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Blacking-How Musical Is Man-Completo
Blacking-How Musical Is Man-Completo
HOW
MUSICAL
IS
MAN
JOHN
UNIVERSITY
OF
SEATTLE
BLACKING
WASHINGTON
AND
LONDON
PRESS
To Meyer Fortes
T H E J E S S I E A N D J O H N DANZ L E C T U R E S
IN
O C T O B E R , 1 9 6 1 , M r . J o h n D a n z , a S e a t t l e pioneer, and
his wife, J e s s i e D a n z , made a substantia l gift to the U n i v e r -
viii
reinforce t h e effectiveness o f t h e extraordinar y lectureships
and p r o f e s s o r s h i p s. T h e t e r m s of the gift also provided for
the publication a n d dissemination, w h e n this s e e m s appropriate, o f t h e l e c t u r e s g i v e n b y t h e D a n z L e c t u r e r s .
Through
this book,
therefore,
another Danz
Lecturer
PREFACE
PREFACE
xi
PREFACE
Indian,
Chinese,
Japanese,
and
Indonesian
"art"
PREFACE
xii
and h a r m o n i o u s
social relationships .
T h e s e ideas
are, o f
Kauffman , w h o originally
suggested
that
might
c o m e , a n d W i l l i a m B e r g s m a , R o b e r t Garfias, and m a n y o t h e r s ,
w h o helped me to spend a v e r y h a p p y and stimulatin g m o n t h
in S e a t t l e . In particular, I t h a n k N a o m i Pasca l for her e n t h u siasm and advice in preparing the lectures for publication,
and Cyril Ehrlich for reading the m a n u s c r i pt and m a k i n g
m a n y useful c o m m e n t s ; but I t a k e full responsibility for any
deficiencies in the final product. I am c o n v i n c e d that a n y
creative effort is the s y n t h e s i s of an individual's response s to
all the g o o d things that o t h e r s h a v e given h i m ; and so these
b r i e f a c k n o w l e d g m e n t s represent only a fraction of the gratitude I o w e to all t h o s e w h o h a v e helped me to appreciate and
u n d e r s t a n d music.
CONTENTS
Humanly Organized Sound
32
54
89
H O W MUSICAL IS MAN?
Humanly
Organized
Sound
ETHNOMUSICOLOGY
is
comparatively
new
word
HOW
MUSICAL
IS
MAN?
brought
about
the
reassessment
of human
musicality
k n o w w h a t sounds and w h a t kinds of b e h a v i o r different societies have c h o s e n to call " m u s i c a l " ; and until we k n o w m o r e
about this we cannot b e g i n to a n s w e r the question, " H o w
musical i s m a n ? "
If studies in the p s y c h o l o g y of music and tests of musicality have failed to reach a g r e e m e nt on the nature of musicality,
it is p r o b a b l y becaus e t h e y h a v e b e e n almost exclusively
ethnocentric. T h u s , the contradictions that exist b e t w e e n the
different schools o f t h o u g h t m a y b e artifacts o f their e t h n o centricity. W h e n the G e s t a l t school insists that musical talent
is m o r e t h a n a set of specific attributes dependent upon sensory capacities, it is right; b u t only partly right, b e c a u s e its
whole does n ot e x t e n d into the culture of which the music is
a part. W h e n opponents of the G e s t a l t school attac h prime
importance to s e n s o r y capacities, they are also right, b e c a u s e
without certain specific capacities music could neither be perceived n o r performed. But their tests, like th e theories on
which they are based , are also of limited value and are hardly
m o r e o b j e c t i v e than those which m a y seem to be less scientific. Paradoxically , their laudable aim to be c o n t e x t - f r e e and
objective fails precisely b e c a u s e they minimize t h e i m p o r t a n c e
of cultural experience in t h e selection and d e v e l o p m e n t of
sensory capacities. For i n s t a n c e , a test of musical pitch based
on the sounds of a G e n e r al R a d i o beat-frequenc y oscillator
m a y seem to be m o r e scientific t h a n one based on culturally
familiar t i m b r e s , b e c a u s e the intensity and duration of the
sounds can be e x a c t l y controlled. B u t the results of such a
test could in fact represent a distortion of the truth, b e c a u s e
the s u b j e c t s ' perception m a y be t h r o w n off b a l a n c e by the
unfamiliar medium.
O n e e x a m p l e o f the e t h n o c e n t r i c i s m o f all the musical tests
that I h a v e so far encountered will serve as a general criticism, and also illustrate w h y we m u s t b r o a d e n our field of
investigation if we are to find out what capacities are involved
in musicality .
Carl
Seashore's
Measures
of Musical
HOW MUSICAL IS
MAN?
HOW MUSICAL IS
MAN?
the m a t t e r o f m u s i c a l i t y i n t h e kind o f b o u r g e o i s e n v i r o n m e n t
in w h i c h I w a s raised and seemed to acquire a degree of
musical c o m p e t e n c e . ( I s a y " s e e m e d , " b e c a u s e a n essential
point o f m y a r g u m e n t i s that w e d o n o t k n o w e x a c t l y w h a t
m u s i c a l c o m p e t e n c e is or h o w it is acquired.) M u s i c is played
while we eat and try to t a l k ; it is played b e t w e e n films and
at the t h e a t e r ; it is played as we sit in crowded airport
l o u n g e s , and o m i n o u s l y as we wait in t h e p l a n e to t a k e off; it
is played all day l o ng on the radio; and even in c h u r c h few
organists
allow m o m e n t s o f silence t o i n t e r v e ne b e t w e e n
of
Haydn's
Surprise
Symphony
h a ve
not
listened
HOW MUSICAL IS
10
MAN?
