of slots = 8x 72 = 576 78 vs. 2 conductors = 1 turn = 444 Ky Ka 4 f Thy = 4.44 x 0.9914 x 0.9576 x 0.01867 x 50 x 96 = 377.75 V Bux Ker Kae Bm Ker Kat 377 .75x 0.24x 0.9238 x 0.6532 ... x is order of harmonic TO = 06-24 V 0.87 x0.9914x 0.9576 _ 377.75x0.14x0.7933x 0.2053 ~ 0-87x0.9914x 0.9576 =f (Espn F + (Espn + Espn)? = 1042VElectrical Machines -lll 1-50 Basics of Synchronous Generator = 383.6542 V ... total phase voltage Ina line value, 3" harmonic does not appear in both star and delta connection. Bins = 3% V (Eipn ? + (Espn )? = 654.52 V «+ for star and Eline =f Ein)? + (Espn = 377.89 V .- for delta mp Example 1.14 : The stator of a 3 phase, 16 pole alternator has 144 slots and there are 4 conductors per slot connected in 2 layers and the conductors of each phase are connected in series. If the speed of the alternator is 375 r.pam. Calculate the e.m.f. induced per phase. Resultant flux in the air gap is 5x 10-3 weber per pole sinusoidal distributed. Assume coil span as 150° electrical. Solution : P=16, Ns = 375 rp.m. PN, _ 16% 375 _. f= y= 00 He m= Coil span is 150° while coil span for full pitch coil is always 1 pole pitch i.e. 180°, Angle of short pitch « = 180° ~ Actual coil span = 180° - 150° = 30° K = cox( $ }=cos 15°= 0.9659 Now, Ka = - B= Ka = Total conductors = CORAUIOFS,, Number of slots 4x144Electrical Machines - Ill 1-51 Basics of Synchronous Generator Z = 576 Zon = 192 2 conductors -> 1 tum Zn 192 Teh = yay =96 emf. induced in 1 phase,Ep, = 4.44 Ke KagfTpn = 4.44x 0.9659x 0.9597 5x 10° x 50x 96 Ep, = 98.77 V ph im Example 1,15: A 3 ph, Y connected alternator has the following data : Voltage required to be generated on O.C. is 4000 V at 50 Hz, speed is 500 r.p.m., stator slots/polefph is 3, conductors/lot is 12. Calculate the number of poles and useful flux/pole. Assume all conductors/ph to be connected in series and coil to be full pitched. Solution : Eine = 4000 V, f = 50 Hz, N, = 500 rp.m. m = 3, conductors/slot = 12, full pitch coil. 120f N= _ 120x50 500 = = P=12 K = 1 .-Full pitch coil n = slots/pole = mx3=9 180° 4.4 B= == 20 sin( 2) sin( 23") - postr ~(B\ 4 (20° m si 3 sin( Total slots = nxP = 9x12 = 108 Z = slots x conductors/slot = 108 x 12 = 1296 Kg = Zp = P= 432 Tph = A = 216Electrical Machines -IIt 1-52 Basics of Synchronous Generator Ejine _ 4000 = Fixe - 4000 - o309.4011 V And En = Ea Now Ep = 4.44 K-KabfTpn 2309-4011 = 4.44 1x 0.9597 x px50x216 = 0.501 Wb = 50.18 mWb " mum> Example 1.16 : A S-phase 4-pole synchronous generator has a double layer winding having four turns per coil placed in a total of 48 slots. If the flux per pole of the generator is 2x10° lines and speed of the rotor is 1500 rp.m. Calculate the magnitude of generated voltage per phase. (Dec.-2004) Solution : P = 4, 4 turns/coil, double layer, 48 slots, $ = 2x 108 lines, N, = 1500 r.p.m 1 weber = 10° lines of flux 2x10 108 = = 0.02 Wb Slot 1 Slot 2 Coil side 1 From the Fig. 1.33 each slot Coll side Each coll has 444 = 8 conductors due to 1— side indi 2 Fone tog double layer winding. . conductors/slot = 8 hence 2 coil sides Z = 48x = 364 per siot Z_ 384 Zon == = = 128 mee TS Ka — T5) sa] 15004 _ 120,” 50 HzElectrical Machines - Ill 1-53 Basics of Synchronous Generator Ke Eph 1 Assuming full pitch 444 KKa $f Tp = 444% 1x 0.9576 x 0.02 50x 64 272.1116 V wm Example 1.17: A synchronous generator runs at 250 rpm. and generates at 50 Hz. There are 216 slots each containing 5 conductors arranged in full pitched winding for 3 phase, star connection. All the conductors of each phase are in series and the flux per pole at no load sinusoidally distributed over the pole pitch is 30 mWb. Deduce from first principles, the induced in each phase winding and the terminal voltage, after determining the distribution factor analytically. Solution : The given values are, N, = 250 rp.m.,f = 50 Hz, slots 216 cond/slot = 5 120 P 120x50 250 = Pm Total conductors = slots x cond/slot = 216 x 5 ie Z = 1080 _ total conductors _ 1080 _ Zn = “ho. ofphases ~ 3 ~ 9? Zpn dual Tyn = turns per phase = —~ -.. 2 conductors 1 turn 360 = y= 180 216 n= slots/pole = 210 = 9 m = slots/pole/ph B= slot angle = 182 we = 20° a b uElectrical Machine: j 1-54 Basics of Synchronous Generator From first principle, average value of emf. in each conductor is e, = PN Lo ¢y=2%50x 30% 107 mw = = 3V per conductor The RMS. value of emf. in each conductor, E, = K Qf = 1113 3.33 V per conductor The RMS. value of e.m.f. in each turn is; E = 2x B, =2% 3.33 = 6.66 V per turn But coils are distributed hence RMS. value of e.m-f. in each turn is, = KyxE = 09597 x 6.66 = 63916 V There are T,, = 180 turns per phase hence RMS. value of E.M.F. in each phase is, Ey = 63916 x Ty, = 6.3916 x 180 = 1150.88 V This is e.m-f. induced in each phase winding. As star connected alternator, Eine = JS Epy = V3 x 1150488 V = 192.704 V The pitch factor K. = 1 as coils are full pitched. ‘mp Example 1.18: A 3 phase, 10 pole, 600 r.p.m,, Y-connected alternator has 12 slots/pole with 8 conductors per slot. The windings are short chorded by 2 slots. The flux per pole contains a fundamental of 100 mWb, the third harmonic having an amplitude of 33% and {fifth harmonic 20 percent of the fundamental. Determine the rms value of the phase and line voltages. Solution: P= 10, N,= 600 r.p.m., star connection, 8 cond/slot n = slots/pole = 12Electrical Machines - Ill 1-55 Basics of Synchronous Generator a = short by 2 slots = 28 = 30° , = 100 mWb 3 = 33% of 6, = 33 mWb $5 = 20% of $, = 20 mWb Ka = cos $ = cos 15 = 0.9659 Ks = cos 38 = 07071 Ks = cos 5 = 0.2588 sin xb Ke = 2 7 8 msin= 2 Kn = —3, = 09576 Kg = ——2<= = 0.6532 « 4x5x15 sin = z Kas = 25 0.2053 4sin2 Total conductors = (cond/slot) x (slot/pole) x P Z = 8x 12x 10 = 960 Zz Zy, = F= 320 Z, = Zh Ty = “FY = 160 NsP _ 600x10 And f = Tp = Gop = 00 He Eph = 444 Ka Kar $uf Tyy = 92854 V And Exp = 444 Ke Kas af Tyr = 541.394 V And Esph = 444 Kes Kas 5 f Tph = 97.744 VElectrical Machines - lil 1-56 Basics of Synchronous Generator Eyn = 4 (Eipn)? +(Esph)? + (Espn)? = 3329.922 V Ina line value, 3" harmonic does not appear. Eine = ¥3x4f (Etpn)?+(Espn)? = 5690.8552 V mm Example 1.19 : A 3 phase, 6 pole, 1000 rp.m., star connected alternator has an air gap diameter of 28 cms and a core length of 23 cms. A double layer winding is employed with 4 slots per pole per phase and 8 conductors per slot. The coils are short pitched by one slot. The flux density wave in the air gap has an amplitude of 0.87 W/m? for the fundamental and 0.24 Wh/m? for the 3rd harmonic. Estimate the rms. value of resultant voltage per phase and the line voltage. Solution: P = 6,N,= 1000 r.p.m, d = 28 cm, / = 23 cm, m= By = 0.87 Wb/m?, Byy3 = 0.24 Wb/m2, 1 slot short 120F Nos pr N, P _ 1000x6 _ a0 = Tag = 5° He Area of each fundamental pole is, Ls sa 242823. _ 9397 1976 em? = 0.033719 m? Average flux per pole (fundamental) is, f= 2A, By = 2x0.033719%0.87 = 0.01867 Wb n = mx3=4x3-= 12 slots/pole 180° 4, B= ay = 15 R 0 1 slot short = B = 15° Ka = cos 3 = 0.9914Electrical Machin 1-57 Basics of Synchronous Generator Ka = ——2> = 0.9576 4x 3x15 sin = ze Kas = ——gyqg = 0.6532 Asin 2 Total slots = nx P= 12x6 = 72 Zz Total slots x conds/slot = 72x8 = 576 576 Zn = a Zon T,, = he 2 96 Engh = 444 Ka Kar or f Tp = 4.44x0.9914x 0.9576x 0.01867 x 50x 96 = 377.747 V = Egy x Bx Ken Kee mh = Bion Ber Ker Ka 0.24x 0.9238 0.6532 0.87 x 0.9914 0.9576 Now E, Esp, = 377.747 x 66.234 V afEren®* Espn)? = (377.747)? + (66.234)? 383,509 V and Etine = V3 Eqpn = ¥3* 377.747 .for line value, 3rd harmonic does not appear. = 654.276 V Example 1.20: Calculate the distribution factor of a 3-phase winding with 120° phase spread when the winding is (i) uniformly distributed ii) occupies 6 slots per pole. (May-2004, Set-4, May-2005, Set-2)Electrical Machines - Ill 1-58 Basics of Synchronous Generator Solution : Phase spread mf = 120° i) Uniformly distributed winding For this case, f is very small and Kg is given by, in =z mB a Ky = ap where Spf is in radians 2 ._, 120° -— 2 Ka = jpg = 08269 2” 180° ii) Occupies 6 slots / pole n = slots / pole = 6 B= Now the phase spread mB is still 120° and B = 30° hence m = 120°/30” = 4. Thus four adjacent slots must belong to the same phase. ine si ) sin sin( main anin( 22) Ky = = 0.8365 wm Example 1.21: A certain alternator has 6 slots per pole and the coils are short pitched by 1 slot, The coil span is 5 slot pitches. Calculate the pitch factor. (Nov.-2004, Set-2) Solution : n = 6, Short pitch by 1 slot p = 1.30 «slot angle a = Angle of short pitch = B= 30° .-Short by 1 slot K, = Pitch factor = cos = = cos 15° = 0.9659 mp Example 1.22: Find the value of K, for an alternator with 9 slots per pole for the following cases (i) one winding in all the slots (ii) one winding using only the first 2/3 of the slots / pole iii) three equal windings placed sequentially in 60° group. (Nov.-2004, Set-3, Set-4, May-2005, Set-3) Solution :n =9Electrical Machines - Ill 1-59 Basics of Synchronous Generator i) One winding in all the slots m = slots / pole / phase = 9 Ky = = 0.6398 o 2 ii) m = 2xlots / pole =2 x 9=6 Ky = 7 . _ 60° _ 60° it) For 60° group, m = 9 = SF o( 222) sin( 22 Ky = 2 J - 0.9507 3sin( 20° 2 wm Example 1.23 : Calculate, the distribution jactor jor a single phase alternator having 6 slots / pole, i) When all the slots are wound and ii) When only four adjacent slots / pole are wound and the remaining being not wound. (May-2005, Set-1) Solution : Single phase and n = 6 i) All slots are wound Now p= mf = phase spread = 180° when all slots are wound Ky = ii) 4 slots / pole are woundElectrical Machines - Ill 1-60 Basics of Synchronous Generator m= 4 is (=) sini Ky = ay ~ 0.8365 . ¢msin( 3) mm} Example 1.24: A 50 Hz alternator has a flux of 0.1 Wh/pole, ran.s. sinusoidally distributed. Calculate the rms. value of the emf. generated in one turn of the winding, which spans 3/4 of a pole pitch (May-2005, Set-2, Nov.-2004, Set-1) Solution = + = 50 Hz, = 0.1 Wb, coil span = 3 ® of pole pitch. One pole pitch = 180° Coil span = fx 180° = 135° a = 180° -coil span = 180° - 135° = 45° a 45° K. = cos $= cos (4) = 0.92388 ey = SEN 2 at =2 x 50 x 0.1 = 10 V per conductor Ey / conductor = 1.11 x 10= 111V Eyns / turn = 2x Egy / Conductor = 22.2 V Assuming Ky = land K, = 0.92388 E,ps in one turn = 0.92388 x 22.2 = 20.51 V/turn mp Example 1.25: A 6-pole alternator rotating at 1000 rp.m. has a single-phase winding housed in 3 slots per pole, the slots in groups of three being 20° apart. If each slot contais 10 conductors, and the flux per pole is 2 x 10°? Wh, calculate the voltage generated, assuming the flux distribution to be sinusoidal, (May-2008, Set-3) = 6,N, = 1000 rpm. m= 3 B= 20°, 10 conductors / slot, ¢ = 2 x 10°? Wb oF 1000%6 _ No = A ie p= WOKS | 50 He sin BB K, = —2 “ 5 msin 5Electrical Machines - Ill 1-62 Basics of Synchronous Generator Solution : f = 50 Hz, P = 8, star, 120 slots, 8 conds / slot, = 0.05 Wb Zz Zon Ton n Bline slots x [conds / slot] = 120 x 8 = 960 = slots / pole = 22 = 15 5 = §-Be5 = ..-Assume full pitch coils = 444K, Ky Of Tyy = 444 x 1 x 0.95667 x 0.05 x 50 x 160 = 1699.046 V = V3 E,, = 2942.8338 V wm Example 1.28: Calculate the speed and open-circuit line and phase voltages of a 4-pole, S-phase, 50 Hz, star-connected alternator with 36 slots and 30 conductors per slot. The flux per pole is 0.0496 Wo and is sinusoidally distributed. (May-2005, Set-4 , Nov.-2004, Set-4) Solution : P = 4, f = 50 Hz, Star, 36 slots, 30 cond/slot, = 0.0496 Wb = slots x [conds/slot] = 36 x 30 = 1080mp sn( 3x 20° sins z Ky = —2#, = +5 = 0.9507 msin 8 3sin| 20" z ° z kK =1 Assuming full pitch Ey, = 444K. Ky Of Ty, = 444 x 1 x 0.9597 x 0.0496 x 50 x 180 = 19023191 V Eine = V3% Ey = 32949133 V N, = rae = 120550 _ 1500 pm. speed ‘a> Example 1.29 : Determine the values for a 3-phase winding with 4 slots per pole per phase, the coil span being 10 slot pitches. Calculate the percentage increase in RMS. value of the phase voltage due to a 25% third harmonic. (Nov.-2004, Set-3) Solution : m = 4, coil span = 10 slots n = mx3=4x3-=12slots / pole 180° ~T Short pitching = 12 - 10 =2 slots a = 2 xslot angle = 2 x B= 30° i) Fundamental emf. a 30” K. = cos 5 = cos (¥)- 0.96592 Fyn = 444K Ky of Ty, = K. Ky bx K, xf ell) where K, = constant = 4.44 T,, ii) With 25% third harmonic1-64 Basics of Synchronous mx 3x a min sin by = 25% of 6= 0.25 > Eyyy = Ky x Ka Ky % 05 * 3f -Q) Etpn K. Ky of Ein Ke Kas 6308) = [3Ke Kas 5] p ~ Ke Kao ‘7 Eup = 0.3744 Exo, 0.7071 x 0.6532* 0.25 px 3] E Em = (Ehn tEiyn = Ein 10-374 Ein) = 11401 Bip, 1.1401 Eipn —Ei +. Yo increase in Ey, = ———-—" =P" x 100 = 14.01 % ph 1 2 3 4 aM aw 10. 11. 12, 13. 4 Review Questions Explain in detail the constructional features of a three phase alternator. Discuss the advantages of rotating field type of alternators List the difference between salient type and non-salient type of rotor construction. Establish the relationship between the number of poles, frequency and the synchronous speed for a three phase alternator. Establish the working principle of a three phase alternator. What is the difference between degrees mechanical and degrees electrical ? Explain, With the help of neat sketches, explain the various types of windings used in alternators, Derive the generalized expression for an induced emf. per phase in three phase alternator, when coils are not full pitch and concentrated in one slot. Define and state the expressions for, i) Pitch factor ii) Distribution factor Derive the expressions for the Pitch factor and Distribution factor. Briefly explain the significance of chording and distribution factors. Develop the e.m.f. equation for a synchronous generator having fractional pitch and distributed windings. Explain the methods adopted to eliminate harmonics in the voltage in an alternator. Explain why the windings of an alternator are distributed and coils are short pitched. Derive expressions for the above two winding factors. Explain with neat sketches the construction of salient pole synchronous machine.Electrical Machines - Ill 1-65 Basics of Synchronous Generator 15, 16. 18. 22. 17. 19. 20. 21. 23. 24. Give the constructional details of a salient synchronous machine. Deduce an expression for the distribution factor for an uniformly distributed winding with full pitch coils. With neat sketches describe the differences in the construction of salient pole and round rotor type of alternators. Derive the e.m.f. equation of a 3 phase alternator incorporating the distribution and pitch factors. Assume sinusoidal flux distribution in the air gap. A 3-phase, 20 pote, 300 r.p.m., star connected alternator has 180 slots on the armature. There are 6 conductors per slot. The coils are short-chorded by oné slot. If the flux per pole is 42 mWb, sinusoidally distributed, find the phase and line values of induced em. Tans. : 1586 kV, 2.747 kV] A three phase, 12, pole, alternator stator has 72 slots and there are 6 conductors/slot. If the speed of alternator is 500 R.P.M. Calculate the exi.f. induced per phase. Assume coil span to be 150° (electrical) and flux in the air-gap s 40 mWb/pole. [Ans. : 596.51 V] A 3:phase, 8-pole, star connected ac. generator is driven at 900 r.p.m. The armature coils are short chorded by one slot, the coil span being 165° electrically. Determine the induced e.m.f. across terminals of the alternator if there are 12 conductors per slot and flux per pole 50 mWb distributed sinusoidally. (ans. : 4.205 kV] Each winding of a 3 phase, 50 Hz alternator has an EMLF. wave consisting of a fundamental with maximum value of 1000 V, 20% of 3 harmonic and 10% 5" harmonic. Calculate the rms. value of the line voltage when the windings are connected in star. Find the value of the circulating current when the winding is connected in delta if the reactance per phase is 12 ohms. [Ans. : 1.23 kV, 3.9284 A] ‘A 3% 4 pole, 50 Hz, star connected alternator has 2 slots/polefphase and 40. conductors/stot. generated if the flux/pole is 0.05 Wo, distributed sinusoidally. fans. Calculate the em, 3.565 kV] Calculate the induced em. per phase of a 3 phase, 10 pole, 50 Hz, star connected alternator from the following data : No. of slots 120, conductors per slot, 4, coil span 150° electrical, flux per pole 0.1 Wb. [Ans. : 1.64275 kV] ‘A S-phase, 20-pole, 360 r.p.m., star connected alternator has a double-layer winding arranged in 180 slots. There are 6-conductors per slot. Find the emf. induced per phase, if the flux per pole is 0.042 Wb. The coils are short-chorded by one slot. TAns. : 1.903 kVI qaqa(1 - 66)Characteristics of Synchronous Generator 2.1 Introduction In the last chapter we have seen how an e.mJ. gets induced in an alternator. As long as the alternator terminals are open i.e. no load is connected to an alternator, the induced emf. is same as the voltage available at the terminals. Thus terminal voltage per phase Vpn and induced e.m,f. per phase Ep, are same as long as alternator is on no load But when the alternator is loaded, the armature of an alternator carries current. We know that, any current carrying conductor produces its own flux. Hence on load, armature of an alternator produces its own flux called armature flux. This flux has significant effect on the performance of an alternator on load. The terminal voltage Vpp, no longer remains same as induced e.m4. Ep on load conditions. The performance of an alternator on load is mathematically expressed by a parameter called voltage regulation. 