Footings are the structural members which transmit the concentrated loads of the structure

to the soil.

The purpose of the structural portion of every building is to transfer applied loads
safely from one part of the structure to another. The loads pass form their point of
application into the superstructure, then to the foundation, and then into the
underlying supporting material. The foundation is generally considered to be the
entire lowermost supporting part of the structure. Normally, a footing is the last, or
nearly the last structural element of the foundation through which loads pass. The
footing has as its function the requirement of spreading out the superimposed load.
These members come in various shapes and sizes and are generally constructed of steelreinforced concrete.

Types of Footing
Assakkaf, I. (2004). Footings. Retrieved October 9, 2015, from
http://www.assakkaf.com/courses/ence454/lectures/chapter12a.pdf

engineer's level
Definition
A precision leveling instrument used for establishing ahorizontal line of sight and to
determining differences ofelevation.

Tilting Level
A variation on the dumpy and one that was often used by surveyors, where greater accuracy and error
checking was required, is a tilting level. This instrument allows the telescope to be effectively flipped
through 180, without rotating the head. The telescope is hinged to one side of the instrument's axis;
flipping it involves lifting to the other side of the central axis (thereby inverting the telescope). This
action effectively cancels out any errors introduced by poor setup procedure or errors in the
instrument's adjustment.
tilting level is an accurate, quick to use instrument for top quality work. The telescope features 26x
magnification with an inverted bright image permitting staff readings of high accuracy. It also features
a reversible tubular level and telescope, which allows the divergence between the line of collimation
and the bubble tube axis at two staff readings (180 apart) to be automatically eliminated by taking
the mean of the two readings.

Tilting levels

Tilting levels use a spirit level instead of a compensator to establish a horizontal line of sight.
When the bubble is centred the sprit level will be horizontal. When the bubble is off centre the
axis will be tilted. By attaching a sprit level to the telescope such that its axis is parallel to the
line of sight a horizontal line can be set. This is done by using a tilting screw, when this is rotated
the telescope is tilted a small amount in the vertical plane. The tilting screw is adjusted until the
bubble is centred.
Dumpy level is an optical surveying leveling instrument consisting a telescope tube firmly
secured in two collars fixed by adjusting screws to the stage by the vertical spindle. The
telescope can rotate only in a horizontal plane. Relative elevation of different points of a
surveying land is determined with dumpy level.

Use of Dumpy Levels in Surveying

The dumpy level is mainly used in surveying for the following purposes:

To determine relative height and distance among different locations of

a surveying land.

To determine relative distance among different locations of a surveying land.

Advantages of Dumpy Level Survey

Simple construction with fewer movable parts.

Fewer adjustments to be made.

Due to the rigidity of dumpy levels, it retains its two adjustment for a long time.

High optical power.

Automatic Levels
Automatic Level

Designed for surveyors, builders, engineers, and other construction professionals, an automatic level is a self-leveling
optical instrument for accurately measuring horizontal planes and angles at both long and short distances. Quick to
set up and easy to use, an automatic level instrument has a built-in compensator that takes over and precisely levels
itself.
Automatic Level Applications
Automatic leveling improves accuracy when grading a roadway, setting the foundation of a new home, landscaping,
fence building, and more. Compact and lightweight, most automatic level instrument can be used in dusty jobsite
conditions, can withstand light rainfall, and even survive a fall into water.
Selecting the Right Automatic Level