11
audiences c a n be trained to a c c e pt g r o s s deviations from f a miliar scores of C h o p i n or B e e t h o v e n , w h i c h w e r e at first currently f a s h i o n a b le b u t later b e c a m e part of a pianistic tradition. T h e c o n t i n u i t y o f m u s i c depends a s m u c h o n t h e dem a n d s of critical listeners as on a supply of p e r f o r m e r s .
W h e n I s a y t h a t music c a n n o t exist without the perception
of order in the r e a l m of sound, I am n o t arguing that s o m e
kind o f t h e o r y o f music m u s t precede musical c o m p o s i t i o n
and p e r f o r m a n c e : this would o b v i o u s l y b e untrue o f m o s t
great classical c o m p o s i t i o n s and o f t h e w o r k o f so-called
" f o l k " m u s i c i a n s . I am suggestin g that a perception of sonic
order, w h e t h e r it be i n n a te or learned, or b o t h , m u s t be in the
mind b e f o r e it emerge s as music.
I deliberately use the term " s o n i c o r d e r " and stress experiences of e x t e r n a l listening b e c a u s e I w a n t to e m p h a s i ze that
a n y a s s e s s m e n t o f m a n ' s m u s i c a l i ty must b e b a s e d o n descriptions of a distinctive and limited field of h u m a n b e havior w h i c h we will provisionally call " m u s i c a l . " S o n i c order
m a y be created incidentally as a result of principles of o r ganization t h a t are n o n m u s i c al or e x t r a m u s i c a l , such as the
selection of equidistantly spaced h o l e s on a flute or frets on a
stringed i n s t r u m e n t .
S i m i l a r l y,
an
apparent
lack of
sonic
12
Nsenga
polyrhythms,
which
in
other
contexts
would be performed by m o r e than one player. A similar ins t r u m e n t called the ndimba h a s a different " k e y b o a r d " m o r e
suited to melodic a c c o m p a n i m e n t than to patterned doodling.
T h e m e n w h o play this instrument are usually public entertainers, w h o sing with or to large audiences. T h o u g h their
music often sounds simpler than that which the b o y s play, it
is in fact m o r e musical in construction, since the patterned
relationship between t h u m b m o v e m e n t and " k e y b o a r d " is
subordinate to the requirements of a song, with words and a
form that allow others to sing with the instrument. S o m e of
the b o y s ' tunes m a y b e m o r e experimental and avant-garde,
but they do not concern m a n y people, since they lack a quality the N s e n g a seem to desire of their music, n a m e l y , the
power to bring people together in b r o t h e r h o o d.
It is possible to give m o r e than one analysis of a n y piece
of music, and an enormou s a m o u nt of print is devoted to
doing just this. But it ought to be possible to produce e x a ct
analyses that indicate where musical and extramusical proc-
13
Layout of the "keys" of a 14-note kalimba (A) and a 14-note niimba (B).
(i): Approximate pitches of the scales most commonly used (transposed),
(ii): Numbering of "keys" from left to right of the "keyboard." (iii): "Keys"
numbered symmetrically according to their use in contrary motion by the
right and left thumbs. Shaded "keys" and underlined numbers above and below the music staff indicate pitches in the upper manual of the "keyboard."
HOW MUSICAL IS
14
MAN?
FIGURE 1
continued
15
16
H O W MUSICAL IS
MAN?
17
t h a t are relevant
to
an
explanation
of musical
sound.
Figure 2 s h o w s a m u s i c al p a s s a g e t h a t c a n be interpreted
in at least t w o w a y s . It is one of a n u m b e r of short repeated
figures t h a t o c c u r in a series of tunes played by a N a n d e (or
K o n j o ) flute player from B u t e m b o , in Zaire, and it is clear
from t h e musical c o n t e x t that it gives the player pleasure
and expresse s fundamental principles of musical structure.
W h a t i s n o t clear from t h e m u s i c alone i s t h e n a t u r e o f
these principles. A listener trained in European ethnic music
m a y h e a r m o v e m e n t a w a y from a n d b a c k to a t o n e c e n t e r ,
w h i ch he would describe as a t o n i c - d o m i n a n t - t o n i c sequence.
M o r e generally , i n t e r ms H i n d e m i t h and o t h e r s h a v e used,
this could be described as a m u s i c al sequence e x p r e s s i ng relaxation-tension-relaxation.
T h e N a n d e musicia n m a y
also
18
H O W MUSICAL IS
MAN?
2.
sage, using
"languages,"
FIGURE
Two possible interpretations of the same musical pasa tension/relaxation model and harmonic and physical
respectively.
19
20
Three Venda ocarina duets
FIGURE
3.
21
Scale diagram of two Venda ocarinas, made from hollowed fruits (A: of Strychnos
spinofto Lam., the wild orange;
FIGURE 3
continued
HOW MUSICAL IS
22
MAN?
of words
tanzwa mu-
HOW
24
4. Vha
ka
e - n d a pT?
MUSICAL
Vho l i - m a
IS
MAN?
da-vha
la
kho - mbe.
25
in
his
important
book,
The
Anthropology
of
Music
( E v a n s t o n , 111.: N o r t h w e s t e r n U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1 9 6 4 ) , b u t
e t h n o m u s i c o l o g i s t s h a v e yet to produce s y s t e m a t i c cultural
a n a l y s e s of m u s i c that explain h o w a musical s y s t e m is part
of other s y s t e m s of relationships within a culture. It is n o t
e n o u g h to identify a characteristic musical style in its o w n
terms and view it in relation to its society (to p a r a p h r a se a
definition o f o n e o f the aims o f e t h n o m u s i c o l o g y b y M a n t l e
H o o d , w h o h a s don e m o r e for the s u b j e ct t h a n almost a n y
o t h e r living e t h n o m u s i c o l o g i s t ) . W e m u s t recognize that n o
musical style h a s " i t s o w n t e r m s " : its terms are t h e terms o f
its society a nd culture, and o f t h e bodies o f the h u m a n b e i n g s
w h o listen to it, and create and p e r f o r m it.