2.2 Parameters of Armature Winding ‘There are three important parameters of an armature winding of an alternator. These are, 1. Armature resistance R, 2. Armature leakage reactance Xi 3. Reactance corresponding to armature reaction Let us discuss these three parameters in detail which will help us to draw an equivalent circuit of an alternator. The equivalent circuit and the concept of synchronous impedance plays an important role in determining the regulation of an alternator. 2.3 Armature Resistance Every armature winding has its own resistance. The effective resistance of an armature winding per phase is denoted as Rapp 2/ph or R, 2/ph. (2-1)Electrical Machines - Ill 2-2 Characteristics of Synchronous Generator Generally the armature resistance is measured by applying the known de. voltage and measuring the d.c. current through it. The ratio of applied voltage and measured current is the armature resistance. But due to the skin effect, the effective resistance under a.c. conditions is more than the d.c. resistance. Generally the effective armature resistance under a.c. conditions is taken 1.25 to 1.75 times the d.c. resistance. While measuring the armature resistance, it is necessary to consider how the armature winding is connected whether in star or delta. Consider a star connected armature winding as shown in the Fig. 2.1. When the voltage is applied across any two terminals of an armature winding, then the equivalent resistance is the series. combination of the two resistances of two Fig. 2.1 Star connected alternator different phase windings. Ryy = resistance between R-Y terminals = R,+R,=2R, where armature resistance per phase Rey ~ O/ph Thus in star connected altemator, the armature resistance per phase is half of the resistance observed across any two line terminals. Consider the delta connected alternator as shown in the Fig. 2.2. °B Opei(lge = 0) When voltage is applied across any two Fig. 2.2 Delta connected alternator tetminals, then one phase winding appears in parallel with series combination of other two. Hence the equivalent resistance across the terminals is parallel combination of the resistances R, and 2R,. Rey = Rl] 2R, O/ph = el Ra = 5 Rey vioElectrical Machines - Ill 2-3 Characteristics of Synchronous Generator Thus in delta connected alternator, the armature resistance per phase is to be calculated from the equivalent resistance observed across any two line terminals. 2.4 Armature Leakage Reactance When armature carries a curtent, it produces its own flux. Some part of this flux completes its path through the air around the conductors itself. Such a flux is called leakage flux. This is shown in the Fig. 2.3. Fig. 2.3 Armature leakage flux Key Point: This leakage flux makes the armature winding inductive in nature. So winding possesses a leakage reactance, in addition to the resistance. So if 'L' is the leakage inductance of the armature winding per phase, then leakage reactance per phase is given by X, = 2 xf L Q/ph. The value of leakage reactance is much higher than the armature resistance. Similar fo the d.c. machines, the value of armature resistance is very very small. 2.5 Armature Reaction When the load is connected to the alternator, the armature winding of the alternator carries a current. Every current carrying conductor produces its own flux so armature of the alternator also produces its own flux, when carrying a current. So there are two fluxes present in the air gap, one due to armature current while second is produced by the field winding called main flux. The flux produced by the armature is called armature flux. Key Point: So effect of the armature flux on the main flux affecting its value and the distribution is called armature reaction. The effect of the armature flux not only depends on the magnitude of the current flowing through the armature winding but also depends on the nature of the power factor of the load connected to the alternator. Let us study the effect of nature of the load power factor on the armature reaction. 2.5.1 Unity Power Factor Load Consider a purely resistive load connected to the alternator, having unity power factor. As induced e.m-f. Epp drives a current of Ip and load power factor is unity, Eph and Tapp are in phase with each other. If @¢ is the main flux produced by the field winding. responsible for producing Ep, then Epp lags 4, by 90%Electrical Machines - Ill 2-4 Characteristics of Synchronous Generator Now current through armature I,, produces the armature flux say ,. So flux $, and 1, are always in the same direction. This relationship between $%, $3, Eph and Ia, can be shown in the phasor diagram. Refer to the Fig. 24. It can be seen from the phasor diagram that there exists a phase difference of 90° between the armature flux and the main flux. The waveforms for the two fluxes are also shown in the Fig. 2.4. From the waveforms it can be seen that the two fluxes oppose each other on the left half of each pole while assist each other on the right half of each pole. Hence average flux in the air gap remains constant but its distribution gets distorted. Main flux 9 4 sot be laptt Armature flux Eon Induced e.m-f due to 6 Fig. 2.4 Armature reaction for unity p.f. load Key Point: Hence such distorting effect of armature reaction under unity pf. condition of the load is called cross magnetising effect of armature reaction. Due to such distortion of the flux, there is small drop in the terminal voltage of the alternator. 2.5.2 Zero Lagging Power Factor Load Consider a purely inductive load connected to the alternator having zero lagging power factor. This indicates that Igpn driven by Ey lags Ep, by 90° which is the power factor angle >. Induced e.m.f. Ep lags main flux >¢ by 90° while $, is in the same direction as that of So the phasor diagram and the waveforms are shown in the Fig. 2.5. It can be seen from the phasor diagram that the armature flux and the main flux are exactly in opposite direction to each other. Key Point: So urmature-flux tries to cancel the main flux. Such an effect of armature reaction is called demagnetising effect of the armature reaction. As this effect causes reduction in the main flux, the terminal voltage drops. This drop in the terminal voltage is more than the drop corresponding to the unity p.f. load.Electrical Machines - Ill 2-5 Characteristics of Synchronous Generator o Iz © Main tux Armature | flux Ey Induced em. PP due to 6, Fig. 2.5 Armature reaction for zero lagging p.f. load 2.5.3 Zero Leading Power Factor Load Consider a purely capacitive load connected to the alternator having zero leading power factor. This means that armature current [,,1, driven by F,,,, leads E,,, by 90°, which is the power factor angle $. Induced e.m.f. Ep, lags ¢ by 90° while I,,, and § are always in the same direction. The phasor diagram and the waveforms are shown in the Fig. 2.6. $a Armature flux 9 or 30° 1, Main ‘ux Eon Induced e.mf. due 10 4 Fig. 2.6 Armature reaction for zero leading p.f. load It can be seen from the phasor diagram and waveforms shown in the Fig. 2.6, the armature flux and the main field flux are in the same direction i.e. they are helping each other. This results into the addition in main flux. Key Point: Such an effect of armature reaction due to which armature flux assists field {flux is called magnetising effect of the armature reaction. As this effect adds the flux to the main flux; greater em/f. gets induced in the armature. Hence there is increase in the terminal voltage for leading power factor loads. For intermediate power factor loads i.e. between zero lagging and zero leading the armature reaction is partly cross magnetising and partly demagnetising for lagging power factor loads or partly magnetising for leading power factor loads.Electrical Machines - Ill 2-6 Characteristics of Synchronous Generator 2.5.4 Armature Reaction Reactance (X,,) In all the conditions of the load power factors, there is change in the terminal voltage due to the armature reaction. Mainly the practical loads are inductive in nature, due to demagnetising effect of armature reaction, there is reduction in the terminal voltage. Now this drop in the voltage is due to the interaction of armature and main flux. This drop is not across any physical element. But to quantify the voltage drop due to the armature reaction, armature winding is assumed to have a fictitious reactance. This fictitious reactance of the armature is called armature reaction reactance denoted as Xq, 9/ph. And the drop due to armature reaction can be accounted as the voltage drop across this reactance as I, Xar- Key Point: The value of this reactance changes as the load power factor changes, as armature reaction depends on the load power factor. 2.6 Concept of Synchronous Reactance and Impedance From the above discussion, it is clear that armature winding has one more parameter which is armature reaction reactance in addition to its resistance and the leakage reactance. The sum of the fictitious armature reaction reactance accounted for considering armature reaction effect and the leakage reactance of the armature is called synchronous reactance of the alternator denoted as X,. So X. = Xt + Xr Q/ph As both X, and Xjy are ohmic values per phase, synchronous reactance is also specified as ohms per phase. Now from this, it is possible to define an impedance of the armature winding. Such an impedance obtained by combining per phase values of synchronous reactance and armature resistance is called synchronous impedance of the alternator denoted as Z,. So Za = Ri+jXs Q/ph and [Zs] = ¥Ra?+(X,)?_ Q/ph For getting a standard frequency, altemator is to be driven at synchronous speed. So word synchronous used in specifying the reactance and impedance is referred to the working speed of the altemator. Generally impedance of the winding is constant but in case of alternator, synchronous’ reactance depends on the load and its power factor condition, hence synchronous impedance also varies with the load and its power factor conditions.Electrical Machines - III 2-7 Characteristics of Synchronous Generator 2.7 Equivalent Circuit of an Alternator From the above discussion it is clear that in all there are three important parameters of armature winding namely armature resistance R,, leakage reactance X, and armature reaction reactance Xgy- If Epy is induced em(f. per phase on nto load condition then on load it changes to E! due to armature reaction as shown in the equivalent circuit. As current I, flows through the armature, there are two voltage drops across R, and X, as I, R, and I, X;_ respectively. Hence finally terminal voltage V;, is less than E' by the amount equal to the drops across R, and X,. Fig. 2.7 Equivalent circuit In practice, the leakage reactance X;, and the armature reaction reactance X,, are combined to get synchronous reactance X,. Hence the equivalent circuit of an alternator gets modified as shown in the Fig, 2.8. Fig. 2.8 Equivalent circult of an alternator Thus in the equivalent circuit shown, = induced emf. per phase on ho load Viph = terminal voltage per phase on load I,n = armature resistance per phase Z, = synchronous impedance per phase and Ey = Vien +122, ... (Phasor sum)Electrical Machines - III 2-8 Characteristics of Synchronous Generator 2.8 Voltage Equation of an Alternator In dc. generators, we have seen that due to the armature resistance drop and brush drop it is not possible to have all the induced e.m/. available across the load. The voltage available to the load is called terminal voltage. The concept is same in case of alternators. The entire induced e.m.f. can not be made available to the load due to the various internal voltage drops. So the voltage available to the load is called terminal voltage denoted as Vpn: In case of three phase altemators as all the phases are identical, the equations and the phasor diagrams are expressed on per phase basis. So if Epp is the induced emf. per phase in the alternator, there are following voltage drops occur in an alternator. i) The drop across armature resistance I, R, both I, and R, are per phase values. ii) The drop across synchrondus reactance I, X,, both I, and X, are per phase values. Alter supplying these drops, the remaining voltage of Ep, is available as the terminal voltage Vj, f Key Point: Now drop I, R, is always in phase with 1, due to a resistive drop while current I, lags by 90° with respect to drop I,X, as it is a drop across purely inductive reactance. Hence all these quantities can not be added or subtracted algebraically but must be added or subtracted vectorially considering their individual phases. But we can write a voltage equation in its phasor form as, Epn = Von +1, Ra , Xs This is called voltage equation of an alternator. From this voltage. equation, we can draw the phasor diagrams for various load power factor conditions and establish the relationship between E,j, and V,y, in terms of armature current i.e. load current and the power factor cos (@). 2.9 Phasor Diagram of a Loaded Alternator The above voliage equation is to be realised using phasor diagrams for various load power factor conditions. For drawing the phasor diagram consider all per phase values and remember following steps. Steps to draw the phasor diagram : 1. Choose current I, as a reference phasor. 2. Now if load power factor is cos 4 it indicates that angle between Vpn and I, is $ as Vpn is the voltage available to the load. So show the phasor V,a in such a way that angle between Vp, and I, is @ For lagging ‘J, I, should lag Vpn and for leading '¢, I, should lead Vpn. For unity power factor load 4 is zero, so Vpn and Iq are in phase.Electrical Machines - Ill + 2-9 Characteristics of Synchronous Generator 3. Now the drop I, Ra is a resistive drop and hence will always be in phase with I,. So phasor I, R, direction will’be always same as, ie. parallel to I,. But as it is to be added to Vpn, Ia Ra phasor must be drawn from the tip of the Vpx phasor drawn. 4. The drop I4Xz is drop across purely inductive’reactance. In pure inductance, current lags voltage by 90°. ‘So 'I,X," phasor direction will be always such that I, will lag I4Xx phasor by 90°. But this phasor is to be drawn from the tip of the 1,Ra phasor to complete phasor addition of Vp, ,1sR4 ‘and 1, X,. 5. Joining the starting point to the terminating point, we get the phasor E,,, Whatever ‘tnay be the load power factor, I, Ry is a resistive drop, will be in phase with 1, while I, X, is purely inductive drop and hence will be perpendicular to I, in such a way that 1, will lag 1,X. by 90°. This is shown in the Fig. 29. By using the above steps, the phasor diagrams for various load power factor conditions can be drawn. 2.9.1 Lagging Power Factor Load ‘The power factor of the load is cos @ lagging so I, lags Vp}, by angle 9. By using steps discussed above, phasor diagram can be drawn as shown in the Fig, 2.10. Fig. 2.10 Phasor diagram for lagging pf. load To derive the relationship between E,) and V,y, the perpendiculars are drawn on the current phasor from points A and B. These intersect current phasor at points D and E respectively.Electrical Machines - Ill 2-22 Characteristics of Synchronous Generator 1 Review Questions Which are the various parameters of an armature winding of a synchronous generator? Drazw its equivalent circuit. Explain the effect of armature reaction on the performance of an alternator. How it depends on the load pf. ? Explain with suitable diagrams What is armature reaction reactance ? Explain. Explain the concept of synchronous reactance and impedance. State the voltage equation of an alternator and explain each term in it Explain the phasor diagram of a loaded alternator on i) Lagging pf ii) Leading pf. Unity pf. Derive an expression for the induced emf. in an alternator interms of terminal voltage, p.f. and armature parameters, from the phasor diagram. What is voltage regulation ? Hovw it is defined for an alternator ? A 440 V, 200 kVA, 3 phase star connected alternator has armature resistance of 0.02 Q and sunchronous reactance of 0.08 Q per phase. Calculate the induced em. on full load for i) 0.707 lagging and ii) 0.707 leading pf. (Ans. : 272.77 V, 243.56 V1 Qo003 Regulation of Synchronous Generator 3.1 Introduction The regulation of an alternator can be determined by various methods. In case of small capacity alternators it can be determined by direct loading test while for large capacity altemators it can be determined by synchronous impedance method. The synchronous impedance method has some short comings. Another method which is popularly used is ampere-turns method. But this method also has certain disadvantages. The disadvantages of these two methods are overcome in a method called zero power factor method. Another important theory which gives accurate results is called Blondel's two reaction theory. Thus there are following methods available to determine the voltage regulation of an alternator, 1. Direct loading method Synchronous impedance method or F.M.F. method Ampere-turns imethod or M.M.F. method Zero power facior method or Potier triangle method ASA modified form of M.M.F. method ae 2 Two reaction theory. Let us discuss these methods in detail. 3.2 Voltage Regulation by Direct Loading The Fig. 3.1 shows the circuit diagram for conducting the direct loading test on the three phase altemator. The star connected armature is to be connected to a three phase load with the help of tripple pole single throw (TPST) switch. The field winding is excited by separate dc. supply. To control the flux ie. the current through field winding, a theostat is inserted in series with the field winding. The prime mover is shown which is driving the alternator at its synchronous speed Procedure : The altemator is first driven at its synchronous speed Ng by means of a prime mover. (3-4)Electrical Machines - I! 3-2 Regulation of Synchronous Generator ‘TPST switch L fo | Three phase load Mechanical coupling Prime mover # Star connected armature winding winding of alternator Y Dc } Supply ? : Fig. 3.1 Circuit diagram for direct loading test on alternator Now Ey, By giving dc. supply to the field winding, the field current is adjusted to adjust the flux so that rated voltage is available across the terminals. This can be observed on the voltmeter connected across the lines. The load is then connected by means of a TPST switch. The load is then increased so that ammeter reads rated value of current. This is full load condition of the alternator. Again adjust the voltage to its rated value by means of field excitation using a rheostat connected. Then throw off the entire load by opening the TPST switch, without changing the speed and the field excitation. Observe the voltmeter reading. As load is thrown off, there is no armature current and associated «6 ... (From em.f. equation) drops. So the voltmeter reading in this situation indicates the value of internally induced em. called no load terminal voltage. Convert both the reading to phase values, The rated voltage on full load is Vy, while reading when load is thrown off is Ep», So by using the formula, % Reg x 100 the full load regulation of the alternator can be determined. The value of the regulation obtained by this method is accurate as a particular load at required p£. is actually connected to the alternator to note down the readings. Key Point: But for high capacity alternators, that much full load can not be simulated or directly connected io the alternator. Hence method is restricted only for small capacity alternators. mp Example 3.1: While supplying a full oad, running at synchronous speed, the terminal voltage of an alternator is observed to be 1.00 V. When the load is thrown off, keeping field excitation and speed constant, the termina, voltage is observed to be 1266 V. Assuming star connected alternator, calculate its regulation on full loadElectrical Machines - Ill 3-3 Regulation of Synchronous Generator Solution : On full load, terminal voltage is 1100 V. So Vv, = MoV - Me , Van = 75 = 695.0859 V When load is thrown off, Vi = 1266.V. But on no load, v= Eine = Ey = = 730925 V Eon Non 100 on 730.925 —635 .0853 635 . 08: % Reg x100 = 15.09 % 3.3 Synchronous Impedance Method or E.M.F. Method The method is also called E.M.F. method of determining the regulation. The method requires following data to calculate the regulation. 1. The armature resistance per phase (R,). 2. Open circuit characteristics which is the graph of open circuit voltage against the field current. This is possible by conducting open circuit test on the altemator. 3. Short circuit characteristics which is the graph of short circuit current against field current. This is possible by conducting short circuit test on the alternator. Let us see, the circuit diagram to perform open circuit as well as short circuit test on the alternator. The alternator is coupled to a prime mover capable of driving the alternator at its synchronous speed. The armature is connected to the terminals of a switch. The other terminals of the switch are short circuited through an ammeter. The voltmeter is connected across the lines to measure the open circuit voltage of the alternator, The field winding is connected to a suitable d.c. supply with rheostat connected in series. The field excitation ie. field current can be varied with the help of this theostat. The circuit diagram is shown in the Fig. 3.2.Electrical Machines - Ill 3-4 Regulation of Synchronous Generator TPST switch Star Lo connected armature A) lec winding ‘ Field winding of alternator Rheostat —- 2 Fig. 3.2 Circuit diagram for open circuit and short circuit test on alternator 3.3.1 Open Circuit Test Procedure to conduct this test is as follows i) Start the prime mover and adjust the speed to the synchronous speed of the alternator. ii) Keeping rheostat in the field circuit maximum, switch on the d.c. supply. iii) The T.P.S.T. switch in the armature circuit is kept open. iv) With the help of rheostat, field current is varied from its minimum value to the rated value. Due to this, flux increases, increasing the induced emf. Hence voltmeter reading, which is measuring line value of open circuit voltage increases. For various values of field current, voltmeter readings are observed. The observations for open circuit test are tabulated as below : Observation table for open circuit test : Sr. No. yA Veo (line) V | Vy_ (phase) = Vg (lineyW3 V 1 2 From the above table, graph of (Vjc)ph against I; is plotted.Electrical Machines - Ill 3-5 Regulation of Synchronous Generator Key Point: This is called open circuit characteristics of the alternator, called O.C.C. This is shown in the Fig. 3.3. Fig. 3.3 O.C.C. and S.C.C. of an alternator 3.3.2 Short Circuit Test Alter completing the open circuit test observations, the field rheostat is brought to maximum position, reducing field current to a minimum value. The T.PS.T. switch is closed. As ammeter has negligible resistance, the armature gets short circuited. Then the field excitation is gradually increased till full load current is obtained through armature winding. This can be observed on the ammeter connected in the armature circuit. The graph of short circuit armature current against field current is plotted from the observation table of short circuit test. This graph is called short circuit characteristics, S.C.C. This is also shown in the Fig. 3.3. Observation table for short circuit test : Sr. No. yA Short circuit armature current er phase (Inge) A The S.CC. is a straight line graph passing through the origin while O.C.C. resembles B-H curve of a magnetic material.Electrical Machines 3-6 Regulation of Synchronous Generator Key Point: As S.C.C. is straight line graph, only one reading corresponding to full load armature current along with the origin is sufficient to draw the straight line: 3.3.3 Determination of Z, from 0.C.C. and S.C.C. The synchronous impedance Z, of the alternator changes as load condition changes. O.C.C. and S.C.C. can be used to determine Z, for any load and load p-f. conditions. lose In short circuit test, external load impedance am is zero. The short circuit armature current is c ° Short circulated against the impedance of the armature on) oreut winding which is Z,. The voltage responsible for driving this short circuit current is internally induced em. This can be shown in the Fig. 3.4 Equivalent circuit on short equivalent circuit drawn in the Fig, 3.4. circuit ai ‘ From the equivalent circuit we can write, Now value of I, is known, which can be observed on the ammeter. But internally induced emf. can not be observed under short circuit condition. The voltmeter connected will read zero which is voltage across short circuit. To determine Z, it is necessary to determine value of E. which is driving Iqg- against Z,. Now internally induced emf. is proportional to the flux ie. field current Ij. Ey * o%Ty from emf. equation So if the terminals of the alternator are opened without disturbing I; which was present ee ° at the time of short circuited condition, internally induced emf. will remain same as Epy. But now © Open current will be zero. Under this condition Ready circuit equivalent circuit will become as shown in the is Egy Fig. 3.5. ° It is clear now from the equivalent circuit that as 1, = 0 the voltmeter reading (Voc)py will be Fig. 3.5 : 8 (Voopn equal to internally induced e.m-f. (Eph). Eon = (Voe)pn on open circuit This is what we are interested in obtaining to calculate value of Z,. So expression for Z, can be modified as,Electrical Machines - It! 3-7 Regulation of Synchronous Generator Phase e.m.f. on open ci Phase current on ShOrt CirCUit|,., ne exciaion caren Thus in general, So O.C.C. and S.C.C. can be used effectively to calculate Z,. The value of Z, is different for different values of I, as the graph of O.C.C. is non linear in nature. So suppose Z, at full load is required then, Igo = full load current From SCC. determine I; required to drive this full load short circuit I,. This is equal to ‘OA’, as shown in the Fig. 33. Now for this value of lj, (Voo)p can be obtained from O.C.C. Extend line from point A, till it meets O.C.C. at point C. The corresponding (Vq_)ph value is available at point D. (och = OD While Gudpn = OF _ Weedon Z.arfull load = Full load (hase) ‘same f (same excitation) OD} ‘OE| some f= OA General steps to determine Z, at any load condition are i) Determine the value of (Lasc)p, for corresponding load condition. This can be| determined from known full load current of the alternator. For half load, it is half of the full load value and so on. ii) S.C.C. gives relation between (Iasc)py, and I. $0 for (lase),y Fequired, determine the corresponding value of I; from SCC. iii) Now for this same value of Ij, extend the line on O.CC. to get the value of (Vor)py+ This is (Voc)py, for same Iy, required to drive the selected (Iase pn iv) The ratio of (Voc), and (Iasc),4, for the same excitation gives the value of Z, at any load conditions. ‘The graph of synchronous impedance Z, against excitation current I; is also shown in the Fig. 3.3. 3.3.4 Regulation Calculations From O.C.C. and S.C.C., Z, can be determined for any load condition. The armature resistance per phase (R,) can be measured by different methods. One of the method is applying d.c. known voltage across the two terminals and measuring current. So value of R, per phase is known.Electrical Machines - ill 3-8 Regulation of Synchronous Generator Now Z = V(RiP + (Xs P = ¥(Z.)? -(Re? Q/ph So synchronous reactance per phase can be determined. No load induced e.m.f. per phase, E,, can be determined by the mathematical expression derived earlier nn i) +1, Ra? + (Vpn sin < where Phase value of rated voltage |, = Phase value of current depending on the load condition cos 6 = p.f. of load Positive sign for lagging power factor while negative sign for leading power factor, Ry and X, values are known from the various tests performed. ‘The regulation then can be determined by using formula, Egn — Vy % Regulation = —*\——P x 100 3.3.5 Advantages and Limitations of Synchronous Impedance Method The main advantage of this method is the value of synchronous impedance Z, for any load condition can be calculated. Hence regulation of the alternator at any load condition and load power factor can be determined. Actual load need not be connected to the alternator and hence method can be used for very high capacity alternators. The main limitation of this method is that the method gives large values of synchronous reactance. This leads to high values of percentage regulation than the actual results, Hence this method is called pessimistic method. mp Example 3.2: The open circuit and short circuit test is conducted on a 3 phase; star connected, 866V, 100 kVA alternator. The O.C. test results are, 1, Amp V,. line Volts The field cur-ent of 1 A, produces a short circuit current of 25 A. The armature resistance per phase is 0.15 Q. Calculate its full load regulation at 0.8 lagging power factor condition.Electrical Machines - II! 3-9 Regulation of Synchronous Generator Solution : V, = 866 V, kVA = 100 KVA = V3Vi IL x103 100 = V3 x 866x Ty x10 1, = 66.67 A Tyyn EL = 1, = 66.67 A as star connected alternator V,., = rated terminal voltage per phase = vs pees v3 = 500V For calculation of Z, on full load, it is necessary to plot O.C.C. and S.C.C. to the scale. Note : If for same value of I, both I,,, and V,. can be obtained from the table itself, graph need not be plotted. In some problems, the values of V,. and I,,. for same I, are directly given, in that case too, the graph need not be plotted. In this problem, I,,.. = 25 A for y= 1 A. =66. OF lage”Electrical Machines - III 3-10 Regulation of Synchronous Generator But we want to calculate Z, for Iase = its full load value which is 66.67 A. So graph is required to be plotted. For plotting O.C.C. the line values of open circuit voltage are converted to phase by dividing each value by V3. From S.C.C. For 66.67 A, I From O.C.C. For I, = 24 A, (Vidpn = 240 V From the graph, Z, for full load is, Zs (Voc ) ph _ 240 ° (ase Ip for same excitation 56.67) For tpo2.aA = 3.6 Q/phase R, = 0.15 Q/phase X, = fZ)F- RF = 3.597 Q/phase Vener = 500V cos = 08 sin = 0.6 lagging pf. So Ep, for full load, 0.8 lagging p:f. condition can be calculated as, (Egn)” = (Vpn cos+ Ta Ra)? + (Vph sing+ ly X.)