We can no longer study m u s i c as a thing in i t s e l f w h e n
research
in e t h n o m u s i c o l o g y
makes
it clear
t h a t musical
HOW MUSICAL
26
these
psychophysical
capacities,
IS
MAN?
apart
from
hearing,
are
and
particularly,
the
coordination
between
man
1936],
p.
27
scious e x p e r i e n c e is ordered i n t o c y c l e s of s e a s o n a l c h a n g e ,
physical g r o w t h , e c o n o m i c enterprise, genealogical depth or
width, life an d afterlife, political s u c c e s s i o n , or a n y other r e curring features that are given significance. W e m a y say that
ordinary daily experienc e t a k e s place in a world of actual
time. T h e essential quality of m u s i c is its power to create another world o f virtual time.
In the musical s y s t e m of t h e V e n d a , it is r h y t h m t h a t distinguishes s o n g (u imba) from speech (u amba), so that patterns of words that are recited to a regular m e t e r are called
" s o n g s . " B o t h S t r a v i n s k y and t h e V e n d a insist that music
involves m a n . T h e regular b e a t s of an engine or a p u mp m a y
sound like the b e a t s of a drum, b u t no V e n d a would regard
t h e m a s m u s ic o r e x p e c t t o b e m o v e d b y t h e m , b e c a u s e their
order i s n o t directly produced b y h u m a n b e i n g s . T h e sound
of electronic i n s t r u m e n t s or of a M o o g synthesize r would n o t
be excluded from their realm of musical experienc e as long as
it was o n l y the t i m b r e an d n o t the m e t h o d of ordering that
was outside h u m a n control . V e n d a m u s ic is founded n o t on
melody, b u t on a r h y t h m i c a l stirring of the w h o l e b o d y of
which singing is b u t o n e e x t e n s i o n . T h e r e f o r e , w h e n we s e e m
to h e a r a rest b e t w e e n two d r u m b e a t s , we m u s t realize that
for the playe r it is n o t a r e s t : each d r u m b e a t is t h e part of a
total b o d y m o v e m e n t in whic h the h a n d or a stick strikes the
drum skin.
T h e s e principles apply in the children's song Tshidula tsha
Musingadi ( E x a m p l e 3 ) , w h i c h for t h e V e n d a is m u s i c , and
n o t speech or p o e t r y .
O n e m i g h t e x p e c t the b e a t to fall on the syllables -du, tsha,
and -nga-, w h i c h are stressed in p e r f o r m a n c e . B u t if people
clap to t h e s o n g , t h e y clap on the syllables Tshi-, -la, -si-, and
-di, so that there is n o t a rest on the fourth b e a t , b u t a total
pattern o f four b e a t s that c a n b e repeated a n y n u m b e r o f
times, b u t n e v e r less than o n c e if it is to qualify as " s o n g "
and n o t " s p e e c h . "
28
HOW MUSICAL
IS
MAN?
HUMANLY
ORGANIZED
SOUND
29
Example 4
30
HOW MUSICAL
IS
MAN?
f r a m e w o r k, t h e c o m p o s e r ' s
31
music m a k e r s b e l o n g . E t h n o m u s i c o l o g y is n o t o n l y an area
study c o n c e r n e d with e x o t ic m u s i c , n o r a m u s i c o l o g y of the
e t h n i c i t is a discipline that hold s out h o p e for a deeper
understanding o f all music. I f s o m e m u s i c can b e analyze d
and u n d e r s t o od as tonal e x p r e s s i o n s of h u m a n e x p e r i e n ce in
the c o n t e x t o f different kinds o f social and cultural o r g a n i z a tion, I see no r e a s o n w h y all m u s i c should not be analyzed in
the s a m e w a y .
M u s i c in
I H A V E D E S C R I B E D m u s i c a s h u m a n l y organized sound. I
h a v e argued that we ought to l o o k for relationships b e tween pattern s o f h u m a n o r g a n i z a t i o n and the p a t t e r ns o f
sound produced as a result of organized interaction. I reinforced this g e n e r al s t a t e m e n t by referring to the c o n c e p t s of
music shared b y the V e n d a o f t h e N o r t h e r n T r a n s v a a l . T h e
V e n d a also share the experience of music making, and without this experienc e there would be very little music. T h e production o f t h e patterns o f sound w h i c h the V e n d a call music
depends, first, on the c o n t i n u i ty of the social groups w h o
perform i t and, second, o n t h e w a y the m e m b e r s o f those
groups relate to each other.
In order to find out w h a t m u s i c is and h o w musical m a n is,
we need to a s k w h o listens and w h o plays and sings in a n y
given s o c i e t y , and w h y . T h i s is a sociological question, and
situations in different societies can be compare d w i t h o u t any
reference to the surface forms of m u s i c b e c a u s e we are concerned o n l y with its function in social life. In this respect,
there m a y b e n o significant differences b e t w e e n B l a c k M u s i c ,
C o u n t r y and W e s t e r n M u s i c , R o c k and P o p M u s i c , O p e r a s ,
S y m p h o n i c M u s i c , o r P l a i n c h a n t . W h a t turns o n e m a n off
32
33
A n d y e t the
simplicit y o r
34
HOW MUSICAL
should
not be
LESS =
DIFFERENT.
LESS
IS
BETTER or MORE
MAN?