? (Eph)? = 00x 0.84 66.67 x 0.15)? +(500x 0.6 + 66.67 x 3.597)? Egy, = 677.86 V we Reguiaton = EM, gp = 7-86-50, 09 = + 35.57% imp Example 3.3: A 230 V, 3-phase, star connected alternator gives on open circuit, emf. of 230 V, for a field current of 0.38 A. The same field current on short circuit causes an armature current of 12.5 A. The armature resistance measured between two lines is 1.8 ohms. Find the regulation for the current of 10 amps at 0.8 lagging and 08 leading power factors.Electrical Machines - Ill 3-11 Regulation of Synchronous Generator Solution : 230 V, R, between lines = 18 2 vy, = 230 V, 1,212.5 A for same I, = 0.38 A ‘chine 1 Nase The value of open circuit emf is always line value unless and until specifically (oe on Toe er sane ty 230 mentioned to be a phase value Zz (Voc)ph = =o = 132.79 V V3 132.79 Z = EE = 10023 27/ph R, between terminals = 180 For star connection, R, between the terminals is 2 R, per ph. 2R, per ph = 18 R, per ph = 092 X, = ¥Z2-=R7 = (10.623)? (0.9? = 10.585 2/ph Now regulation is asked for I, = 10A Note : The value of Z, is calculated for [, = 125 A and not at 10 A. It will be different for I, = 10 A. But in this problem the test results are not given hence it is not possible to sketch the graphs to determine Z, at I, = 10 A. So value of Z, calculated is assumed to be same at I, = 10 A. Key Point: As change in Z, is not significant for small difference in 1, Z can be assumed to be constant for different values of I,, once calculated for given value of 1, i) For 08 lagging pf vi 230 Vy, = b= = 13279V mo V3 I, = 100A cos @ = 08 s0 sin = 0.6 (Ep)? = (Vpn cos¢+ I, Ra)? + (Vph sing+ Ia Xs)? (Epn)? = (132.79 0.8+10x 0.9)? + 132.79x 0.6+10x 10.585)? E,, = 21839 V Em =Va x 218.39 - 132.79 100 = ————— x 100 % Reg. = 132.79 + 64.46 %Electrical Machines - Il 3-12 Regulation of Synchronous Generator ii) For 0.8 leading pf (Epn)? = (Vpn cost ty Ra)? + (Vpn sing=y X)? (Eyu)? = (132.790.8410 0.9}? +(132.79% 0.6~10% 10.585)? Ey, = 118.168 V 7 _ 118.168 -132.79 % Reg, x 100 = 55 — * 100 - 11.01 % Key Point: For lending P.F. the regulation is negative as Eyy < Vy 3.4 M.M.F. Method of Determining Regulation This method of determining the regulation of an alternator is also called Ampere-turn method or Rothert's M.M.F. method. The method is based on the results of open circuit test and short circuit test on an alternator. For any synchronous generator i.e. alternator, it requires mm.f. which is product of field current and tums of field winding for two separate purposes. 1. It must have an m.m.f. necessary to induce the rated terminal voltage on open circuit. 2. It must have an mam. equal and opposite to that of armature reaction m.m.f Key Point: In most of the cases as number of turns on the field winding is not known, the mmf. is calculated and expressed in terms of the field current itself. The field m.m-f. required to induce the rated terminal voltage on open circuit can be obtained from open circuit test results and open circuit characteristics. This is denoted as Fo We know that the synchronous impedance has two components, armature resistance and synchronous reactance. Now synchronous reactance also has two components, armature leakage reactance and armature reaction reactance. In short circuit test, field m.m4. is necessary to overcome drop across armature resistance and leakage reactance and also to overcome effect of armature reaction. But drop across armature resistance and leakage reactance is very small and can be neglected. Thus in short circuit test, field m.m.f. circulates the full load current balancing the armature reaction effect. The value of ampere-tums required to circulate full load current can be obtained from short circuit characteristics. This is denoted as Fag. Under short circuit condition as resistance and leakage reactance of armature do not play any significant role, the armature reaction reactance is dominating and hence the power factor of such purely reactive circuit is zero lagging. Hence Fa gives demagnetising ampere turns. Thus the field mmf. is entirely used to overcome the armature reaction which is wholly demagnetising in nature.Electrical Machines - Ill 3-13 Regulation of Synchronous Generator The two components of total field m.m.f which are Fo and Fap are indicated in O.C.C. (open circuit characteristics) and S.C.C. (short circuit characteristics) as shown in the Fig. 37. Open circuit voltage short circuit current Rated terminal eg we proseceeeesss occ Full bad short _, | f---_., cireuit current Field current Far Fo "" Fig. 3.7 If the alternator is supplying full load, then total field m.m-f. is the vector sum of its two components Fo and Fag. This depends on the power factor of the load which alternator is supplying. The resultant field m.mf. is denoted as Fg. Let us consider the various power factors and the resultant Fp. Zero lagging pf. : As long as the power factor is zero lagging, the armature reaction is completely demagnetising. Hence the resultant Fx is the algebraic sum of the two Fo Far components Fy and Fag. Field m.mf. is not oO only required to produce rated terminal voltage but also required to overcome completely demagnetising armature reaction Fig. 3.8 wee eres This is shown in the Fig. 3.8. OA = Fo AB = Fyq —demagnetising Total field m.m-f. is greater than Fo . Zero leading p-.: When the power factor is zero leading then the armature reaction is totally magnetising and helps main flux to induce rated terminal voltage. Hence net field m.m-f. required is less than that required to induce rated voltage normally, as part of itsElectrical Machines - lit — 3-14 Regulation of Synchronous Generator Fo function is done by magnetising a T~ armature reaction component. The 0 @——_—___2 4 net field mmf. is the algebraic aa difference between the two components Fo and Fag. This is shown in the Fig. 39. AB = Fay magnetising OB = Fo- Far = Fr Total mmf. is less than Fo. Unity pf.: Under unity power factor condition, the armature reaction Fe Fan is cross magnetising and its effect is “ to distort the main flux. Thus Fo and oN Fag are at right angles to each other Fo and hence resultant m.m.f. is the . vector sum of Fo and Fag. This is Fig. 3.10 shown in the Fig. 3.10. OA = Fy AB = Fax “cross magnetising OB = Fi Tot Far General Case : Now consider that the load power factor is cos @. In such case, the resultant m.m-f. is to be determined by vector addition of Fo and Fax. cos 4, lagging p.f.: When the load pf. is cos ¢ lagging, the phase current Iypy, lags V;p by angle $. The component Fo is at right angles to Vp, while Fag is in phase with the current Ip. This is because the armature current I,,, decides the armature reaction. The armature reaction Fa, due to current Tyg, is to be overcome by field mmf. Hence while finding resultant field mmf." Fy, should be added to Fo vectorially. This is because resultant field m.m.f. tries to counterbalance armature reaction to produce rated terminal voltage. The phasor diagram is shown in the Fig. 3.11. From the phasor diagram the various magnitudes are, OA = Fo, AB = Fy, OB = Fp Consider triangle OCB which is right angle triangle. The Fag is split into two parts as, AC = Fag sin > and BC = Fag cos >Electrical Machines - Ill 3-15 Regulation of Synchronous Generator Fig. 3.11 (Fr) = (Fo + Far sin 4)? + (Far cos 4? a From this relation (1), Fp can be determined. cos $, leading p.f.: When the load p.f. is cos $ leading, the phase current Iypy, leads Vix by $. The component Fo is at right angles to V,, and Fag is in phase with I,,,. The resultant F, can be obtained by adding — F,x to Fo. The phasor diagram is shown in the Fig. 3.12. Fig. 3.12 From the phasor diagram, various magnitudes are, AC = Fag sin and BC = Fyg cos > OA = Fo, AB=Fag and OB =F Consider triangle OCB which is right angle triangle. (copy = (OC? + (BCP (Fee = Far sin ¢? + (Far cos ¢? w (2)Electrical Machines - 8 8.16 Regulation of Synchronous Generator From the relation (2), Fe can be obtained. volts Using relations (1) and (2), resultant field m.m.f. Fp for any p.f load condition can be obtained. ro) CK Once FR is known, obtain corresponding voltage which is. induced emf. E,,, required to get rated terminal voltage Vy. This is possible from open _— circuit characteristics drawn. Once Ep, is known then the ‘+ regulation can be obtained as, Rated Ie Epn ~ Vj % R = PMT OP 100 Von Note : To obtain E,,, corresponding to Fy, O.C.C. must be drawn to the scale, from the open circuit test readings. Key Point: This ampere-turn method gives the regulation of an alternator which is lower than that actually observed. Hence the method is called optimistic method. Important note : When the armature resistance is neglected then Fo is field mmf, required to produce rated Vj, at the output terminals. But if the effective armature] resistance Rypy is given then Fo is to be calculated from O.C.C. such that Fo represents| the excitation (field current) required to produce a voltage of Vpq, + Ty R, cos ¢ where = rated voltage per phase = full load current per phase = armature resistance per phase power factor of the load It can also be noted that, Fg can be obtained using the cosine rule to the triangle formed by Fo, Far and Fo as shown in the Fig. 3.14. (2) cos $ lagging (b)c0s ¢ leading Fig. 3.14Electrical Machin« tw 3-17 Regulation of Synchronous Generator Using cosine rule to triangle OAB, (Fa)? = (Foy? + (Fan)? - 2 Fo Fan cos (Fo” Fan) Fo" Far = 90 + Oif is lagging = GB) = 90 ~ $if $is leading ~ Students can use equations 1, 2 or 3 to calculate Fp. The angle between E, and Vpn is denoted as 8 and-ic called power angle. Neglecting R, we can write, I,X,cos = Eg sin’ Pa = Vphla cos@= internal power of machine VonEo Pa sind Key Point: This equation shows that the internal power of the machine is proportional to sin 3. map Example 3.4: The open circuit and short circuit test tesults for 3 , star connected, 1000 kVA, 1905 V, 50 Hz alternator are : Open circuit terminal voltage (Vochine V Shor circuit curTent Ig A - 20 - 335 | - - Field current I, A 10 20 25 30 | 40 50 The armature reactance per phase is 0.2 9. Draw the open circuit and short circuit characteristics and find the regulation on full load 0.8 lagging pf. by i) ampere-turn method and ii) synchronous impedance method. Solution : While sketching O.C.C., convert the given line, values to phase by dividing each value by V3. This is because, the alternator is star connected, The characteristics are shown in the Fig. 3.15. i) Ampere-turn method Vi. _ 1905 Now Va = = BB emv mB R, = 022 As R, is given, Fo is field current to obtain the voltage equal to Vpn + Laph Ra cos > where Tygy = full load armature current per phase apt kVA = VV ILFig. 3.15 1000x103 = ¥3x1905x I, 1, = 30307A I 2p + Tap Ry COS @ = 1100 + 303,07 x 0.2 0.8 lpn = 1, = 303.07 A as star connection. = 1485V Find Fo corresponding to voltage of 1148.5 V from O.C.C. So Fo = 32A While Fag is field current required to circulate full load short circuit current of 303.07 A. So obtain it from S.C.C. So Fag = 275A For lagging power factor the phasor diagram is shown in the Fig. 3.16. From triangle OCB, (Fy)? = (Fo + Fa Sin 6° + (Fan cos 6? (32 + 27.5 x 0.6)? + (27.5 x 0.8)? Fe = 53.25AElectrical Machines - Ill 3-19 Regulation of Synchronous Generator Fig. 3.16 Alternate Method : Considering the triangle OAB and using cosine rule Fr can be obiained. Using cosine rule, (Fp) = (Fo)? + (Far)? ~ 2 Fo Far cos (90 + @) = (32)? +(27 5)? -2x 32% 27 5x cos(90 + 36.86) Fx = 5325 A This is same as obtained above. Fig. 3.47 Now obtain E,,, corresponding to , Fx = 53.25 A of field current from O.C.C. For Fy = 5325, Ey, = 1490 V, from graph Epn-V, 1490 - 1100 opp = EPha Veh, 199 oR = PP 100 = aap 100 = 35.45 % (ii) Synchronous impedance method Toph = ye = 303.07 A, = 275A (Vodpn = 1060.V for y= 275A, from graph, 7. Med | — _ 1060 Tet leery 303-07 = 3.49759 X, = JZ?-R2 = 3.4918Q The phasor diagram for 0.8 lagging p-f. is shown in the Fig. 3.18. From phasor diagram, consider triangle OBC.Electrical Machines - Ill 3-20 Regulation of Synchronous Generator (ocy = (By + (BC (yn)? = (Vpn cost la Ra)? + (Vpn sin gt Te X,)? Fig. 3.18 = (1100x 0.8 + 303.07 0.2)? + (1100 0.6 + 303.07 x 3.4918)? Ep, = 1958.87 V Eph ~ Vpn Ye R= 100 = “Sigg = 78.07% Key Point: It can be seen that synchronous impedance method shows higher regulation while the ampere-turn method shows lower regulation. 3.5 Zero Power Factor (ZPF) Method This method is also called Potier method, In the operation of any alternator, the armature resistance drop IR, and armature leakage reactance drop IX, are actually emf. quantities while the armature reaction is basically mmf. quantity. In the synchronous impedance all the quantities are treated as emf. quantities as against this in MMF. method all are treated as m.m.f. quantities. Hence in both the methods, we are away from reality. Key Point: This method is based on the separation of armature leakage reactance and armature reaction effects. The armature leakage reactance X, is called Potier reactance in this mmetitod, hence method is also called Potier reactance method. To determine armature leakage reactance and armature reaction m.m.f. separately, two tests are performed on the given alternator. The two tests are, 1. Open circuit test 2. Zero power factor testElectrical Machines 3-24 Regulation of Synchronous Generator 3.5.1 Open Circuit Test The experimental setup to perform this test is shown in the Fig. 3.19. Stator Aitemator porentel F, =@- o— 4 i oc. @ ’ _ Supply Prime F mover Field Switch ta, s Purely reactive > toad Fig. 3.19 Experimental setup for ZPF method The steps to perform open circuit test are, The switch S is kept open. . The alternator is driven by its prime mover at its synchronous speed and same is| maintained constant throughout the test. . The excitation is varied with the help of potential divider, from zero upto rated value in definite number of steps. The open circuit em.f. is measured with the help of voltmeter. The readings are tabulated. . A graph of I; and (Voc)pp ie. field current and open circuit voltage per phase is plotted to some scale. This is open circuit characteristics. 3.5.2 Zero Power Factor Test To conduct zero power factor test, the switch $ is kept closed. Due to this, a purely inductive load gets connected to an alternator through an ammeter. A purely inductive load has power factor of cos 90° ie. zero lagging hence the test is called zero power factor test. The machine speed is maintained constant at its synchronous value. The load current delivered by an alternator to purely inductive load is maintained constant at its rated full load value by varying excitation and by adjusting variable inductance of the inductive load. Note that, due to purely inductive load, an alternator will always operate at zero pf. lagging.Electrical Machines - lil 3-22 Regulation of Synchronous Generator. Key Point : In this test, there is no need to obtain number of points to obtain the curve. Only too points are enough to construct a curve called zero power factor saturation curve. This is the graph of terminal voltage against excitation when delivering full load zero power factor current. One point for this curve is zero terminal voltage (short circuit condition) and the field current required to deliver full load short circuit armature current. While other point is the field current required to obtain rated terminal voltage while delivering rated full load armature current. With the help of these two points the zero pf. saturation curve can be obtained as, 1. Plot open circuit characteristics on graph paper as shown in the Fig. 3.20. Terminal voltage and Aine occ. induced ' emd. 5 per ey Potier triangle phase Full load zero p. saturation curve Rated Vin Fig. 3.20 Plot the excitation corresponding to zero terminal voltage i.e. short circuit full load zero pf. armature current. This point is shown as A in the Fig. 320 which is on the x-axis. Another point is the rated voltage when alternator is delivering full load current at zero p.f. lagging. This point is P as shown in the Fig. 3.20. 3. Draw the tangent to OC.C. through origin which is line OB as shown dotted in the Fig. 3.20. This is called air line. 4, Draw the horizontal line PQ parallel and equal to OA. x 5. From point Q draw the line parallel to the air line which intersects O.C.C. at point R. Join RQ and join PR. The triangle PQR is called Potier triangle. 6. From point R, drop a perpendicular on PQ to meet at point $. 7. The zero p.f. full load saturation curve is now be constructed by moving a triangle PQR so that R remains always on O.C.C. and line PQ always remainsElectrical Machin Uy 3 23 Regulation of Synchronous Generator horizontal. The dotted triangle is shown in the Fig. 3.20. It must be noted that the Potier triangle once obtained is constant for a given armature current and hence can be transferred as it is. Through point A, draw line parallel to PR meeting O.C.C. at point B. From B, draw perpendicular on OA to meet it at point C. Triangles OAB and PQR are similar triangles. co © . The perpendicular RS gives the voltage drop due to the armature leakage reactance i.e. IX, 10. The length PS gives field current necessary to overcome demagnetising effect of armature reaction at full load. 1 . The length SQ represents field current required to induce an e.m.f. for balancing leakage reactance drop RS. These values can be obtained from any Potier triangle such as OAB, PQR and so on. So armature leakage reactance can be obtained as, T(RS) = 1 (BC) = Capn der. * Xt ph x. = LARS) or BC) tp aph) FL This is nothing but the Potier reactance. 3.5.3 Use of Potier Reactance to Determine Regulation To determine regulation using Potier reactance, draw the phasor diagram using following procedure : Draw the rated terminal voltage Vy, as a reference phasor. Depending upon at which power factor (cos 4) the regulation is to be predicted, draw the Current phasor [pp lagging or leading Vpp by angle . Draw Iph Raph Voltage drop to Vpy which is in phase with I, While the voltage drop ph Xtpn 15 to be drawn perpendicular to Ip, Ryph vector but leading Tpy Raph at the extremity of Vpp, The Rypp is to be measured separately by passing a dc. current and measuring voltage across armature winding. While Xipp {8 Potier reactance obtained by Potier method. Phasor sum of Vpn rated, Iph Raph and Ipp Xiph gives the emf. which is say Eph, Eipn = Vpn +ipn +i Xin Obtain the excitation corresponding to Eipy from O.C.C. drawn. Let this excitation be Fy. This is excitation required to induce emf. which does not consider the effect of armature reaction. The field current required to balance armature reaction can be obtained from Potier triangle, which is say Fag.Electrical Machines - Ill 3-24 Regulation of Synchronous, Generator Fax = 1 (PS) = 1 (AC) The total excitation required is the vector sum of the Fy, and Fag. This can be obtained exactly similar to the procedure used in M.M.F. method. Draw vector Fy to some scale, leading Ep, by 90°. Add Fag to Fy, by drawing vector Fg in phase opposition to Ipp, The total excitation to be supplied by field is given by Fa. The complete phasor diagram is shown in the Fig. 3.21 {Armature (/ reaction drop Fig. 3.21 Once the total excitation is known which is Fg, the corresponding induced e.m.f. Epp can be obtained from O.C.C. This Epp lags Fr by 90% The length CD represents voltage drop due to the armature reaction. Drawing perpendicular from A and B on current phasor meeting at points G and H respectively, we get triangle OHC as right angle triangle. Hence Eypy can be determined analytically also. Once Epp is known, the regulation of an altemator can be predicted as, cor = eR Vem 109 eh This method takes into consideration the armature resistance and leakage reactance voltage drops as e-m.f. quantities and the effect of armature reaction as m.m..f, quantity This is the reality hence the results obtained by this method are nearer to the reality than those obtained by synchronous impedance method and ampere-turns method. The only drawback of this method is that the separate curve for every load condition is necessary to plot if potier triangles for various load conditions are required.Electrical Machines - Ill 3-25 Regulation of Synchronous Generator mmm Example 3.5: A 10 kVA, 440 V, 50 Hz, 3 phase star connected alternator has the open circuit characteristics as given below : 1, Amp 15 3 5 8 " 15 (Vcc) line volts | 150 | 300 | 440 | 550 | 600 | 635 With full load zero p.f., the applied excitation required is 14 A to produce 500 V of terminal voltage. On short circuit, 4 A excitation is required to give full load current. Determine the vollage regulation for full load, 0.8 pf. lagging and leading. Solution : Convert the given open circuit line voltages to phase voltages. 86.602 173.2 254.03 346.41 For zero pf. saturation curve two points are given. One is short circuit full load current excitation of 4 A and terminal voltage zero. This is point A (4 A, 0 V) on x-axis. Second point I;= 14 A required to get 500 V line voltage at terminals. This gives point P(I4 A, * = 288.67 V). The OCC. and Potier triangle is shown inElectrical Machines - Ill 3-26 Regulation of Synchronous Generator From Potier triangle PQR, the armature leakage reactance drop is (RS) = 1.1 cm. : Tpn Xiph = (RS) x scale = 11x 50 = 55 V Case i): cos) = 08 lagging Find Ei, by adding vectorially I,n Xiph to Vpn as shown. Fig, 3.23, Vn = 40 - 5103 v v3 In triangle OAB, (Epn)2 = (OB)? + (AB)? = (Vpn cos ? + (Vpn sin $+ Ipn Xipn)? = (254.03 x 0.8)? + (254.03 « 0.6 + 55)? . Eiph = 290.382 V From O.C.C., corresponding Fn = 6.1 A From potier triangle, field current balancing armature reaction is |(PS). Far = I(PS) x scale = 3.1x1=31A Add vectorially, Fy) and Fag as shown in the Fig. 3.24. Fr Fag= 3.18 AZ 6 Fuz61A A Fig. 3.24 Using cosine rule for triangle, (FQ? = (Fal? + ag)’ — 2 Fa Far * 08 ( Fr Fag) (Fy? = (6.1) + (3.1)? - 2 x 6.1 x 3.1 x cos (90 + 9), $= 36.86° Fy = 8.337 AElectrical Machines - Ill 3-27 Regulation of Synchronous Generator The corresponding voltage to Fy = 8.33 A is equal to, Eg, = 328V from O.C.C. Eph ~Von 328 -254..03 %R = =A x 100 = SEE x 100 = + 29.11 % ‘oh cos = 08 leading The drop Ip, Xiph remains same, only its direction changes due to leading p.f. current. Find Eyph by adding Ip, Xiph to Vpn as shown in the Fig. 3.25. Fig. 3.25 Fig. 3.26 In triangle OBC, (E,px)” = (OC) + (BC? = (Voy COs 4° + (Vpn Sin O— Typ Xtpa)” = (254.03 x 0.8)? + (254.03 x 0.6 - 55)? Eph = 225366 V From O.C.C, corresponding to Eiphy, Fy = 4.1 A Fag = 3.1 A remains same, from Potier triangle Add vectorially Fy, and Fap to get Fr, as shown in the Fig. 3.26. Applying cosine rule to A OAB, (Fy? = Fa)? + Fa)? ~ 2 Fr: Far cos (90 - = (4.1)? + (3.1)? - 2x 4.1 x 3.1 x cos (90 - 36.86) Fy = 334A ‘The corresponding open circuit voltage to Fy =,3.34 A is equal to, En = from OCC. %R =Electrical Machines - Il! 3-28 Regulation of Synchronous Generator = - 25.2% 3.6 ASA Modification of M.M.F. Method We have seen that neither of the two methods, M.M.F. method and E.M.F. method is capable of giving the reliable values of the voltage regulation. The error in the results of these methods is mainly due to the two reasons, 1. In these methods, the magnetic circuit is assumed to be unsaturated. This assumption is unrealistic as in practice. It is not possible to have completely unsaturated magnetic circuit. 2 In salient pole alternators, it is not correct to combine field ampere turns and armature ampere tums. This is because the field winding is always concentrated on a pole core while the armature winding is always distributed. Similarly the field and armature m.mfs act on magnetic circuits having different reluctances in case of salient pole machine hence phasor combination of field and armature m.mf. is not fully justified. ite of these short comings, due to the 8 simplicity of constructions the ASA modified form of M.M.F. method is very commonly used 7 for the calculation of voltage regulation. Consider the phasor diagram according to f the M.M.F. method as shown in the Fig. 3.27 Org for cos > lagging p.f. load. The Fp is resultant Fig. 327 excitation of Fo and Fag where Fo is excitation required to produce rated terminal voltage on open circuit while Fan is m.m-f. required for balancing armature reaction effect. Thus OB = Fy = resultant mm. The angle between Fag and perpendicular to Fo is $, where cos $ is power factor of the load. But OB = Fg = resultant is based on the assumption of unsaturated magnetic circuit which is not true in practice. Actually mm4f. equal to BB' is additionally required to take into account the effect of partially saturated magnetic field. Thus the total excitation required is OB’ rather than OB. Let us see method of determining the additional excitation needed to take into account effect of partially saturated magnetic circuit. Construct the no load saturation characteristics ie. O.C.C. and zero power factor characteristics. Draw the potier triangle as discussed earlier and determine the leakagelectrical Machines - 3-29 Regulation of Synchronous Generator reactance X; for the alternator. The excitation necessary to balance armature reaction can also be obtained from the Potier triangle. The armature resistance is known. Now Ep = Vpn + Tray t Ton Xp, Construct ASA diagram, and draw phasor diagram related to the above equation. The ASA diagram has x-axis as field current and y-axis as the open circuit voltage. Draw O.C.C. on the ASA diagram. Then assuming x-axis as current phasor, draw Vpp at angle $, above the horizontal. The Vpy is the rated terminal voltage. Add I,R, in phase with I, i.e. horizontal and 1,X,, perpendicular to IR, to Vpp- This gives the voltage Eipn Now with O as a centre and radius Ey), draw an arc which wil! intersect y-axis at Ey From Ej, draw horizontal line intersecting both air gap line and O.C.C. These points of intersection are say B and B’. The distance between the points BB’ corresponding to the field current scale gives the additional excitation required to take into account effect of partially saturated field. Adding this to Fp we get the total excitation as Fy. From this Fr, the open circuit voltage E,y, can be determined from O.C.C. using which the regulation can be determined. The ASA diagram is shown in the Fig. 3.28. Open circuit voltage in votts| o ty fleta current ——_——— F,’$ + inamp Tolal excitation Fig. 3.28 The results obtained by ASA method are reliable for both salient as well as nonsalient pole machines.Electrical Machines - Ill 3-31 Regulation of Synchronous Generator The reluctance offered to the m.m.f. wave is lowest when: it is aligned with the field pole axis. This axis is called direct axis of pole ie. d-axis. The reluctance offered is highest when the m.m.f, wave is oriented at 90° to the field pole axis which is called quadrature axis i.e. q-axis. The air gap is least in the centre of the poles and progressively increases on moving away from the centre. Due to such shape of the pole-shoes, the, field winding wound on salient poles'produce the m.m.f. wave which is nearly sinusoidal. and it always acts along the pole axis which is direct axis. Let F; be the mm.f. wave produced by field winding, then it always acts along the direct axis. This m.m4f. is responsible to produce an excitation e.m.f. Ey which lags Fy by an angle 90°. When armature carries current, it produces its own mum.f. wave Fag. This can be resolved in two components, one acting along d-axis (magnetising or demagnetising) and one acting along q-axis (cross-magnetising). Similarly armature current 1, also can be divided into two components, one along direct axis and one along quadrature axis. These components are denoted as, } Fa = component along direct axis Far? | F, = component along quadrature axis Iq = component along direct axis component along quadrature axis The positions of Fag, Fy and Fy in space are shown in the Fig. 3.30. The instant chosen to show these positions is such that the current in phase R is maximum positive and is lagging E; by angle y. deaxis¥, 1 aris Axis of coil RR’ Fig. 3.30 M.M.F. wave positions in salient pole machine The phasor diagram corresponding to the positions considered is shown in the Fig. 3.31. The I, lags Ey by angle y.Electrical Machines - Ill 3-32 Regulation of Synchronous Generator It can be observed that Fy is produced by Iy which is at 90° to E; while Fy is produced by Ly which is in phase with Ej. The flax components of dg Which are $y and $4 along the direct and quadrature axis respectively are also shown in the Fig. 3.31. It can be noted that the reactance offered to flux along direct axis is less than the reactance offered to flux along quadrature axis. Due to this, the flux gay is no longer along Fag or I, Depending upon the reluctances offered along the direct and quadrature axis, the flux Op lags behind [, d-axis 4 Fig. 3.31 Basic phasor diagram for salient pole machine 3.7.1 Direct and Quadrature Axis Synchronous Reactances We know that, the armature reaction flux gx has two components, $4 along direct axis and @, along quadrature axis. These fluxes are proportional to the respective mmf. magnitudes and the permeance of the flux path oriented along the respective axes. ba = Pa Fa where Py = permeance along the direct axis Permeance is the reciprocal of reluctance and indicates ease with which flux can travel along the path. But = mmf. = Kay Ig in phase with Iy The mmf. is always proportional to current. While K,, is the armature reaction coefficient. ba = Pa Ke ly Similarly oq = Py Karly As the reluctance along direct axis is less than that along quadrature axis, the permeance Py along direct axis is more than that along quadrature axis, (Py > Pq)Electrical Machines - Ill 3-33 Regulation of Synchronous Generator Let Eg and E, be the induced em.ts due to the fluxes 4 and @4 respectively. Now Ey lags $4 by 90° while Eq lags $4 by 90° Ey = Ke by 4-90°= -j Ke bg and Ey = Ke dg 2-90" = -7 K by where K, = em4. constant of armature winding. The resultant e.m.f. is the phasor sum of Ey, Eq and Ey Ey = B+ Ey+ i, = Ey-jKeba-i Key Substituting expressions for 64 and dg Ep = Fy ~j Ke Pa Kar la ~j Ke Pq Kar Ty Now Xan = Equivalent reactance corresponding to the d-axis component of armature reaction = Ke Py Kor and Xarq = Equivalent reactance corresponding to the q-axis component of armature reaction Ke Pq Kar Ex = Fri Xara fa ~ i Xarg by For a realistic alternator we know that the voltage equation is, Ee - V+ R+X where *« " terminal voltage a " leakage reactance But iy + Ty Fa = V+, Ry +X la + Xt y Substituting in expression for Eg, Vet Ty Ry + Xe Bg + XL Ey = Ep J Nard Va ~ 5 Xarg Uy Ey = Wy +E, Ra +) OL + Nona) Ta +i OL + Xoeg) by Ep = Ve+t, Ra+jXala tj Xqly (1)Electrical Machines - Ill 3-34 Regulation of Synchronous Generator where Xq = d-axis synchronous reactance = Xi, + Xara .Q) and Xq = qraxis synchronous reactance = X1, + Xorg (3) It can be seen from the above equation that the terminal voltage V, is nothing but the voltage left after deducting ohmic drop I, R,, the reactive drop Iq Xq in quadrature with ly and the reactive drop I,Xq in quadrature with I,, from the total e.m.f. Ey The phasor diagram corresponding to the equation (1) can be shown as in the Fig. 3.32. The current 1, lags terminal voltage V, by 6. Then add I, R, in phase with I, to V,. The drop [y Xy leads I, by 90° as in case purely reactive circuit current lags voltage by 90° ie. voltage leads current by 90°. Similarly the drop IgXq leads Xy by 90% The total emf. is Ej. 3.7.2 Detail Analysis of Phasor Diagram In the phasor diagram shown in the Fig. 3.32, the angles y and 6 are not known, though V,, I, and @ values are known. Hence the location of Ej is also unknown. The components of yy ly and fy can not he determined which are required to sketch the phasor diagram. Let us find out some geometrical relationships between the —_various Fig. 3.32 quantities which are involved in the phasor diagram. For this, let us draw the phasor diagram including all the components in detail. Ika laXy We know from the phasor diagram shown in the Fig. 3.32 that, ly = oa(8) Ig = fcosy 8) cosy = 8 (6) I The drop [,R, has two components which are, IyRy = drop due to R, in phase with 1y 1gRa = drop due to R, in phase with Iy The [yXy and 1,Xq can be drawn leading ly and 1, by 90° respectively. The detail phasor diagram is shown in the Fig. 3.33 In the phasor diagram, OF = & oG =vElectrical Machines - III 3-35 Regulation of Synchronous Generator Fig. 3.33 Phasor diagram for lagging p.f. GH = IgR, and Hy = Ry GA = AE = IyXq and EF = 1X, Now DAC is drawn perpendicular to the current phasor 1, and CB is drawn perpendicular to AE. The triangle ABC is right angle triangle, BC _ yXq cosy = Ze=-4e ) But from equation (6), cos y= 7% in = te AC = 1X, (8) Thus point C can be located. Hence the direction of E; is also known. Now triangle ODC is also right angle triangle, cD fanny = OH o (8) Now OD = O1+ID=Vycos 6+ IR, and CD = AC+AD=1X,+V; sino tan yz NesindtlaXy mY Vi cos Ra (10) As I;Xq is known, the angle y can be calculated from equation (10). As @ is known we can write,Electrical Machines - III 3-36 Regulation of Synchronous Generator 3 = vo for lagging p.f. Ey = Vy cos 6 +14 Ry + Ig Xa (ul) Hence magnitude of Ey can be obtained by using equation (11) Note : In the above relations, is taken positive for lagging pf. For leading pf, 6 must be taken negative. 