=
BETTER, b u t MORE
or
of
this
argumen t
is
that
technological
developmen t
brings about a degree of social e x c l u s i o n : b e i ng a passive audience is the price that s o m e m u s t pay for m e m b e r s h i p in a
superior society w h o s e superiority is sustained by the e x c e p tional ability of a c h o s e n few. T h e technical level of w h a t is
defined as musicality is therefore raised, and s o m e people
must be branded as unmusical. It is on such a s s u m p t i o n s that
musical ability is fostered or anesthetized in m a n y m o d e r n
industrial societies. T h e s e a s s u m p t i o ns are diametrically o p posed to t h e V e n d a idea t h a t all n o r m a l h u m a n b e i n g s are
capable o f musical p e r f o r m a n c e .
T h e issue of musical c o m p l e x i t y is irrelevant in a n y c o n sideration of universal m u s i c a l c o m p e t e n c e . First, within a
35
36
HOW
MUSICAL
IS
MAN?
and they h a v e a s a y i n g :
"Mudi wa gozwi a
na
malila" ( " I n the h o m e s t e a d of the coward there is no w e e p i n g " ) . W h e n their c o u n t r y was later invaded from t h e south
by b l a c k s w h o were fleeing from the a d v a n ce of the w h i t e s ,
the V e n d a preferred to retreat to t h e safety of their m o u n tains and wait for t h e m to pass. T h e y were unwilling to a c cept cultural innovations or to incorporat e strangers into
their political s y s t e m on terms that were likely to diminish,
rather than increase, cooperatio n and " h u m a n n e s s " (vhuthu)
in their society. On the other h a n d , during the latter h a l f of
37
and so b o t h
they
and
the
HOW
38
with
an
MUSICAL
authoritarian
system
IS
that
MAN?
contradicts
traditional
A f r i c a n democracy. Is it surprising, therefore, that indifference and even hostility to European music should go along
with their resistance to white domination? T h e general reaction to European music is in keeping with the function of
music in their society, and it must be seen as a sociological
as well as a musical phenomenon.
M u c h V e n d a music is occasional, and its performance is a
sign of the activity of social groups. M o s t adult V e n d a know
w h a t is happening merely by listening to its sounds. During
girls' initiation, whenever a novice is being taken d o w n to
the river or back to her initiation hut, the women and girls
w h o accompany her w a r n people of their approach with a
special song, in which the lower lip is flapped with the forefinger.
Example 6
39
Example 7
40
HOW MUSICAL
IS
MAN?
Example 8
T h e u . e of left and right hands (which may be reversed) in the drum parts is shown by the direction ol the t a i l s of the n o t e s .
u n d e r s t a nd
speech.
No
fewer
than
sixteen different
styles are distinguished, with different r h y t h m s and c o m b i n a tions of singers and i n s t r u m e n t s ; and within these styles are
further subdivisions of style , as well as different s o n g s within
each division. For e x a m p l e , at the sungwi initiation s c h o o l for
girls, there are four m a i n t y p es o f s o n g :
1. Nyimbo dza u sevhetha ( s o n g s for dancing round) are
sung by the girls as t h ey d a n c e c o u n t e r c l o c k w i s e in a circle
round the drums. T h e t e m p o of t h e songs is rapid, and t h e y
are sung m o r e often than a n y o t h e r type of song at the school.
C l a s s e d w i t h t h e m are two
s o n g s with
special
rhythms,
dza vhahwira
( s o n g s of the m a s k e d dancers)
41
different
phases
of
the
dance
and
distinctive
summarize s
the
different
types
of
communal
42
HOW MUSICAL
IS
MAN?
43
comparable
to
a performance
of " H a r k ,
the
Herald
44
HOW MUSICAL
IS
MAN?
taught
an
instrument .
This
conflict
has
been
45
46
HOW MUSICAL
IS
MAN?
confidence
o f his execution .
Anyone who
rehearsal s of the
young
girls'
dance,
tshigombela,
watched the youn g relatives of a h e a d m a n e m e r g e as outstanding performers , although at first they did n o t seem to
be m o r e musical than their a g e - m a t e s. I am sure t h a t the k e y
MUSIC
IN
SOCIETY
AND
CULTURE
47
the audience, w h o w e r e
48
HOW MUSICAL
IS
MAN?
ability
can
emerge
in
unexpected
quarters
and
49
c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f V e n d a audiences b y b o t h reflecting and c o n tradicting the spirit of the time. T h e y reflect the political i n terests o f the m a x i m u m n u m b e r o f people b y contradicting
the musical tendencies to w h i c h t h o s e people ar e a c c u s t o m e d .
T h e s a m e k i n d o f analysis o f musica l effectiveness m i g h t b e
applied in o t h er c o n t e x t s : I would n o t consider it an e x a g g e r a tion to say that B e e t h o v e n achieved his extraordinar y musical
p o w e r b y b e i n g a n i / m u s i c a l and s h o c k i n g the c o m p l a c e n c y
o f his c o n t e m p o r a r y society. His c o n t e m p o r a r i es m a y have
b e e n m o r e musical i n their t r e a t m e n t o f m e l o d y , for i n s t a n c e,
b u t their k i n d o f c o n v e n t i o n a l m u s i c a l i t y was less relevant t o
c o n t e m p o r a r y p r o b l e m s a l t h o u g h it w a s a logical c o n s e q u e n c e
o f t e m p o r a r y cognitiv e p r o c e s s e s .
T o a n a l y z e the c o m p o s i t i o n and appreciation o f m u s i c i n
t e r m s of its social function and of cognitive p r o c e s s es that
m a y be applied in othe r fields of h u m a n activity does n o t in
a n y w a y diminish t h e i m p o r t a n c e of the music itself, and it is
in line with the c o m m o n c u s t o m of interrelating a series of
h u m a n activities and calling t h e m T h e A r t s . H o w e v e r , at this
early stage o f investigatio n w e should b e
careful
not to
50
HOW MUSICAL
IS
MAN?
simply for
Fourteen-note
kalimba mbira
of
the Nsenga
of Zambia.
Venda domba
initiation school.