3.8 Determination of X, and X, using Slip Test The method used to determine Xq and Xq, the direct and quadrature axis reactances is called slip test. In an alternator we apply excitation to the field winding and voltage gets induced in the armature. But in the slip test, a three phase supply is applied to the armature, having voltage must less than the rated voltage while the field winding circuit is kept open. The circuit diagram is shown in the Fig. 3.34 Reduced voltage Field Armature 3 phase supply ‘open fielo Fig. 3.34 Circuit diagram for slip test The alternator is run at a speed close to synchronous but little less than synchronous value The three phase currents drawn by fea the armature from a three phase supply " produce a rotating flux. Thus the armature m.mf. wave is rotating at synchronous speed as shown in the ® suopy Fig: 335, Note that the armature is stationary, but the flux and hence m.m.f. wave produced by three phase armature ‘Stator its is rotating. This is similar to ths (armature) currents is rotating. This is similar to the rotating magnetic field existing in an induction motor. Fig. 3.35 Rotating armature m.m-f.Electrical Mac! es - Ill 3-37 Regulation of Synchronous Generator The rotor is made to rotate at a speed little less than the synchronous speed. Thus armature m.m-f. having synchronous speed, moves slowly past the field poles at a slip speed (n, - n) where n is actual speed of rotor. This causes an e.m.f. to be induced in the field circuit. When the stator m.m-f. is aligned with the d-axis of field poles then flux $q per pole is set up and the effective reactance offered by the alternator is Xq. When the stator mamn-f. is aligned with the q-axis of field poles then flux 94 per pole is set up and the effective reactance offered by the alternator is Xq, As the air gap is nonuniform, the reactance offered also varies and hence current drawn by the armature also varies cyclically at twice the slip frequency The rms. current is minimum when machine reactance is Xq and it is maximum when machine reactance is X,. As the reactance offered varies due to nonuniform air gap, the voltage drops also varies cyclically. Hence the impedance of the alternator also varies cyclically. The terminal voltage also varies cyclically. The voltage at terminals is maximum when current and various drops are minimum while voltage at terminals is minium when current and various drops are maximum. The waveforms of voltage induced in rotor, terminal voltage and current drawn by armature are shown in the Fig. 3.36. It can be observed that when rotor field is aligned with the armature mmJ, its flux linkages are maximum, but the rate of change of flux is zero. Hence voltage induced in field goes through zero at this instant. This is the position where alternator offers reactance Xq- While when rate of change of flux associated with rotor is maximum, voltage induced in field goes through its maximum. This is the position where alternator offers reactance *y The reactances can be calculated as, (at minimum 15 ) 31, (min) Xq= Minimum voliage _ (Y;) line (at maximum 1, ) and Maximum current V3, (max)Electrical Machines - Ill Uy ip iElectrical Machines - II 3-39 Regulation of Synchronous Generator Examples with Solutions wm Example 3.6 : An alternator has a direct axis synchronous reactance of 0.7 per unit and a quadrature axis synchronous reactance of 0.4 per unit. It is used to supply full load at rated voltage at 0.8 p.f. Find the total induced emf. on open circuit. Solution : The given values are, Xa = 36.86" 07 pu X,=04 pu cos 6= 08 lag Let rated terminal voltage be 1 pu and full load armature current I, as 1 pu. Assume. R, 0 as not given _ Vsin gta Xq Now fn v = Woser Re 1x 0.6+1x0.4 = hn = oro 715 w = 51.34° 8 = y-b= 5134 - 36.86 = 14.48° ly = |, sin y=1xsin 5134 = 0.7808 Now Fy = Vz cos 8+ 1yXq + 1g Ry = 1x cos 1448 + 0.7808 x 07 + 0 = 1.5148 pu mm> Example 3.7: A 3 ph star connected, 1000 KVA, 11000 V alternator has rated current of 52.5 A. The ac. resistance of the winding per phase is 0.45 Q. The test results are given below. O.C. Test : Field current = 12.5 A, voltage between lines = 422 V S.C, Test : Field current = 12.5 A, line current = 525 A Determine the full load voltage regulation of the alternator (a) at 0.8 pf. lagging (b) at 0.8 p.f. leading. Solution : Vi = 11000 V, kVA = 1000 KVA = V3 Vi I, x 10-5 1000 = J3x 11000x I, x 10° I, = 825A as the given full load current. For stator connection of alternator I, =Ipy = 52.5 A on full load, Z. =Electrical Machines - Ill 3-40 Regulation of Synchronous Generator From test results. 422 (Voe}pn = a 243.64 volts (lac)py = 525 4 z, = 23.64 4.640! ph Ry = 045.Q/ph X. = VZE=RT = 464)? (045)? = 4.61810 Ve _ 11000 While terminal voltage, Vpn = Se = = 6350.85 V ile terminal voltage, wh = ae a) cos >=08 lagging, sing = 06 (Epn)? =(Vpn C08 O+14Ry )? +(Vpn sing, X.)° = (6350.85 0.8 + 52.5 x 0.45)? + (6350.85 x 0.6 +525 x 4.6181)? (5104.305)? + (1052.96)? = 6517.70 volts Ep -Vj % Reg = yx 100 6517.70~ 6350.85 % 100 ‘% Reg = 2.62% b) cos=08 leading, sing = 0.6 (Epn)? =(Vph €08 $+14Re )? +(Vpn sino-1,Xs)? = (6350.85 x 0.8 +525 x 0.45)? + (6350.85 x 0.6 -52.5 x 4.6181)? = (6104.305)? + (3568.05)? Ep, = 6227.75 volts Eon —Vpn vs Reg = 4100 = 8227-75 - 6350.85 6350.85 100 2% Reg = - 1.938 % mm Example 3.8: Calculate from the observations taken on a 125 KVA, 400 V, 3 phase alternator, the % regulation for half load condition at 0.8 leading p.f. O.C. Test observation : Voc Vitine)Electrical Machines - Ill 3-41 Regulation of Synchronous Generator While full load current is obtained on short circuit condition at a field current of 8 A. Assume star connection and R, = 0.1 Q/pk. The short circuit current variation with respect to field current is linear. Solution : V;, = 400 V, kVA = 125 KVA = J3 Vil x 107 125= (3x 400 x I, x 10° T, = 180.42 A This is full load current + Taph = 18042 A on full load Now Ip = 8 A to get Ig = Iq full load and as Ir against Iyge is linear variation to get half load current on short circuit, the Iy required is 8 54. The graph need not be plotted but shown to clear the calculations. Now referring to OC. Test observations, without plotting graph we can get V,. value for I; = 4A, which is 140 V. For y = Ale = 8 0.21 A and Wechine = M0 V ie. (Vodpn = “22 = 80.829 V V Z, for half load = Tae cegcan” 80.829 = 0896 2/ph X= VZEERE = (0.896)? 0.0)? = 0890/ph So lapn on half load =} x Toph full load = 90.21 A 7 = 40 - 23094 vs cos¢ = 08 and sing=06 y, ph So for half load, induced e.m.f. per phase can be calculated as, (Epn)? = Wph 608 $+ R,)? + (Vpy sin = 1X?Electrical Machines - Ill 3-42 Regulation of Synchronous Generator 202.347 V _ 202.347 -230.94 % 100 = S55 «100. = - 12.38 % tar connected alternator gives 575 V on open circuit when field current is 10 A. For same field current, a full load current of 75 A is observed on short circuit. The armature resistance between the terminals is 2.16 Q. On 08 leading p,f. of full lout condition, induced v.m.f. per phase is 6100 V. Find its rated terminal voltage per phase and between the lines. Also calculate kVA rating of the alternator. , , . _ 915 | Solution : (Wocline =575.V, = Voodph ys 331.97 V while (cine = Casc)ph = 75 A for same Ip (Ne dyn _ 331.97 Zo = = 44 Toe 26 Q/ph Now R, between the terminal is 2.16 2 2R, per phase = 2.16 = 1.08 0/ph X, = ¥Z2-R? = J (4.426)? ~(1.08)? = 429202 On full load, Ip = 75 A and Ep, = 6100 V cos $ = 0.8 leading, (Egy? = (Vpn 605 6+ LRA)? + Vpy sin 6— 1X, (100)? = (Von x 08 + 75 x 1.08) + (Vpn * 0.6 = 75 x 4.292) 3.721 x 10” = 0.64 V3, + 129.6 Vpn + 6561 + 0.36 V3, - 386.28 Vp, + 1.03 x 10° ph = 256.68 Vp, - 3.71 x 107 =0 V 256.68 + .{ (256.68)? -4x1x(-3.71x 107) ph z Vin 6220.7049 V (discarding negative value) Vu = 3 Vpn = f3 * 620.7049 = 1074577 VElectrical Machines - It! 3-43 Regulation of Synchronous Generator This is the rated terminal voltage between the lines. Iyph = I, = 75 A on full load V3 Vi ix 10% 3 « 10774577 «75 x 107 KVA rating 1399.65 = 1400 kVA. wm> Example 3.10: From the following test results, determine the voltage regulation by EME. method of a 2000 V, 1 phase alternator delivering a current of 100 A at i) Unity pfs ii) 08 leading pf; and iti) 0.71 lagging pf. Test results : full load current of 100 A is produced on short circuit by a field excitation of 2.5 A. An emf. of 500 V is produced on open circuit by the same excitation. The armature resistance is 0.8 2. Solution : Note that the given alternator is single phase hence all the voltage and currents are obviously per phase and there is no question of line values. Vpn = 2000V; -R, = 082 I, = 100A; Voc = 500 V, i Ve 500 Now = TE | mete 1007 OP and X, = (ZE-R? = [@?-WSF = 4.93550 (1) FL, = 100 A i) Unity p£, cos$ = 1, sing=0 (Epn)® = (Vpn cos 6+ IR.) + (Vpn sin 6+ 1X, = (2000 x 1 + 100 x 0.8)? + (0 + 100 x 4.9355)? Eph = 2137.7538 V oe. Em—Vpn _ 2137 .7538-2000 R= BE x 100 = Sg * 100 = +688 % ii) Leading pf, cos @ =08, sin = 06 (Epn)® = (Vpn cos $+ IR.) + (Vpn sin $= 1X, (2000 x 0.8 + 100 x 0.8) + (2000 x 0.6 - 100 x 4.9355)? 1822.49 V Ew -Vy 1822.49 -2000 = x 100 = 100 S000 x 100 0Electrical Machines - Ill 3-44 Regulation of Synchronous Generator = ~ 887% iii) Lagging pf. cos @=0.71, — sin 6 = 07042 (Epy)” = (Vph 608 6+ I,Ry)” + (Vpp sin 6+ 1X, = (2000 x 0.71 + 100 x 0.8) + (2000 x 0.7042 + 100 x 4.9355)" Epn = 2422.27 V Em —Y, 2422.27 -2000 oR = Em Ton y Yo R= a 100 = Sy x 100 = +2111 % mi Example 3.11: A 1000 kVA, 4600 V, star connected alternator is short circuited when operating at rated speed. The field excitation is adjusted to give 150 % of rated armature current. The short circuit is then removed and with the same field current and speed the open circuit voltage between stator line terminals is found to be 1744 V. The effective resistance of armature is 1.Q per phase. Find at full load and 0.8 pf. lag, the regulation using synchronous impedance method. Solution : The given values are, 1000 kVA rating and V, = 4600 V Now. KVA = 3 VIL 1000 x 108 = JS x 4600 x I, I, = 12551 A (ap JEL. = hy = 12551 A full load VM _ 4600 Vpn = = 2655.811 V mR Tye = 150 % of (Iyph) FL. = 15 x 125.51 V = 188.266 A and = um = 1006898 V = 1006.898 sametg 198.266 = 5.3482. per phase 19 per phase X, = (22-R? = /G34827-@? = 525390 cos = 0.8 lagElectrical Machines - Ill 3-45 Regulation of Synchronous Generator sing = 06 (Epn)? = (Vpn €08 6+ Tap Ry)? + (Vpn sin 6 Toon XQ)? = (2655.811 0.8 + 125.51 x 1)? + (2655.811 x 0.6 + 125.51 « 5.2539)? Ep, = 3184147 V En —V, 3184.147 -2655.811 % pi — Von 109 = * % Reg = Tn 100 7655-811 100 = + 19.89% mm Example 3.12 : The following test results are obtained on 6600 V, alternator, Open Circuit Voltage | 3100 4900 6600 7500 8300 Field Current (amps) | 16 25 37.8 50 70 A field current of 20A is found necessary to circulate full load current on short circuit of the armature. Calculate by (a) mmf method and (b) the synchronous impedance method, the full load regulation of 0.8 p,f. (lagging). Neglect resistance and leakage reactance. Solution : i) Ampere-turn method The field current required for producing rated terminal voltage of 6600 V is 375 A. * Fo = 375A The field current required to circulate full load current is 20 A. Far = 20A 6600 Vpn = = 3810.5118 V ph V3 cos 6 = 0.8 lagging p.f : The phasor diagram is shown in the Fig. 3.38Electrical Machines - Ill 3-46 Regulation of Synchronous Generator (Fx)? = (Fo + Fan sin)? + (Fax cos)? (Fr)? = (37.5 + 20 x 0.6? + (20 x 0.8)? Fa = 5202.A Alternative method of calculating Fp is using cosine rule to triangle OAB. (Be)? = (Fo)? + (Far)? -2Fo Far cos(90+ 4) = (37.5)? +(20)? -2x 37.5% 20x cos(90 + 36.86) ° AFo 2. Fr = 52.019 A Fig. 3.39 This is same as obtained above. To find Ey, corresponding to Fk, plot the open circuit characteristics to the scale as shown in the Fig. 340. Note that while plotting voltages, use phase values by dividing the given values by {3 oe) =, ‘ochine Fortor Regulation of Synchronous G 3-54 i 3 my (Fr)? = (Fn)? +(Far)? -2 (Fr) (Far) cos (90 +4) ) (109)? +(28)? 2 (109) (28) cos (90+ 36.86" Sere Fig, 3.50 Potier triangle for example 3.15ines - 11 3-55 Regulation of Synchronous Generator (Fe)? = 11881 + 784 - 6104 x (- 0.5998) Fe = 12777 From OC.C, the corresponding Ep, is 7700 for Fx = 127.77 A Ep -Y, - % Reg = ae 100 = TS «100 = 2124 Regulation = 21.24% > Example 3.16 : A salient pole alternator has direct axis and quadrature axis reactances of 0.8 pu and 0.5 pu respectively. The effective resistance is 0.02 pu. Compute percentage regulation when the generator is delivering rated load at 0.8 pf. lag and lead. Assume rated voltage and rated current as one per unit. Solution : The given values are, Xqg = 0.8 puX,=05 pu R, = 0.02 pu Case 1] cos > = 0.8 lag $= 36.86° V, = 1 pu and I, full load = 1 pu Vi sings, Xq 1% 0.641%0.5 fanw = Wospel, R, ~ 1x 081 x0.00 = 13414 w = 53.29° 3 = y-o= 5329-3686 = 16.44° and I, sin v = 1 x sin (53.29%) = 0.8016 Ig = Iycos y= 1x cos (63.29%) = 0.5977 Now By = Vp cos 8+ 1g Xq+ ly R, = 1x cos (1644) + 0.8016 x 0.8 + 0.5977 x 0.02 = 1.6123 pu This is open circuit voltage required wR = BEM «199 = O31, 100 1Electrical Machines - III 3-56 Regulation of Synchronous Generator = 61.23% Case 2] cos} = 08 lead = ~ 36.86° The is negative for leading p.f. __Lxsin(-36.86°)41 05 oy tan v= Toeos-36.86°) #1 0.02 7 ON2I7 6.94" ~ (36.869) 29.92° 1, sin y = 1x sin (6.949) = — 0.1208 I, cos w = 1 x cos (6.94%) = 0.9926 Now E, V, cos F + Ty Xy + Ty Ry a = 1x cos (29.92) + (~ 0.1208) (0.8) + (0.9926) « 0.02 = 0.7899 This is open circuit voltage required. 0.7899 -1 —* 100 Regulation = - 21% imm> Example 3.17 : A 400 V, 10 kVA, 3 phase alternator with star connected stator winding has an effective armature resistance per phase 1.0 ohm. The alternator generates an open circuit voltage per phase of 90 V with a field current of 1.0 A. During the short circuit test, with 1.0 A of field current the short circuit current flowing in the armature is 15 A. Calculate i) the synchronous impedance, ii) synchronous reactance, iti) if the alternator is supplying a load current of 15 A at 0.8 pf. lagging, to what value would the terminal upltage rise if the load is thrown off. Solution : Vi = 400 volts, kVA = 10 KVA = f3-Vi-l x 103 10 = f3-400x1, x10°% I, = 1443 A For star conne: ‘ed alternator I, = Iph = 14.43 A on full loadElectrical Machines - III 3-66 Regulation of Synchronous Generator mp Example 3.23 : A 3 phase star connected synchronous generator supplies current of 10 A having phase angle of 20° lagging at 400 V. Find the load angle and components of armature current Iq and Iq if Xq = 10 Q and Xq = 6.5 Q Assume armature resistance to be negligible. Solution : The given values are Xe = a, 1, =10A = 20° lag cos 20°= 0: sin 20° 400 volts Vi sin + 1)Xq _(400x 0.3420) +(10)(6.5) tan y= LOE ah AN OO) HUONG) an = Vecosé+lgR, (400% 0.9396) +(0) un y = 22S -03909 y = 28.23% Now, 3 = y—$=28.23%-20°= 823° Iq = 1, siny =10sin (28.23°)=4.7301 A 1, = Ty cosy =10cos ( 28.23°)= 8.8105 A m> Example 3.24: A 3 phase salient pole synchronous generator is rated at 3.5 MVA, 6.6kV. Its direct and quadrature axis reactances are 9.6 Q and 6 Q per phase. The winding is star connected and resistance is negligible. If the generator is supplying 2.5 MW at rated voltage and at 0.8 p,f. lagging to an infinite bus. Find the voltage regulation. Solution : Vi = 6.6 kV = 6600 volts, Xu=96, Xq =6 Vi. _ 6600 Vpn = Tar ps volts = Vi MVA = 3.5 MVA = [3x V, x1, «10°, cosg=08, sinp=06 = 36.86° 3.5 th = — 33s 306.17 A © SY 3x 6600« 10 ‘This is full load current, Power, P = [3-ViILcos¢Electrical Machines - Ill 3-84 Regulation of Synchronous Generator ii) cos = 0.8 lagging, sin 6= 0.6 E2, = (Vpn cos $+ LR, + (Vey sin + 1X)? EZ, = (00 x 0.8 + 100 x 0.2)? + (600 x 0.6 + 100 x 2.2410)? Ey, = 671.6255 V op. Ben—Vpn _ 671.6258 _ YR = “ELE x 100 = ——ap— » 100 = 34.32 % mm> Example 3.35 : A 100-KVA, 3000-V, 50 Hz 3-phase star-conmected alternator has effective armature resistance of 0.2 9. The field current of 40 A produces short-circuit current of 200A and an open circuit e.m.f of 1040 V (line value). Calculate the full-load voltage regulation at 0.8 p¥f. lagging and 08 pf. leading. Draw phasor diagrams.(Nov.