Johannesburg visits
51
MORE
the y
say,
is
Iwa-ha-masia-khali-i-tshi-vhila,
"the
52
HOW
MUSICAL
IS
MAN?
transitory
53
People ( N e w Y o r k : W i l l i a m M o r r o w ,
1963),
in whic h h e says
that the b a s i c h y p o t h e s is o f his b o o k depends o n u n d e r s t a n d ing that " m u s i c can be seen to be t h e result of certain attitudes, certain specific w a y s of t h i n k i n g about t h e world, and
only ultimatel y
the
discover y
of
structural
relationships
between
Culture and
Society in
Music
M U S I C can express social attitudes and cognitive processes, but it is useful and effective only when it is
heard by the prepared and receptive ears of people w h o have
shared, or can share in some w a y , the cultural and individual
experiences of its creators.
M u s i c , therefore, confirms w h a t is already present in society and culture, and it adds nothing new except patterns of
sound. But it is not a luxury, a spare-time activity to be sandwiched between sports and art in the headmaster's report.
Even if I believed that music w a s , or should be, merely a
means of decorating social events, I would still have to explain
how the music of many composers can excite me although the
cavortings of their patrons are a bore. W h e n E. M. Forster
said, "History develops, art stands still," he w a s referring to
their subject matter, to the fact that history is about events
but art is about feelings. T h a t is w h y we can also say that
history dies but art lives, although art is a reflection of history.
I share the V e n d a view that music is essential for the very
survival of man's humanity, and I found it significant that as
a subject for discussion they generally greeted music more enthusiastically and with more erudition than history, though
54
55
HOW MUSICAL IS
56
MAN?
f a t h e r o f e t h n o m u s i c o l o g y , d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t musical
Hugo
Leichtentritt's
Music,
History
and
57
Ideas,
58
HOW MUSICAL
IS
MAN?
am primarily
c o n c e r n e d with
59
Cooke's thesis impressed me at first because it seemed to make sense in terms of my own musical experience. For instance, I had noticed and felt the musical and expressive
similarity between the pleading melody in the "Recordare
Jesu Pie" of Benjamin Britten's War Requiem (see Example
1 0 ) and the figure with which Mahler accompanies the nostalgic words, "Ich sehne mich, O Freund, am deiner Seite die
Schoenheit dieses A b e n d s zu geniessen," in "Der Abscheid,"
the last song of D a s
Lied von
der Erde
(Universal
Edition,
(MINOR)
Example 10
R e - c o r - da
re
J e - su
pi
e,
60
Example 11
Example 12
trou-ble I
see, Lord,
trou-ble I
see.
CULTURE
AND
SOCIETY
IN
MUSIC
61
Example 13
( b ar 3 2 7 of the last
movement).
Example 14
Andante
62
HOW MUSICAL
IS
MAN?
n a t i o n w h e t h e r they w e r e written b y M a h l e r o r b y D e r y c k
Cooke!
N o w , h a v e I received t h e attitudes that p r o m p t e d M a h l e r
to c o m p o s e t h o s e n o t e s , or h a v e I reinterpreted t h e m in t h e
light o f m y o w n e x p e r i e n c e ? A n d does a n y o n e else feel a b o u t
t h e m in the s a m e w a y ? Am I out on a l i m b , like t h e n o v i c e s
in the tshikanda girl's initiation, listening to M a h l e r b u t n o t
hearing h i m ? Can a n y o n e else h e a r those n o t e s as I do, or as
M a h l e r did? Is t h e purpose of musical experience to be a l o n e
i n c o m p a n y ? I s there n o h o p e o f establishing c o m m o n r e l a tionships through music e x c e p t w h e r e there is a fairly specific
extramusical
program?
Could
"soul"
music
affect
Black
music of Britten's War Requiemand, again, in this description I shall speak of the w o r k as it strikes me: I have not
read any commentaries on it. T h e v e ry first two bars of the
work set the stage for death, with the tolling of a bell and the
intoning of the opening words of the Requiem M a s s .
Example 15
Slow and solemn J = 42
(Lento e solenne)
46
Gong
Later, the sounds of boys' voices and an organ recall the hope
and innocence of childhood,
Example 16
[3]
64
H O W MUSICAL IS MAN?
Example 17
lift - ed
up,
thou long
black
65
arm,
Example 19
66
HOW
MUSICAL
IS
MAN?
Example 20
67
an d
meanings.
dramatic
contexts
suggest
entirely
different
HOW MUSICAL
68
IS
MAN?
t h e rules are
clearly stated and the s y s t e m of learning t h e m has b e e n similar for centuries. T h e y depend n o t o n l y o n the c o n t e x t o f the
w o r k , b u t also o n the musical c o n v e n t i o ns o f the t i m e . M u c h
h a s b e e n written about t h e use of musical figures to illustrate
ideas, especially i n t h e m u s ic o f J . S . B a c h . B u t t h e m u s i c o f
B a c h a nd H a n d e l c a n n ot be fully understood w i t h o ut refere n c e to the e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u ry view of the world, in which
aesthetic theories included " a complicated doctrine o f e m o tional expressio n going b a c k t o certain correlations o f r h y t h m
and melodic line with various e m o t i o n s " ( H u g o Leichtentritt,
M u s i c , History and Ideas [ C a m b r i d g e , M a s s . ; H a r v a r d U n i versity P r e s s, 1 9 4 6 ] , p . 1 4 2 ) . For i n s t a n c e , F m a j o r was the
k e y of t h e pastoral idyll, and F-sharp major was a t r a n s c e n dental k e y : " H a n d e l ' s entire h a r m o n i c s y s t e m and style o f
m o d u l a t i o n s is based on the underlying m e a n i n g of the various k e y s " (ibid., p . 1 5 4 ) . S i m i l a r l y , i f n o r t h e rn Indian music
claims t o b e able t o b r i n g out " a n u a n c e o f s a d n e s s, o r o f
love . . . b y careful and i m p e r m a n e n t use o f the intervals
that
correspon d
with
these
emotions"
(Alain
Danielou,
CULTURE
human
feelings
AND
ought
SOCIETY
IN
t o b e universal.
MUSIC
An example
69
from
an
and
rhythmic,
as
subsequent
well
as
variations
melodic,
in
words
variations.
bring
Such
about
rhythmic
analysis.
Variations
in
melody
and
rhythm
may
70
5. M a - e - l e - le! Nge- f
b a - m b e - 1 6 - ni,
L u - vu
vhu?
6.
Parts of two Venda children's songs, illustrating
effects of changing speech tones on the patterns of melody.
FIGURE
some
CULTURE
AND
SOCIETY
IN
MUSIC
71
also
relationships b e t w e e n variations
in
the
the
which
they
72
HOW MUSICAL
IS
MAN?
sufficiently c o n t e x t - s e n s i t i v e.
T o n a l music
between
73
expression.
Since
these
patterns
are
always
acquired
study of
The
Foundations
of Music
74
HOW MUSICAL
IS
MAN?
CULTURE
AND
SOCIETY
IN
MUSIC
75
Art and
Society
([New
York:
I n t e r n a t i o n al
Pub-
t h e m . H a y d n , M o z a r t , and S c h u b e r t , in particular,
organized their m u s i c round the A u s t r i a n " f o l k " idiom. B a r tok, K o d a l y , J a n a c e k , C o p l a n d , and numerous o t h e r c o m posers of n a t i o n al schools h a v e found the greatest stimulus in
the sounds of their o w n societies . In the third and fourth
volumes of Man and His Music, and especially in The Sonata
Principle
(from
c.
1750)
(London:
Rockliff,
1957),
Wilfrid
76
[ L o n d o n : D o b s o n , 1 9 5 0 ] , pp. 8 1 , 1 3 2 ) .
and
sungwi
are
privately
owned,
but
under
the
77
FIGURE 7 .
Diagram showing the relationships between musical and
social structure in Venda society. Compare with Figure 5.
78
HOW MUSICAL
IS
MAN?
music
that
can
really
bring
traditionally
oriented
CULTURE/AND
SOCIETY
IN
MUSIC
79
tial feature of adult life, and their regular p e r f o r m a n c e s y m bolize the i m p o r t a n c e o f m a r r i a g e , childbirth, and institutionalized m o t h e r h o o d .
On the surface, domba sounds like a regular piece of V e n d a
music in c a l l - r e s p o n se form, with p o l y r h y t h m i c a c c o m p a n i m e n t and musical development o f the response. T h e circular
form of the d a n c e is characteristically V e n d a , and with a lot
of girls in relatively small dancing grounds, it is not u n r e a s o n a b l e that they should hold eac h other. T h e m o v e m e n t has
b e e n w r o n g l y called " T h e P y t h o n D a n c e " i n illustrated j o u r nals and tourist b r o c h u r e s , in w h i c h it is cited as o n e of the
m o s t interestin g things a b o u t
the V e n d a p r e s u m a b l y b e -
80
HOW MUSICAL
IS
MAN?
motherhood,
together
with
all
the
rights
and
girls
are
being
symbolically
roused.
After
few
81
82
HOW MUSICAL
IS
MAN?
CULTURE/AND
Example 21 (continued)
.CHORUS
SOCIETY
IN
MUSIC
83
84
Example 21 (continued)
CHORUS
85
for m a r r i a g e
and
for
fuller participation in V e n d a
tone
a b o v e phala is
86
H O W MUSICAL IS MAN?
(c)
(b) KHULO
(d)
87
(C in
8 b , 8d,
and 8 e ) .
It is
as if
tshikona
Harmonic Progression
88
HOW MUSICAL
IS
MAN?
Soundly
Organized
Humanity
f | N T H E F I R S T C H A P T E R I stated that, i f w e w a n t t o
H I know h o w musical man is, w e must b e able t o describe
exactly w h a t happens to any piece of music. In the second and
third chapters I have tried to show w h y we shall never be
able to do this until we understand what happens to the
human beings w h o make the music. M u s i c is a synthesis of
cognitive processes which are present in culture and in the
human b o d y : the forms it takes, and the effects it has on
people, are generated by the social experiences of human
bodies in different cultural environments. Because music is
humanly organized sound, it expresses aspects of the experience of individuals in society.
It follows that any assessment of human musicality must
account for processes that are extramusical, and that these
should be included in analyses of music. T h e answers to many
important
questions
about musical
structure m a y not be
89
HOW
90
MUSICAL
IS
MAN?
or by a m o r e g e n e r a l rule relating m e l o d y to p a t t e r n s of
speech tone, a s i n V e n d a m u s i c ? W h y s h o u l d a p a t t e r n b e
r e p e a t e d at a certain p o i n t ? W h y s h o u l d it be r e p e a t e d at all?
M u s i c o l o g y m u s t be a b l e to a n s w e r these q u e s t i o n s if it is to
e x p l a i n w h a t is g o i n g on in m u s i c ; b u t I b e l i e v e that it w i l l
not succeed in a n s w e r i n g g e n e r a l questions a b o u t m u s i c until
it r e c o g n i z e s the peculiarities of different m u s i c a l s y s t e m s .
E v e n the d i s c o v e r i e s o f s y s t e m a t i c m u s i c o l o g y m a y a p p l y o n l y
to the m u s i c a l traditions of s y s t e m a t i c m u s i c o l o g i s t s a n d to
the p e r c e p t u al faculties t h a i h a v e b e e n d e v e l o p e d i n their
o w n cultures.