-2004, Set - 2) Solution : 100 kVA, V, = 3000 V, R, = 0.2.Q, star connection VA _ 100x103 (PL) = == ° ¥3V, -¥3x 3000 = 19.245 A Toph = Ih (line) = 19.245 A (full load) .. Star Vin = Get te= ( o oe = Peay = 17H205V Star Voc(ph)| z= aby * Tse(ph) _ (1040 / ¥3)| ame te peta = 3.00222 X, = YZE=RF = (3.0029? =(0.2)? = 2.9955 0 i) cos @ = 0.8 lagging, sin $= 0.6 t Ee Fig. 3.69 Phasor diagram for lagging p.f. loadElectrical Machines - il 3-85 Regulation of Synchronous Generator 2 Eh, = (Vpn cos +1, Ry + (Vpn sin $+ 1, = 1930679681 + 1203142.219 Epn = 1770.2604 V Ew -V; %R = PRT *Ph S100 = 2.206 % Vpn ii) cos = 0.8 leading, sin $= 0.6 OA= Vp, AB=1.Ra BO= 1%, AC= IZ, OC= Ep, ATR Fig. 3.70 Phasor diagram for leading pf. load E3, = (Vpn cos 6+ 1, RJ? + (Vpn sin =I, XJ? = 1930679.681 + 963521.333 Eon = 1701235 V V, = Fon-Vin y 100 = — 178 % h nm Example 3.36 : A 3-phase alternator has a direct-axis synchronous reactance of 0.7 p.t and a quadrature axis synchronous reactance of 0.4 p.s. Draw the vector diagram for full load 0.8 pf. lagging and obtain, there from (i) the load angle and ii) the no-load per unit voltage. (Nov.-2004, Set - 2) Solution : X, 7 pu, X, = 04 pat, V, = 1 par, I, (RL) = 1 pa. lg & cos ¢ = 08 lagging, sin 6 =06, $= 3686" Vy sin $+1aXq fn Y= Vos baT Ry _ (1x0.6)+(1x0.4) = Txt.) + x) Neglect R,Electrical Machines - Ui! 3-86 Regulation of Synchronous Generator w= tan’! (1.25) = 51.34° i) 3 = load angle = y-$= 51.34° - 36.86° = 14.48" ii) V, cos 8+ Xe + GR, where 1y = I, sin y= 1 x 0.7808 = 0.7808 A I, cos y = 1 x 0.6247 = 0.6247 A 1 x cos (14.48) + 0.7808 x 0.7 + 0 = 15148 p.u. mm} Example 3.37: A 3-phase star-connected, 50 Hz synchronous generator has direct-axis schronous reactance of 0.6 p.u. and quadrature axis synchronous reactance of 045 p.tt The generator delivers axis synchronous reactance of 0.45 p.u. The generator delivers rated AVA at rated voltage. Draw the phasor diagram at full load 0.8 pf. lagging and hence cilculate the open-circuit voltage and voltage regulation. Resistive drop at full-load is 0.015 pau. (Nov.-2004, Set - 3) Solution :X,= 0.6 pu, X, = 045 pn, cos $= 08 lagging V, = 1 pa, 1, (FL) =1 pa, 1, Ry = 0.015 p.u. Refer Fig. 3.71, on previous page. Vi sing+1aXq _ 1x 0.64+1%0.45 VrcosbsT,R, ~ Tx0.8+0.015 ~ 128883 fan y w = 52.1817" 3 = y-6= 52.1817 - 3686° = 15.3217" E, = Vi cos 8+ UX¢ + 1,R, 1y = I, sin y= 1 x 0.7899 = 0.7899 A 1, = 1, cos y= 1 x 0.6131 = 0.6131 A E, = 1x cos (153217") + 0.7899 x 0.6 + 0.6131 x 0.015 1447 pu. E,=Vi y gg - E447=1 x 100 = 44.7 % t 7 mm Example 3.38: A 3phase, 50 Hz, star-connected, 2000 kVA, 2300-V alternator gives a short-circuit current of 600 A for a certain field excitation. With the same excitation, the O.C. Voltage was 900 V. The resistance bekveen a pair of terminal was 0.12 2. Find full-load regulation at (i) upf. (ii) 0.8 pf. lagging (ii) 0.8 p¥f. leading. (Nov.-2004, Set - 4)Electrical Machines - ill 3-87 Regulation of Synchronous Generator Solution : 2000 kVA, V, = 2300 V, star , Rjing = 0.12.2 For star, R(ph) = Bt = $2 = 0.062 VA _ 2000x108 1,0 = —— = —— = 502.0437 A = I, tine) = Fay, * Yax2a00 078° ph 2300 Va = = == = 1327.9056 V mB Voc(line)| Z,- Te(PA) amet, X, = ¥Zz-RZ = 086390 Now, ER, = (V4 cos $+ 1, R)? + Wy, sin 6+ 1, X)? + ve for lagging and - ve for leading i) cos $= 1, sin = 0 £3, = (1327.90 x 1 + 502.043 x 0.06)? + (1327.9 x 0 + 502.043 « 0.8639)? Ep = 1425599 V Epn ~Vph . -1327 905 ge R= ELV yg 125.599 V-1327.9056 Von 7327-5056 x 100 = 7.35 % ii) cos @ = 08 lagging, sin @= 06 ER, = (1327.90 x 0.8 + 502043 « 0.06)? + (1327.9 x 06 + 502,043 * 0.8639)" E, Epn = 1645.4386 V 056 x 100 = 23.912 % %R = iii) cos @= 0.8 leading, sin 6= 0.6 Ez, = (1327.90 x 0.8 + 502.043 x 0.06)? + (1327.9 « 06 ~ 302.043 x 0.8639)? E,n = 151.1854 V 156 13.3 %Electrical Machines - II! 3-88 Regulation of Synchronous Generator 1 13 14 15, 16. 17, 18. 19, 20. 21 2 Review Questions Which are the various parameters of an armature winding of a synchronous generator ? Dra equivalent circuit Explain the effect of armature reaction on the performance of an alternator. How it depends on the lead pf. ? Explain with suitable diagrams. What is armature reaction reactance ? Explain. Explain the concept of synchronous reactance and impedance. State the voltage equation of an altemator and explain each term in it Explain the phasor diagram of a loaded alternator on i) Lagging pf. id) Leading pf. iti) Unity pf. Derive an expr on for the induced emf. in an alternator interms of terminal voltage, pf. and ‘armature parameters, from the phasor diagram. What is voltage regulation ? How it is defined for an alternator ? Explain the direct loading method of determining the regulation of an alternator. Fyplain clearly what is meant by Synchronous impedance of an alternator and how it can be determined experimentally. How does the value of regulation as calculated by synchronous inpedance method compared with that obtained from an actual load test and why ? and disadvantages of E.M.F. method. Explain clearly the MMF method of predetermining regulation of an alternator. Why the results obtained by tis method differ from those obtained by synchronous impedance method ? State the adeantag Describe the EMF and MMF methods of determining the regulation of a nonsalient pole altcrnetor. Discuss the errors int both the methods. Explain clearly the ZPF method of determining the regulation of an alternator. What is Potier reactance ? Now it is determined by Potier triangle ? How it is used to determine regulation ? Describe how the regulation of an alternator is determined using synchronous impedance method. Explain clearly fhe significance of synchronous reactance, Write a note on armature reaction in alternators. Explain the Potier reactance method of determining regulation of an alternator. Write a note on MMF method of predetermining the regulation. Define voltage regulation of an alternator. discuss the relative accuracy of vari Explain the ASA modification of MMF method. Using Blondel’s two reaction theory, develope and explain phasor diagram of a salient pole alternator for lagging p.f. loads. is: methods. Describe slip test and explain how the reactances are calculated using it. With the help of a phasor diagram explain the MMF method of determining regulation of an alternator for lagging pf.Electrical Machines - it 3-89 Regulation of Synchronous Generator 25. A 440 V, 200 KVA, 3 phase star connected alternator has armature resistance of (0.02 Q and synchronous reactance of 0.08 per phase. Calculate the induced e.mf. on full load for i) 0.707 lagging and ii) 0.707 leading pf. (Ans. : 272.77 V, 243.56 VI 26. A 230 V, 3-phase, star connected alternator gives on open circuit emf. of 230 V, for a field current of 0.38 A. The same field current on short circuit causes an armature current of 12.5 A. The armature resistence measured between two lines is 1.8 ohms. Find the regulation for the current of 10 amps at 0.8 lagging and 08 leading power factors. (Ams. : 64.46%, - 11.01 %] 27. O.C. and $.C. tests were performed on a 3 phase 0.5 MVA, 3.6 KV, star connected alternator. The results are given below, OC. : ly = 10 A, Vg, = 3000 V SC. :Tp= 10 A, 1 = 150A Riya = 1 ohm Calculate the percentage regulation for full load condition at 1) 08 pf lagging ii) 08 pf leading. LAns. : 33.89%, - 14.69 %] 28. A 1100 kVA, 50 cycles per second, 3 phase, 6000 V, star connected alternator, on open circuit, produces a phase emf. of 1962.99 V, with field current of 5A. this field current, on short circuit, circulates current of 96 A. the effective resistance mensured between two terminals of alternator is 18 ohms. If the machine is running at full load and the power factors is 0.8 lag, find the no-load Phase emf. of alternator. [Ans. : 5.118 kV] 29, A 6600 zolts, 3-phase star-connected alternator has a full load current of 40 A. On short circuit a field current of 5 A was required to produce full load current. The emf. on open circuit for the same excitation was 730 volts. Calculate the full load voltage regulation for 1) 08 pf. lagging ; ii) 08 pf. leading Given that armature winding resistance per phase is 0.8 Q. (Ans. : 7.6 %, - 5.48 %] 30. Write a short note on slip test for determination of Xq and X,, Qo00(3 - 90)Synchronization and Parallel Operation of Alternators 4.1 Introduction We have seen that a single synchronous generator supplies power to a load by acting as a voltage source whose frequency is decided by its prime mover speed. The current and power factor can be determined by excitation provided to its field and impedances of the generator and load. In utility systems there will be such thousands of generators which then have to be operated in parallel so that they will get interconnected by thousands of kilometers of transmission lines and will supply clecirical energy to the loads which are scattered over areas of thousand kilometers. The reasons for interconnecting these systems are continuity of service, economics in plant investment and operating costs. When number of generators are operating at the same voltage and are required to be interconnected electrically, bus bars are used as the common electrical component. Bus bars are nothing but copper rods which operate at constant voltage. The process of switching of an alternator to another alternator or with a common bus bar without any interruption is called synchronization. Alternately it can also be defined as the process of connecting the two alternators in parallel without any interruption. The synchronous machine which is to be synchronized is normally called an incoming, machine. If any alternator is connected to a bus bar which has many other alternators already connected, no matter what power it is supplying then alternator is said to be connected to infinite bus bar. An infinite bus bar is one whose frequency and phase e.m-f. remains unaffected by changes in condition of any one machine connected to it. Thus they are nothing but constant frequency and constant voltage bus bars. The system can be efficiently analysed if it is connected to infinite bus bar. Many important features about the behaviour of the synchronous machine can be obtained from analysis of a single machine connected to an infinite bus bar. In case of synchronous machines, stator carries the armature winding which is having small resistance. Under stationary conditions em.f. induced in stator winding is zero. So if such an alternator at stationary condition is connected to bus bar, there is always danger of short circuit. So it is not a practice to connect a stationary alternator to live bus bars. (4)‘Synchronization and Parallel Electrical Machine: Operation of Alternators 4.1.4 Necessary Conditions for Synchronization To have effective synchronization without any interruption there are certain conditions to be fulfilled. These conditions are : i) The terminal voltage of the incoming machine must be same as that of bus bar voltage. ii) The frequency must be same as that of the incoming machine as well as that of the bus bar. This necessiates that speed must be properly adjusted (f = PN/120) ili) With respect to the external load, the phase of alternator voltage must be identical with that of the bus bar voltage. Alternately we can say that phase sequence for the two voltages must be same. Key Point : The violence of any of the above conditions may cause a circulating current and power surges which are accompanied by undesirable electromechanical oscillations of the rotor. The above conditions can be satisfied by using a voltmeter, synchronizing lamps or synchroscope. The use of voltmeter will satisfy the first condition. Preferably the same voltmeter is used for measuring both the voltages. By using synchronizing lamps conditions (ii) and (iii) will be fulfilled. A synchroscope is a special device used for synchronizing the machines more accurately. It will satisfy both the conditions provided that a phase sequence indicator is used with it. 4.2 Synchronization of Single Phase Alternators In case of single phase alternators, synchronization is done generally by lamp methods. It can be done by two ways : a) Lamps dark method b) Lamps bright method. 4.2.1 Lamps Dark Method In this method the lamps are arranged as shown in Fig. 4.1. The alternator to be synchronized (which is also called incoming alternator) consists of two lamps connected across the switch terminals of the same phase. The voltage for the two alternators is measured with the help of a voltmeter. The lamps are connected in such a way that the polarity and the frequency for the two machines can be checked. No resultant voltage will appear across the switch terminals if the frequency of the two alternators is exactly same as well as their voltages are in exact phase opposition. Thus under this case lamps will not glow. The voltages for both the machines are having same maximum and rm.s. values and are in exact phase opposition thus resultant voltage is zero in local circuit. This is represented in the Fig. 4.2.‘Synchronization and Parallel Electrical Machines - II 4-3 Operation of Alternators Bus bars Alternator 1 Atternator 2 Fig. 4.2 It can be seen that with unequal frequencies of the two alternators, the two lamps will become altemately bright and dark. The light beat will be produced whose number is equal to the difference in frequencies for the two machines. The resultant voltage appearing across the lamp will be difference of the two voltages at any instant resulting in a waveform shown in the Fig.43. Since number of cycleSynchronization and Parallel Electrical Machines - Ill 4-4 Operation of Alternators completed by two machines in any given time are not same the light beat is produced which is shown in the Fig. 43. Whenever the two voltages are in exact phase opposition (i.e. angle between them is 180 then resultant voltage Ex is zero. If the switch is not closed at this instant the voltage across lamp will go on rising and synchronization will not be proper. The altemate darkness and brightness of the lamp will not indicate whether the incoming alternator is running fast or slow. For the exact synchronization the speed of incoming alternator is adjusted in such a way that the light beats are produced at a very slow speed and the alternators are synchronized during the middle of the dark period where resultant voltage Ey will be.zero. The word middle is used as the lamps will not glow even though there is sufficient voltage across it. So it becomes difficult to know the correct instant of zero voltage. 