I w i l l reinforc e this point w i t h reference to f o u r of the
children's
songs
included
in
my
book,
Venda
Children's
Songs ( J o h a n n e s b u r g : W i t w a t e r s r a n d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 6 7 ) .
T h i s w i l l s h o w h o w a n a n a l y s i s o f their s o u n d a l o n e i s
inadequate
and
misleading.
We
will
consider
the
songs
92
HOW
MUSICAL
IS
MAN?
Example 25
SOLO
93
CHORUS
3.
Se - se
4.
Fha - la
ha
tshi
bva -'flu?
Mu - kwa - I
Vhu - t w a - na - mba.
vho
kwa - ya
vha
vhti - ya.
rhythmic
reinforcement
of
tones,
tonic-dominant
to-
94
SOUNDLY/ORGANIZED HUMANITY
95
Thathatha
96
HOW MUSICAL
IS MAN?
(Example 25)
to an-
(see
97
and
(No.
HOW MUSICAL
98
IS
MAN?
in t h e
conceptual
models
that
generat e its
surface
s t r u c t u r e s ; and b e c a u s e these models are acquired u n c o n sciously as part of the maturatio n p r o c e s s , I do not t h i n k that
they can be used really creatively by s o m e o n e w h o is n o t
deeply involved in V e n d a society .
In o t h e r words, the rules of V e n d a music are not a r b i t r a r y ,
like the rules of a game . In order to create n e w V e n d a m u s i c ,
you must be a V e n d a , sharing V e n d a social and cultural life
from early childhood. T h e technical resources o f V e n d a music
m a y n o t s e e m very great to o n e a c c u s t o m ed to E u r o p e a n c l a s sical music, and the b a s i c rules of c o m p o s i t i on could p r o b a b l y
be
learned
from
study
of
recordings
and
of
my
own
99
e x p r e s s i ve
relationships
between
the
function o f
the
the production of
and
cognitive
p r o c e s s e s.
In
two o t h e r
published
HOW MUSICAL IS
100
MAN?
quate b e c a u s e they a s s u m e a w o r k i n g k n o w l e d g e of V e n d a
culture and society. I shall n o t discuss t h e m further, b u t I
w a n t to suggest h o w and w h y such rules could be generalized
and refined in terms of a unified t h e o r y of cognition, s o c i e t y,
culture, and creativity.
First, let me outline certain theoretical a s s u m p t i o n s. Emile
Durkheim,
in
The
Elementary
Forms
of
the
Religious
Life
species-specific. It seems to me t h at w h a t is
out
and
developed,
like
the
basic
principles
of
101
avoid
102
attends it; it epitomizes the principle of individuality in c o m m u n i t y (like a B a c h chorale, it is interesting for all p e r f o r m ers, in c o n t r a s t to the average h y m n a c c o m p a n i m e n t w h i c h
reduces altos and tenors to slaves of sopranos and b a s s e s ) ;
and its musical structure incorporates the m o s t i m p o r t a n t
features of V e n d a music. It is a shared experience, b o t h s o cially and musically.
V e n d a children's
songs
are
also universal,
rather
than
between
tshikona
and
th e
children's
s o n gs
that
book,
The
Thematic
Process
in
Music
([London:
Faber
and Faber, 1 9 6 1 ] , p . 5 ) .
It is tempting to see the basic musical form of t h e m e and
variation as an expression of social situations and social forces
transformed according to pattern s of culture and the state of
the division of l a b or in society. T h u s the essential differences
b e t w e e n musi c in one society and a n o t h e r m a y be social and
n o t musical. If English music m a y seem to be m o r e c o m p l e x
than V e n d a musi c and practiced by a smaller n u m b e r of
people, it is b e c a u s e of the c o n s e q u e n c es of the division of
labor in society , and n o t b e c a u s e the English are less musical
or their music is cognitively m o r e c o m p l e x . T h e r e are n ot
m o r e or less things for an individual to learn in different
societies, and in the c o n t e x t of each culture they are n ot
basically m o r e or less difficult. T h e r e are m o r e or fewer different fields in which to learn. It is neithe r easier n o r m o r e difficult to be a B u s h m a n than an A m e r i c a n . It is different.
As a result of the division of l a b or in society, s o m e people
must do things for others. If I were a B u s h m a n I would h a v e
SOUNDLY/ORGANIZED HUMANITY
103
responsibility
with
which
the
more
extensiv e
104
HOW MUSICAL
IS
MAN?
societ y m a y be
105
[London:
pp.
116-
are
poorly
appreciated
understood
by
intuitively
the
by
closed
lay
minds
audiences,
of
some
musical e x p e r t s.
T h e theories o f Rudolp h R e t i and his followers m a t c h well
with recent research that h a s s h o w n that the ability to think
creatively and to c o n s t r u ct n e w forms is a function of personality. C r e a t i v i t y requires b r e a d t h o f view, o r w h a t M i l t o n
R o k e a c h calls an " o p e n m i n d , " and the ability to synthesize
106
HOW MUSICAL
IS
MAN?
surface e t h n o c e n t r i c i s m o f
Originality
may
be
an
expression
of
innate
107
that
r e m a r k a b l e cultural d e v e l o p m e n t s
can
from h u m a n s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s.
This is
why
the
108
HOW MUSICAL
IS
MAN?
social
events,
and he need n o t e x p r e ss
overt
109
B e c a u s e the
a s s u m p t i o ns are n o t clearly stated and are o n l y dimly understood, t h e a s s e r t i o ns b e c o m e all the m o r e d o g m a t i c and are
often clothed in t h e languag e of an elitist sect. T h e effect of
this confusion on musically c o m m i t t e d people can be traumatic, and t h e musicall y inclined m a y be discouraged a l t o gether.
W h e n , as a b o y , I m a s t e r e d a technically difficult piece of
piano m u s i c , I w a s s o m e t i m e s told that I played w i t h o u t
feeling. As a result of this I tended to play m o r e loudly or
aggressively, or to fold up altogether . It seeme d as if an
assault w a s b e i n g m a d e on my integrity as a person, rather
than o n m y t e c h n i c a l ability. I n fact, m y " u n f e e l i n g " p e r f o r m ance w a s the result o f inadequate, hit-or-miss technique s o f
teaching in a society w h o s e educational theory w a s founded
on a confused doctrine relating success to a c o m b i n a t i o n of
superior i n h e r i t a n c e , hard w o r k , and m o r a l integrity. A s n o b b i s h distaste for technical e x p e r t i s e , t e c h n o l o g y , and " m e r e "
craftsmanship
discouraged
attention
to
basic
mechanical
110
HOW MUSICAL IS
MAN?
comes
through
the
body.
It is
no
longer
an
elusive, m y s t e r i o u s T e u t o n i c quality!
O b v i o u s l y the most deeply felt performanc e of a n y piece
of music will be that which approaches m o s t closely t h e feelings of its creator w h e n he b e g a n to capture the force of his
individual experienc e with musical form. S i n c e this experience
m a y often begin as a r h y t h m i c a l stirring of the b o d y , it may
be possible for a performer to recapture the right feeling by
SOUNDLY/ORGANIZED HUMANITY
111
w h a t h a p p e n s in the
r e m a r k a b l e bodies
all h u m a n
112
HOW MUSICAL
IS
MAN?
apparently
disparate element s in
S O U N D L Y / O R G AN I ZED
HUMANITY
113
An
the universal,
a u t o m a t i c c o m p l e x i t y o f the n a t u r a l
are
p h y s i o l o g i c a l ly
parts
of
the
natural
world,
inherent
in
the
system
of
automatic
complexity
t o w h i c h t h e y b e l o n g . C o m p u t e r s , radios, X - r a y p h o t o g r a p h y ,
114
HOW
MUSICAL
IS
MAN?
and
c l a i r v o y a n c e.
Inventions
may
be
de-
the
centuries
of
cultural
achievement
man
has
extended h i m s e l f in the world, and h a s developed the e x p r e s sion o f his c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f the world. H e h a s devised e x p e r i m e n t s i n living that m a y help h i m b e t t e r t o b e w h a t h e
already is. I am n o t claiming that cultures in t h e m s e l v e s are
genetically inherited, but that t h e y are generated by p r o cesses that are acquired biologically and developed throug h
social i n t e r a c t i o n .
A n analysi s o f the deeper p r o c e s s es o f V e n d a musical
b e h a v i o r suggests that s o m e i n n a t e capacities are as n e c e s sary as are experience s of learning for realizing even e l e m e n tary musical ability , let alone e x c e p t i o n a l musical ability. T h e
most c o n v i n c i n g evidence of i n n a t e creative capacities is to
be found in the w a y s the V e n d a apply themselves to n e w
experiences of sonic order, and in the processes t h a t h a v e
generated different features of their musical tradition and
c o n s t a n t l y g e n e r a t e the variations within that tradition. T h e
V e n d a adoption and adaptation of European music is testim o n y t o the u n c o n s c i o u s , creative application o f musical
processes. T h e so-called " m i s t a k e s " i n their singing o f E u r o pean m u s i c m a y s o m e t i m e s be due to inadequate learning
facilities, b u t t h e y m a y also b e intentional . T h e V e n d a are
able to imitat e c h r o m a t i c intervals or sharpened leading notes
or European c h o r d s e q u e n c e s ; but t h e y generally prefer to
create rather than imitate, and t h e y c h o o s e to i g n o r e t h e s e
European features or even i m p r o v e on t h e m n o t b e c a u s e
they are b o u n d t o learned pattern s o f b e h a v i o r , b u t b e c a u s e
there are deeper processes at w o r k in their m u s i c m a k i n g ,
which inspire a creative adaptation of the n e w sounds t h e y
SOUNDLY/ORGANIZED HUMANITY
115
extends
beyond
technique s
that
might
have
b e en
c o o p e r a t i o n and
loving i n t e r a c t i o n .
By
discovering
116
HOW
MUSICAL
IS
MAN?
Berg's
Wozzeck or
Britten's
War Requiem,
Balinese
gamelan or a C a n t o n e s e o p e r a , or a s y m p h o n y by M o z a r t ,
Beethoven,
or
Mahler, may
be
profoundly
necessary
for
M a l a y a lasted six d a y s , until he w a s dismissed after a disagreement with General Sir Gerald Templer in N o v e m b e r
1 9 5 3 . Thereafter, he did some anthropological research, taught
at a secondary school in Singapore, broadcast on Radio M a laya, accompanied Maurice Clare on a concert tour, returned
to Paris for piano lessons in June 1 9 5 4 , and went to South
A f r i c a as musicologist of the International Library of A f r i c a n
Music.
He worked with D r . H u g h T r a c e y on recording tours in
Zululand and Mozambique, and transcribed and analyzed
music in the library's collection. During 1 9 5 6 - 5 8 he undertook fieldwork among the V e n d a of the Northern T r a n s v a a l ,
and in 1 9 5 9 he w a s appointed lecturer in social anthropology
and Africa n government at the University of the W i t w a t e r s rand, Johannesburg. He w a s awarded his doctorate by the
university in 1 9 6 5 , and at the end of the year appointed professor and head of the department. In 1 9 6 5 , he w a s also visiting professor of African
M u s i c at Makerere University,
music,
African
Girl,
musicological
Society.
Black
Venda
Analysis,
are two
Background:
Children's
and
long-playing records
The
Songs:
Process
and
Childhood
A
of
of
South
Study
in
Ethno-
Product
in
Human
Literary
Supplement
London