4.2.2 Lamps Bright Method Since it is very difficult to judge the correct instant of zero voltage in Lamps dark method, this method is introduced which is shown in the Fig. 4.4. The lamps remain maximum bright when there if no difference in voltages for the two machines. This is more sharp and accurate method of synchronization because the lamps are much more sensitive to changes in voltage at their maximum brightness than when they are dark. Altemator 1 Alternator 2 Fig. 4.4 4.3 Synchronization of Three Phase Alternators The conditions to be satisfied for synchronization of three phase alternators are same as that for single phase alternators. But instead of saying that voltages must act in phase opposition, the phase sequence must be same ie. phases must be connected in proper order of R. Y, B. Typical setup for synchronization of alternators is shown in the Fig, 4.5. In synchronizing three phase alternators, three lamps are connected as shown in the Fig. 4.5, so that it can be used to indicate whether the incoming machine is running slow‘Synchronization and Parallel Electrical Machines - Il! 4-5 Operation of Alternators Fig. 4.5 Setup for synchronization of alternators or fast. With symmetrical connection of lamps, they would dark out or glow up simultaneously provided that phase sequence is same for incoming machine and bus bar. Consider the two alternators A and B to be synchronized. The altemator A is already running at synchronous speed and its excitation is so adjusted that it builds up the rated voltage. The alternator A is connected to the bus bars_of constant voltage and frequency. The alternator B is to be connected to bus bar i.e. it is to be synchronized with alternator A. The processor synchronization can be explained as below : Step 1 : Start the prime mover of machine. Adjust its speed to a synchronous speed of machine B. This will rotate the rotor of alternator B at synchronous speed. Step 2 : The switch S, is then closed. By adjusting the rheostat R, the excitation to the field is adjusted so that induced emf. of B is equal to the induced e.m.f. of A. This can be verified by voltmeter. Step 3 : To satisfy remaining conditions, Fig. 4.6 the three lamp pairs are used which are Ly, Ly and L, as shown in the Fig.’ 46. These are connected in such a way that pair L, is straight connected while the pairs L, and L, are cross connected. To understand the connection, the pairs aré again shown in the Fig. 4.6 Now two supplies are supplying lamp pairs, Egy ie. voltage supply of bus bar while Egy's: ie. supply generated by alternator B. The switch S is still open.Electrical Machines - Ill Fig. 4.7 Synchronization and Parallel 4-6 Operation of Alternators Let the three bus bar voltages be represented by phasors OR, OY, OB rotating at angular speed of @ rad/s. The incoming alternator voltage are represented by phasors OR’, OY', OB' rotating at angular speed of « rad/s. The phasor Ege’, joining the tips R and R’ is voltage across lamp pair L,. Similarly Eyg: and Esy: are voltages across lamps L, and L, respectively. If there is difference between the two frequencies due to difference in speeds of the two alternators, the lamps will become dark and bright in a sequence. This sequence tells whether incoming alternator frequency is less or greater than machine A. The sequence Ly, Ly, Ly tells that machine B is faster as the voltage star R'Y'B’ will appear to rotate anticlockwise with respect to bus bar voltage RYB at a speed corresponding to difference between their frequencies shown in the Fig. 4.8. The sequence L, Ly, L, tells that the machine B is slower because voltage star R’Y’B' will appear to rotate clockwise with respect to bus bar voltage RYB. The prime mover speed can be adjusted accordingly to match the frequencies. The synchronization is done at the moment when Lamp L, is in the middle of dark period. If the lamps pair becoming dark and bright simultaneously, it indicates incorrect phase sequence which can be corrected by interchanging any two leads either of the incoming machine or of bus bars. uSynchronization and Parallel Electrical Machines ~ {li 4-7 Operation of Alternators Key Point : For high voltage alternators it is not possible to use the lamps directly. In such cases lamps are connected through potential transformers. In this method when lamp L, is dark the other two lamp pairs L, and L, and equally bright. So this method of synchronization is called ‘Lamps bright and dark" method. 4.4 Synchronization by Synchroscope It can be seen that the method described in earlier section i. Lamp method is not accurate since it requires correct sense of judgement of the operator. Hence to avoid the personal judgement, the machines are synchronized by accurate device known as synchroscope. It consists of a rotating pointer which indicates the exact moment of closing the synchronizing switch. If the pointer rotates in anticlockwise direction, it indicates that incoming machine is running slow whereas clockwise rotation of pointer indicates that incoming machine is running faster. The rotation of pointer is proportional to the difference in the two frequencies. The pointer should rotate at a very low speed in the direction of arrow marked fast as shown in the Fig. 49. Incoming machine Fig. 49 When the rotating pointer reaches the vertical position at slow speed, the switch must be closed. The pointer will oscillate about some mean position instead of rotating if difference in frequencies is large. In such cases the speed of incoming machine is adjusted properly.Synchronization and Parallel Electrical Machines - III 4 Operation of Alternators The connections for synchroscope are shown in Fig. 4.9. Any two bus bar lines are connected to its terminals while its other terminals are connected to corresponding lines of incoming machine. The phase sequence form bus bar and from machine must be same. It can be checked with the help of phase sequence indicator. The voltmeter is used to check the equality of voltages of bus Bar and incoming machine. The synchronization procedure is already explained before Key Point: The use of lamps and synchroscope together is a best method of synchronization, Now a days automatic synchronizing devices are also available which will perform the entire process of synchronization automatically without the help of shift engineer. But such schemes are more complicated and may take larger time than required by a shift engineer. 4.5 Synchronizing Current After proper synchronization .of the alternators, they will run in synchronism. A synchronizing torque will be developed if any of the alternator drops out of synchronism and will bring it back to the synchronism. Consider the two alternators shown in the Fig. 4.10 which are in exact synchronism. Due to this they are having same terminal p.d. and with reference to their local circuit they are in exact phase opposition. So there will not be any circulating current in the local circuit. The e.m.f. E, of alternator 1 is in exact phase opposition to that of alternator E,. Fig. 4.10 With respect to external load, the em.fs of the two altemators are in the same direction although they are in phase opposition with reference to local circuit. There will be no resultant voltage in the local circuit. Now assume that speed of alternator 2 is changed such that its emf. E, falls by an angle a. But E, and E, are equal in magnitude. The resultant voltage E, in this case will cause a current in the local circuit which is called synchronizing current. This circulating current is given by,Synchronization and Parallel Electrical Machines - Ill 4-9 Operation of Alternators Zs where Z, = synchronous impedance of windings of alternator The phase angle of Isy is given by an angle @ which can be computed as Xs ; tan 0 = + where X, is synchronous reactance and K, is armature resistance. This angle is almost 90°. Fig. 4.14 Thus Igy lags E, by almost 90° and approximately in phase with E;. This current is generating current with respect to alternator 1 since it is in the same direction as that of em. of alternator 1 while it will be motoring current for alternator 2 as it is in the opposite direction as that of em4f. of altemator 2. This current Igy will produce a synchronizing torque which will try to retard alternator 1 whereas accelerate the alternator 2 Now assuming that E, has advanced in phase shown in the Fig. 411 (b). The synchronizing current Igy in this case will be generating current for machine 2 and motoring current for machine 1. This will again produce a torque which will try to accelerate altemator 1 and try to retard alternator 2. Key Point : Hence if synchronism beiween the two machines is lost then synchronizing current will flow in the local circuit which will produce a synchronizing torque. This torque will tend to accelerate the lagging machine while will try to retard the leading machine. In case of machines which are loaded this current is’ superimposed on the load current.‘Synchronization and Parallel Electrical Machines - It! 4-10 Operation of Alternators 4.6 Theory of Cylindrical Rotor Machines As already discussed in chapter 2 let us consider the phasor diagram for alternator as shown in the Fig. 4.12. Fig. 412 Let E = emf induced in each phase V = Terminal voltage 4 = Phase angle between voltage and current 3 = Power angle R, = Resistance of armature X, = Synchronous reactance of alternator tan@ = & ® = tan? & a = 948 Power output per phase = VJ. cos (V “ I) = VIcos Power input, EI cos (E”}) = Ecos (p+ 8 = EI cos a =I (Ecos a) = [(V cos $+ 1R,) = Vicos$+FR,‘Synchronization and Parallel Electrical Machines - Ill 4-11 Operation of Alternators The voltage equation of alternator is given by, E = V+iz, E-V Zs Now, Vv zZ0° mi > > R tan? (%) @ = 90° 8 = 90° (if resistance is neglected) Substituting this value in above expression for power EVsin8 The operating characteristics of a synchronous machine are seen under variable exciation and load condition. One of the parameter is kept constant while other is varied for studying these characteristics. The resistance of armature is neglected as it does not change the characteristics significantly. Fig. 4.13 So the corresponding circuit is as shown in the Fig. 4.13. The phasor diagram corresponding to above condition is shown in the Fig. 4.14. R,-00Electrical Machines Power delivered to the infinite bus per phase i Synchronization and Para Operation of Afternators given by, = V-Icos From the above phasor diagram it can be seen that ZOBA = 90-6 ZOBC = 180-(90-9 =90+¢ From A OBC, —BC__ =, _OC__ sin ZBOC ~ in ZOBC Ty Xs = __ FE sind Sin 1, X, sin 90 + = Esind 1, X, cos @ = Esind I, cos @ = he Substituting the above value of I, cos in the expression for power we get, Esin 5 Revs P, = Ehime Key Point : The above power is the electrical power exchanged with bus bars. Angle 8 between E and V is known as power angle. 4.8 Power Angle Characteristics As seen previously, EV sind pR-=y The relationship between P, and 8 is known as power angle characteristics of the machine. It is shown in the Fig. 4.15. The maximum power occurs at §= 90° Beyond this point the machine falls out of step and loses synchronism. The machine can be taken up to P, ,.. only by gradually increasing the load. This is known as the steady state stability limit of the machine. The machine“is normally operated at § much less than 90°.‘Synchronization and Parallel Electrical Machines - Il! 4-14 Operation of Alternators Fig. 4.15 Power-angle characteristics 4.9 Operation at Constant Load with Variable Excitation Now let us consider a generator operating at constant load. EVsin5 We have, P, = constant Xs E sin 5 = constant Vv Similarly, V.L cos 6 = P, = constant ie. Icos 6 = constant If the field current of the altemator is varied to change the excitation emf E, the power angle 5 changes in such a way as to maintain E sin 8 constant. With change in E, the tip of X,, > from it. phasor E moves on a line parallel to V at a distance E sin 5 Also tip of current phasor traces a line perpendicular to V at a distance of Icos=—7- from the origin to make I cos § constant. This is shown in the Fig. 4.16. ‘The current phasor T is always at an angle of 90° to phasor IX, as shown in the Fig. 4.16. The excitation required to obtain unity power factor is known as normal excitation while excitation above and below normal excitation is respectively known as over and under excitation’ Thus a generator supplies a lagging power factor when over excited while a leading power factor when under excited.Electrical Machines - iil Synchronization and Parallel Operation of Alternators 4.10 Operation at Constant Excitation with Variable Load Fig. 417 Let us consider a case in which the excitation is kept constant while the load is varied. With constant excitation, magnitude of induced emf remains constant. The locus of extremity of E is a circle. The phasor diagram corresponding to this condition is shown in the Fig. 4.17. The radius of the circle is magnitude of induced emf E which remains same under variable load condition as the excitation provided to the alternator is maintained constant. 4.11 Synchronizing Power Consider an alternator connected to infinite bus bar. Let V be the bus bar voltage and E be the e.m-f. induced in the alternator. The excitation of the alternator is adjusted in such a way that E and V are equal in magnitude. In the local circuit the two voltages E and V are in phase opposition while in the external circuit they are in the same phase. This is represented in the Fig. 4.18.Synchronization and Parallel Electrical Machines - Ill 4-16 Operation of Alternators Consider the alternator to be on no load. If by some means power input to | machine is decreased and its induced m em4. E will then lag behind V by say angle 28 Due to this difference, E and V will not remain in exact phase opposition but will give rise to resultant emf. E,. This Eg will act in the local circuit and a synchronizing current Isy will start flowing in the local circuit. The v (a) In external circult (b) In tocal circuit Fig. 4.18, ‘9 synchronizing current is given by. Er ly = $ Igy is lagging behind E, by an angle @ given by ® = tant Ce) R is very very small it can be neglected 8 = 90 The angle 2 is very very small and E 6 is approximately equal to 90° so the a synchronizing current Isy is almost in phase with V and in phase opposition | with E. So infinite bus bar will deliver ay some power to the alternator. As current in the local circuit is always opposing to 'sy &, induced e.m.f. E, the altemator will act asa synchronous motor. Thus vt synchronizing torque will be developed Fig. 419 which will try to accelerate the machine. Thus the angle 2 8 will go on decreasing and resultant emf. E, also goes on decreasing. Finally the two e.m.£s E and V will again be in phase opposition and the machine will now act as an alternator in synchronism with bus bar. Thus the power which automatically comes into play and accelerates the machine which was retarding and decelerates the machine which tries to accelerate is called synchronizing power. This power will keep the machine in step with infinite bus bar.Synchronization and Parallel Electrical Machines - Il! 4-17 Operation of Alternators 4.11.1 Expression for Synchronizing Power (P,,) Consider an alternator which is operating at an v power angle 8 ie. E leads V by an angle & & Let power input of this alternator be increased suddenly so that it will now operate at a new power 3 angle given by 6 + 8. So the synchronizing emf Egy will come into play and sends a circulating current \ given by Igy = 55%. this current produces * synchronizing power. Now we will derive the Fig, 4.20 expression for synchronizing power per phase. Before increasing the input of alternator, the power input P,, is given by, Pa = FUE cos 0 -V cos (0 + 9] When power angle 8 has changed to 8 +8 (positive sign indicates acceleration while negative sign indicates deceleration) the power input P,, is given by, Pa = g-[B cos @ -Vcos @ + 545)] ‘The difference between these two power is nothing but synchronizing power Psy Psy = Po-Pu { Fil cos0-V cos(o+ 8x81} -{ F tEcos 8-V cos(0+5)} 8 el cos(0+8)—V cos{(0+8)+8']] ... (considering + ve sign for 3) EV sg in 8’ = FJ {cos (0+ -[cos (0+) cos8'—sin (0+8 sin 5]} = x {sin (0+ 3) sind’ +[c0s(0+8)(1-cos8)]} - = | sncor9sins' costo [2:2 3H} Ze 2 . e, ne ot i If & is small then > is very very small. Therefore sin? 5 can be neglected as it is tending towards zero. Psy = VE sin (0 + dsinSynchronization and Parallel Electrical Machines - {It 4-18 Operation of Alternators: For large synchronous machines 8 = 90° and Z, = X, as R, is neglected VE Poy = €08 8. sin 6 For synchronous generator which is synchronized with bus bar V = E, 8 = 0 and since 8 is very very small sin 5 = & and cos 5=1 v2 Et E) 5 Py = Yeo Fos E(x}. 8 The above expression is per phase power. Therefore for the machine having ‘m’ phases the synchronizing power is given by, Py =mEI 8 4.12 Time Period of Oscillation The synchronous machines are associated with free oscillations having some natural time period. There may be swinging of machine due to variations in load or due to any other reason. If the time period of these oscillations coincide natural time period of the machine then there may be higher amplitude of oscillations which may pull the synchronous machine out of synchronism, Let us derive the expression for time period for these oscillations. Let Psy = Synchronizing power per phase Tsy = Synchronizing torque per phase E = Induced em4. per phase Z, = Synchronous Impedance N, = Synchronous speed in r.p.m. n, = Synchronous speed in rps. P = No. of poles & = Angle of swing by an altemator in elecrical radian The synchronizing power developed is given by, per elecrical radian per phase We have, 1 elecrical radian = 5 x mechanical radianSynchronization and Parallel Electrical Machines - Ili 4-19 Operation of Alternators For mechanical radian displacement, 2 Synchronizing power, Poy = EP 2Z. 5 Poy EPL Synchronizing Torque, Ter = 3 = og ygeng * TAZOS EP Total Torque for 3 phases, T = 3 Tyy = Gay Ms Now, short cicuit curent Ie = Also, N, = Pol nO T= je (25) = (oarrs Ect nt nz The period of undamped free oscillations is given by, vz2nft Here, J = Moment of Inertia in Kg-m? Substituting value of T obtained in above expression, Time t in seconds is given by 9.1 = J b= matey (second) . 7 EL E duced e.m.f. Nh hich is induced e.m.f. per phase which is “7: