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    Livro sobre Teoria da Elasticidade. Engnharia - Estruturas.

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    Livro sobre Teoria da Elasticidade. Engnharia - Estruturas.

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    23 views25 pages

    Elasticity Reismann Cap 1

    Uploaded by

    Wando Fortes
    Livro sobre Teoria da Elasticidade. Engnharia - Estruturas.

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    Elasticity THEORY AND APPLICATIONS HERBERT REISMANN Professor of Engineering and Applied Sciences State University of New York at Buffalo PETER S. PAWLIK Associate Professor of Engineering Technology ‘State University College at Buffalo X PREFACE, stimulate the beginner to initiate his or her own rescarches in this field. We mn of large numbers of examples and exercises pleasant task to acknowledge the assistance of the for the present book was cor ‘wants to thank the State University of New York at Buffalo for the grant of a sabbatical leave during which the present book was written. The credit for the frontispiece goes to Dr. Dennis Malone and to Mr. expertise in laser holography helped produce. the experi of a theoretical result obtained in Section 5.4. We also acknowledge the expert assistance of Dr. Paul M, Culkowski and Mr. Yuen-Kuang Sun for ig the manuscript, and of Miss Ginger Moronski and. a flawless job of typing. Mrs. Sally A. Pawl HiRBeRT REISMANN PETER S. PAWLIK Buffalo, New York Sane 1980 CONTENTS 1 Mathematical Preliminaries LA The Summation Convention, 1 1.2 The Symbols 6, and ey. 3 1.9 Scalar and Vector Fields, 19 1.10 Orthogonal Curvilinear Coordinates, 22 LIL The Divergence Theorem, 31 “i ‘The Stress Vector Concept, 44 22 Equilibrium, 45 23° The Stress Tensor Concept, 49 24 Principal Axes and Stresses, 51 25 An Example, 55 2.6 Principal Shearing Stresses, 57 2.7 Mohr Circles, 59 28 29 3.1 Kinematics of a Deformable Solid, 83 32 The Strain Tensor Concept, 85 33 Geometry of Deformation, 90 ‘Compatibility of the Linear Strain Field, 106 Curvilinear Coordinates, 109 4. Elasticity and its Limits 4.1 Hooke’s Law and the Elasticity Tensor, 128 42 Isotropy, 129 43 Interpretation of the Elastic Constants, 133 4a Test, 136 45 46 An Example, 143 5 Formulation and “Exact” Solutions of Some Linear Elasticity Problems S.A The Spherical Shell under Internal and External Pressure, 152 5.2 The Cylindrical Sheil under Internal and External Pressure (Plane Strain Solution), 155 53 Torsion of Prismatic Menibers, 158 54° Pure Bending of a Beam, 173 55 The Cantilever Beam under Transverse End Load, 175 5.6 Two-Dimensional Problems, 185 6 Structural Mechanics 6.1 The Rod in Tension or Compression, 208 62 The Rod in Torsion, 212 63 The Timoshenko Beam, 217 64 The Euler-Bernoulli Beam, 226 65 Plate Theory, 230 66 Classical Plate Theory, 240 7. Energy Principles 7A The Strain Energy Concept, 225 7.2 The Rate of Work Equation, 261 73 Energy in Beams and Plates, 263 fae bal 128 151 76 ‘Theorem of Minimum Potential Energy, 276 77 The Complementary Energy Concept, 277 78 The Principle of Complementary Virtual Work, 280 79 Theorem of Minimum Complementary Energy, 285 710 Castigliano’s Theorems, 286 711 Reciprocal Theorems of Betti and Rayleigh, 290 7A. Kirchhof?’s Uniqueness Theorem, 293 743. The Variational Principle of Hellinger and Reissner, 296 Numerical Methods 81 The Ritz Method, 309 82 Applications of the Ritz Method, 312 83 The Kantorovich Method, 327 a4 W Residual Methods, 328 85 Finite Difference Methods, 333 86 Finite Element Methods, 340 ‘The Initially Stressed Solid-Elastic Instability 9.4. Strain and Deformation, 379 92 Stress and Equilibrium, 382 93 The Initial Stress Problem, 386 9.4 Energy Considerations, 388 95 The Initially Stressed Beam, 390 96 The Initially Stressed Plate, 398 References Author Index Subject Index 416 a9 1 MATHEMATICAL PRELIMINARIES In order to facilitate a concise and efficient presentation of clasticity theory, shorthand or abbreviated notation the research literature. This notation has found which are not as readily available to the uninitiated, results in a saving of space, and serves as an aid in nonnumerical computations. The present its exercises, is designed to familiarize the reader with this notation. In addition, the present chapter contains the elements of the theory of Cartesian tensors and a brief review and summary of those aspects of vector algebra, vector analysis, and curvilinear coordinates which will be found useful in subsequent chapters. 1.1 THE SUMMATION CONVENTION We are often confronted by a system of three linear equations in three unknowns, such that AxtByt Coma Dx+ Byt Fe=b (ta) Gxt Hythe where x,y,z are the unknowns, and 4,B,...,2,0,..., are known constants. For reasons which will gradually become obvious reader, it will be convenient to adopt a more systematic notation for (I.ta). This is accom- plished by setting x= x,y =, 2= 25 Away, B=a, soon, and setting ~ 2. MATHEMATICAL PRELIMINARIES a= by, b= By, = bs, 50 that (I.la) assumes the form aux tants AgyXy + ayyXy ay (1b) 3,4 Aggy Equations (I.1b) can also be written in the form Xs daxy gs 21,23 (Lite) ‘and we note that the three equations i Llc) by assigning the values 1, 2, and 3 to the Further notational compression is possible by writ the repeated subscript j. The ig the summation symbol in with respect t0 General rules of the summation convention can be stated as follows. When af, /2%, =f. it is called a summation index and the expression is a sum of three terms ‘that can be obtained by suraming over the range (1,2,3). Conse- quently we have A,B2A,B,+AzBy+ ABs (12) Shek =firthaths Similarly, if we are given (Ile), we can expand it with respect to the (epeated) summation index j, that is, a,2)=a,x, + dgx,+ aqx,=6,. Succes- sive assignment of the free index i=1,2,3 tn this equation leads to (I.1b), its fully expanded form. ‘The summation convention applies only to the three types of expression in (1.2) Ie does not apply to an expression af the type (4, +B). It should also be ‘THESYMBOLS & ANDew 3. noted that the same summation index must not appear more than twice in any one expression. Thus the form A, ‘meaningless within the context of ‘our convention. We also note that actual symbol used is immaterial. For example A,B,=A,,B,=A,By and s0 00, Cy=Cu,=Cp, and s0 00, Sia Seu ™ hyp and 50 on and it is usually clear from the context of the analysis that the range of the subscripts summation Rotation, in conjunction with the tensor concept that we will develop in Section 1.6, has far reaching consequences which are not restricted to its notational convenience. 1.2 THE SYMBOLS 4, AND ej We now introduce @ notational device that enhances the convenience of the repeated subscript summation convention described in Sectio device is known as the Kronecker delta (Leopold Kronecker, 1823-1 it is defined by yal if ims; 6-0 if omy (03a) ‘The values of the Kronecker delta symbol can be displayed by the matrix equation 8, 82 dy] ft 0 0 By G2 by {=| 0 1 0}, (1.36) 8 8m By] [9 01 Consider the expression 8,4,= By Ay + byAat by Ay. ‘According to (1.3), we have 8,A,= Ay for j=l 8/Am Ay for j=2 84,5 Ay for 3 4) MATHEMATICAL PRELIMINARIES and it can be concluded that 8/44 a4) that is, multipt the repeated sul subscript i by th perty, 8,6, = By. Another device of far reaching utility is provided by the alternator defined by ee UMA MES) } 4A K=1,2,3. (15a) (1.5b) 5b), ex is often called the permutation symbol, because it is ijk) is a permutation of (123). The alternator can also be expressed as the determinant of an array of Kronecker deltas in the following, manner: a6) A convenient and useful identity relating the permutation symbol to the Kronecker delta can be obtained by the application of (1.6) to the product Br Ba Ba [Fr BF DETERMINANTS. 5 If we perform the usual row by column multiplication and note, in view of (1.4), that buds 88a 88s Fufyr= Bp and so on, we obtain a by by entre [52 84 8) an by by be If any two rows or columns of a determin are interchanged, its sign is reversed, Consequently, with reference to ‘is observed that ee — Sa — ag — Coe (1.8a) ‘A second interchange will again cause a reversal of signs, and using (1.8a) we obtain n= 0 ey (1sby In view of (1.84), we can say that ey is skew-symmetric with respect to an interchange of any two of its subscripts. If we set k=p in (1.7) and expand the resulting determinant, then it is readily shown with the aid of (1.4) that Sq | & | Fone = Bebe — Bb (9) ‘Another useful identity results if we set g=/ in (1.9), and subsequently perform the required summation. The result i ety, —26,, of upon ap- lication of (1.8), ent Be Finally, if we set r=i in (1.10), and perform the required summation, we obtain ene 6 at) 13 DETERMINANTS To demonstrate the efficiency and utility of the Kronecker deita and alterna- Ae eS eile eae ee ae ac ial 6 MATHEMATICAL PRELIMINARIES. determinant of order three yy ay ay Gy On ay a) (1.12) The elements of the determinant are characterized by the symbol ay, where the subscripts i and j denote row and column, respectively. For example, ay, is the element in the third row and in the second column. The notations developed in Sections 1.1 and 1.2 enable us to write (1.12) in the forms a e403 234 (1.13) a= etn data (L136) where (1.13a) and (1.13b) are expansions of (1.12) by row and column, respectively (see Exercise 1.9). The representations (1.13) can be combined into the symmetrical form par = Esp Ay ger (14a) Ayer ™ Cpa (utd) We now multiply both sides of (1.14a) by ég, and use (1.11). The result is a= eee Mer (Lis) The cofactor of a, is defined to be A, where A, =2a/2a,. Consequently aa Aum Fa 5 Bae Bay 3ag iene ete geet yay = £6: pe Se e8iibm * Geib * Oey8 ibn) =SeuSon 040 (1.16) where we set 244,/8din™ Sy 8yq and use the relations (1.8) and (1.4). Upon multiplication of (1.16) by dys Sem A im = 3 Sp Spam ein) =! ge,6. = 05, DETERMINANTS 7 where (1.14a) and (1.10) are used. Thus we conclude that em Amn (7a) Similarly, it can be shown that : Apa A = Bu (117) ‘When =k, equations (1.17) yield the well-known expansion of the determi- nant a in terms of its cofactors. When k= /, (1.17a) expresses the fact that the determinant a is the sum of the products of the elements of the kth row by its 44x), (1s) where it can be assumed that a0. Mul the cofactor 4jq results in tion of both sides of (1.18) by (Aig) = 5A or, using (1.17), ny) Bim so that 1 n= 5 bam (19) ‘The form of the solution (1.19) is known as Cramer's rule (G. Cramer, 1704-1752), We can also use the abbreviated notation to demonstrate multiplication of determinants, If the value of the determinant with elements by is 6, then in view of (1.13a) and (1.14), the product e™ ab is given by em ab (beye)(arsaayas4) = epee dub) (yb g)ArePer)- (1.20) We now set Cp Fi bip = 4 Pry + Airbag + ayadyy fag = Aybyy™ AaB ig Grabag* Aasb>q Cp = Ay, by, = G54, + Ayqbz, + ay3b5, 8 MATHEMATICAL PRELIMINARIES so that C= ab eel gl a9C ye: ‘The determinant ¢ has the elements ¢yq™4pb,q» Which are the sums of the products of the clements of the /th row of a by the mth column of 5. This completes the proof of the validity of the well-known product rule for determinants. Further developments are possible, and the reader is referred to a paper by F. D. Mumaghan, “The Generalized Kronecker Symbol and its Application to the Theory of Determinants,” American Mathematical Monthly, Vol. 32, 1925, p. 233, Francis D. Murnaghan (1893-1976) was a mathematician and a contributor to the modem theory of elasticity. The alternator ¢y is often called the Murnaghan symbol. 14 SCALARS AND VECTORS Scalars are quantities that characterize magnitude only, while vectors are mathematical objects used to characterize both magnitude and direction. The employment of scalars and vectors to represent entities is well established. For example, Newton's first and second laws of motion for a particle are characterized by the equation F= ma, In this equation m char- acterizes the mass of the particle, and it is a scalar. The force acting on the particle and its acceleration are vector quantities denoted by the symbols F and a, respectively. In the following text we use a boldface letter to symbolize a vector quantity. Once a system of units has been selected, the information required to specify the magnitude of a scalar or vector is provided by a single real sumber. However, in order to specify the direction of a vector, we need a reference that is readily provided by a coordinate system. For the present, we find it expedient to consider only réctangular Cartesian coordinate systems, and these are referred to by the abbreviation RCS. ‘A typical RCS is shown in Fig. 1.1. In ordet to achieve some economy in the use of symbols, and to enhance the possibility for the employment of the notations developed in Sections 1.1, 1.2, and 1.3, we label the coordinate axes 1o%q%5 rather than the usual x,y,z. Unit vectors along the x,,x,,x, axes-are called base vectors and are characterized by e,, ¢,, and e;, respectively. Their common point of intersection © is the origin of the RCS. We shall restrict all considerations to right-handed coordinate systems. With reference to Fig. 1 €, closed curve through the end points P,,P,, P, of the base respectively. The sense of this curve is defined by traversing 10 P; if SCALARS AND VECTORS 9 A? ZX a Fig. 11 (a) Right-handed coordinate system. (b) Right-handedness in the direction of the k-axis, 2). wr (or dot) product by A-:B=B-A=|Al[B\cosa 2p where a is the included angle between the vectors A and B and [A] represents the magnitude of the vector A. In view of (1.21) we have iAl= VACA 20. (122) ‘The vector (or cross) product of A into B is a vector D, which is defined as follows: A and B, and 0 Jeenas (1.508) ie ry. divA=V-A= Jin pL ndS (1.500) i 1 curlA=VxA: im 7 [axaas (1.500) where V is the volume enclosed by the surface ”, and m is the outward unit normal vector with respect to S: Inspection of (1.50) reveals that the defini- tions of gradg, divA, and curlA are not tied to a particular coordinate system. We will now derive an expression for grado when $—4(x,y,2) is referred to a RCS. With reference to Fig. 1.5, let us consider an element of volume in the shape of a rectangular parallelopiped with edges a,b,c parallel to the coordi- nate axes x,y,2, respectively. On the face defined by the outward unit normal vector ~e,, the value of gn is ~e,(x) and on the face defined by e,, the value of om is e,6(x+a)=e,l6+ (89/ax)a+ (8% /8x)a*+---}. Conse- ‘quently, the surface integral over the two faces of the parallelopiped that are parallel to the y—z plane is e,abc{(@s/8x)+(@76/3x7)a+ ---}, with analo- gous expressions for the corresponding surface integrals over the remaining areas. Upon addition, we obtain the surface integral over all six sides parallelopiped: abcle,(¢/2x)+¢,(06/2y) + €,(8@/8z) + e,a(8*6/8x7) 1. In accordance with the definition (1.50a), we now divide this quantity by the Fig. 15 Element of volume. SCALAR AND VECTOR FIELDS 21 volume V= abc, and subsequently take the limit as a,6,¢-+0, resulting in =V-one Mae 4 gadgev-gne, top reg nett. asi With reference to (.51), we define the gradient operator referred to a RCS as a Vaca (1.52) If A=e,4,, then an analysis similar to the one leading to (1.51) will reveal that (153) (1.54) (sec Exercise 1,36). A frequently required differential operator is the Lapla- cian, obtained by combining (1.53) and (1.51) oe = div gradg= V’9=V-V5= =e, He vo de er re (1.55) its operator notation, the following identities are often found to be V-(VxA)=0 (1.568) Vx(VH)=0 (1.566) V(G162)= 41%. +4,0 6, (1.56¢) VA) =SV-A+A-VO. Vx(GA)=gVXA—AX Vp V+(AXB)=B-(VXA)—A:(V xB) V+(VH,xVG,)=0 (1.568) Vx (Vx A)= (VA) —V2A, (56h) 22. MATHEMATICAL PRELIMINARIES Proof of (1.56a): Using (1.54) we have ad, _ Ay t. i, vxane,( BoE Bee -%) and upon application of (1.53) we obtain, a (04; 9,) Bad, 94.) 8 (AA, aA, vocal A (Ae -Sh)a 2 (Se Be) S(T Joo Proof of (1-56d): With the aid of (1.53) and (1.51), a aA, a Ve(oA)= 5-4) =0 5 +458 =o0-A+A-Ve. Proof of (1.563): Let V4, =A, Vo,=B, and use (1.561), that is, V+(¥4, x VG.) = Vh.(V x VG)) ~ Vor(V x VG) =O because Vx V4, = Vx V4,=0 by (1.566). The remaining identities are con- sidered in Exercises 1.32, 1.33, and 1.34. 1.10 ORTHOGONAL CURVILINEAR COORDINATES use of right-handed Cartesian coordinate ion of boundary value problems in elasticity theory becomes tractable only if the basic equations are referred to curvilinear coordinate systems. For this reason we now develap the basic notions of or I curvilinear coordinates and their associated geometric ‘and analytical implications. In addition, we find representations of the basic invariant diff ‘operators when referred to orthogonal, curvilinear coor- dinates. To achieve these goals, let us express the Cartesian coordinates 742, in terms of the curvilinear coordinates a,,7 by means of the equations we have made exch xea(aBy, yaaBy — 2=2(%B,y) (1.57) where x(x,8.y), (a,B.7), and 2(a,f,) denote single-valued functions of a,B,y with continuous partial derivatives of the first order in some given regiog. The functions x, y, and z must be independent, and the condition for ELE EE RTTAATLEEE CIEE EE EEEEEUEECCCLEEE ELLE EEEUE CE CLECEE ETE EeEcde ee ete eee eee ‘ORTHOGONAL CURVILINEAR COORDINATES, 23, this is that the Jacobian determinant oy Ba da da jefe B® % “lie ap 3p |*° (158) mye ay by oy curves, and surfaces, and there the analysis will require particular care. _A point P in three-dimensional space can be characterized either by the triplet of numbers (x,y,2) or by (a,B,7) and we shall assume that this ‘moves such that only a varies, and f and 7 are held constant, it will describe a curve in space. This curve is known as the a-curve, In a similar manner, We can define a f-curve and a y-curve, as shown in Fig. 1.6. If we hold one Fig, 16 Curvilinear coordinates. 24” MATHEMATICAL PRELIMINARIES coordinate constant, the other two will characterize a surface. In this manner wwe can show that three surfaces will pass through each point of the space. ‘These surfaces intersect to form the three coordinate curves. In the following ‘we shall limit our considerations to coordinate curves that are mutually Perpendicular at each point of space. Such coordinates are called orthogonal, ‘carvilinear coordinates. _If we denote the position vector from the origin O to the point P by OP=R, then with respect to the RCS we have the representation Raxe, +70, +26, (159) where'e,, ¢, and €, are constant unit vectors (see Section 1.4). A vector tangent to the a-curve is given by Eek Re (1.600) tion is implied in (1.60a). In this section, for convenience, we drop the summation convention when the subscripts are Greek letters. It is also assumed tha insformation equations (I-57) are consistent with the requirement BE, =EyE,=EyE,=0 E, xE,=kE,, and so on. ‘The quantity e,=AR/ds, characterizes @ unit vector that is tani e-curve and points in the direction of increasing arc length. ‘4h,=ds,/ dey, (1.604) assumes the form E, = h,e,. Similar considerations apply 10 the other coordinate curves, and we ean write Exmhte Epwhyey BAe, (is) It should be noted that the right-handed basis ¢,,e,,¢, consists of mutually orthogonal unit vectors which are generally functions. of the curvilinear coordinates a,f,y and that exrep=eptej= 6,0, =0 (1.622) eX €g™e,, and so on. (1.62b) In view of (1.61), (1.60), (1.59), and (1.57) we have aR) Inlehn| B= Se = ax) (a? | (az 3) 4(2y +2) : ORTHOGONAL CURVILINEAR COORDINATES. 25 and so on, so that EBT ean EER! co “(FRTEF omy land the differential are lengths are t= hede, — dig=hydB, ds, —h, dy. (1.64) With reference to (1.64, it can be inferred that the numbers hey hy serve as seale factors associated with the a, B, and y curves, respe-tively. Since aR 4 OR yy, R aR FB gy R yg, Ro a dat Se dB dy = 6h, dat ephgdB-+e,h,dy mediate, dy+e,de, the square of the distance PO=dR between two neighboring points P and Q dsm dR-dR= de? + y+ de? (1.652) astm H3dats Kap? hed? = dt det det, (1.650) volume referred to orthogonal curvilinear coordinates is 25) dV mE, da XE, dprE, dy. In view of we have E, xE,rE,=J, and with the aid E,X0- (67) On the surface «constant, the vector element of surface area dA,, is equal to the vector product (see Fig. 1.2) Ey dB xE, dr, so that dA,=e,hgh,dBdy, and analogous expressions are obtained for dAp and dA,,. Thus the scalar surface ‘elements associated with the coordinate surfaces are given by 4A, hghydBey (1.682) y= hha do (1.686) dA, =hahgdadf. (1.68) ‘The direction cosine of the angle between the unit vectors e, and e, is provided by C08(eas,) Cu" FG Fe” jn this manner we can construct the set of nine direction cosines relating the basis ¢,,€g.¢, to the basis ¢,,¢,,¢,, and the results are presented in Table 1.2. In accordance with Section 1.5, the law of transformation of unit vectors is provided by ¢,=4,,¢,, where we now associate the primed system with the ‘basis vectors e,,e,,€,, and the unprimed system with the basis vectors e_.@r€,- Thus with the aid of Table 1.2, we obtain hen Bet Bet Ze, (1.6%) eon Het Bet Fhe, (1.696) hem Het Bes He, (1.68) TABLE 12 DIRECTION COSINES al-ai-ai- ae ale ale ORTHOGONAL CURVILINEAR COORDINATES 27 Conversely, since ¢,=a,e,, we can write Lax, | Lae, 1 ax OE h Bek Be (1.700) 14,1 ee lw Bee iy Be (1.708) et Best Berd Be, (4.706) I, dae * Fi @B°* Fe, By The derivatives of the basis vectors are linear combinations of the basis vectors. For example 8¢,/36= ce, Cy@,+Cey Where cq, Cp, and ¢, are functions of a, f, and y. Further details are given in Exercise 1.40. ‘We now proceed to express the differential operators defined in Section 1.9 in terms of orthogonal curvilinear coordinates a, f, and y. With reference to (2.51) we can write the gradient vector A of the scalar field ¢ in the form a = me, 40, 40, oF Angradone,3e 46,5 te, ee Me AgtepAgteyAy and therefore Amen (eg +03 40,8 (= 36 , ay a9. a #)- ax de , & 89, Qa ax * 3a dy * Ba oF i, and so on, where we have used Table 1.2. Consequently Axgradg=Ve a £2 8, Se @7)y hy Ba” hg OB”, By and the gradient operator in terms of orthogonal, curvilinear coordinates is a EG Ee ha (72) Because a, f, and y are independent scalar quantities, we have, using (1.72), = S = <0 == Vem, Vee B. Vya gt. 73) a eee eae 28 MATHEMATICAL PRELIMINARIES In view of (1.73) and (1.566), we have the useful relations £8 Se ayy 2 ayy So VG nx Eada Gt mo (aay Moreover, because e, =e, xe,, and in view of (1.73), we can write &, _ oe Tigh, Ty and so on, and with the eid of (1.56g) it can be readily shown that xp yx(Wy), ¢ es s Vote yee ays ng, (175) Tigh, Tah” Tadhg » To find the divergence of the vector A we write VAR Ve(Age,) + V(Age)+9-(4,e,) and note that r a v4 2-9 A) With the aid of (1.56d), (1.7), and (1.75), it can be readily shown that Vel4ub)= 75 Pld) a =F Etats). and s0 on, La a a } cae [ Ba ehh aa Obey) + 3 (aos) (176) HW Ag=(1/4.80/80), Ag=(1/gX08/9B), A, = (1/h,)(86/2y), then A= gradg= Vo and using (1.76) we obtain VV9= Tp wre (ME) (SB) 3(28)] (77) ORTHOGONAL CURVILINEAR COORDINATES 29 where V? is the Laplacian of $. The curl of the vector A can be written in the form VxA=Vx(4,¢,)+ Vx (Agta) + V x(4,¢,). However, Vx(Ae)=0x [na($)] ~- (Fx 0) 2 8 &% a "The ap (hata) + Th By ee) a a a = Tran stom evap tho where we have used (1.56e), (1.74), and (1,72). The rentaining two terms are obtained in a similar manner. The final result can be written in the form Meta Iigte hye, r}aoa a VxA= Tah i a (1.78) Iigde yhy by} ‘We now present two examples of orthogonal, curvilinear coordinates, 110.1 Circular, Cylindrical Coordinates In this case we have a=r, B= 0, 2=2, and xercosé, y=rsin6, zaz (1.79) (Gee Fig. 2.14), Upon substitution of (1.79) into (1.63) we readily obtain hal, hemr had (1.80) and with the aid of (1.80) and (1.66) we calculate the element of volume EV mrad ds (181) 30 MATHEMATICAL PRELINTINARIES With reference to Table 1.2, the direction cosines are sind 0 —sind cos8 0 o 0 1 (1.82) If we define the scalar f(7,8,2) and the vector A=e,4,+ey4y+e,4,, then with the aid of (1.80), 5), and (1.78) we obtain the results, Ley vne Let Ze Pal au, vant Braye t Mey Me (1.83) apo 2/8), 1 oF, oF vant B43 5+ (1.83e) aa & dl (1.83a) 1 A, 1.10.2 Spherical Polar Coordinates In this case we set a=r, A=, y=@ and the equations of transformation are x=rcosising yarsindsing (1.84) z= rcosg (Gee Fig, 2.15). The scale factors are Kal tye hy=rsing (1.85) and aV=Psingdrdids. (1.86) ‘THE DIVERGENCE THEOREM 31 The direction cosines are given by & S & (1.87) For the scalar field f(r,6,0) and the vector field Ame,4, +e,A,+epdp we have Ly 1 ¥ vibe Lena om My ve, ean kr4)+ fe FolAasing) + aa ao (1.886) Lafr%), 1 O(n), 1 ay WEEE) ag wld) Rae we rey rsingey a2 3 VxA= a 6 3 (88a) A dy rind, We also note that in the limiting case of Cartesian coordinates, a= x, B=y, ‘y=, 90 that h,=/,~h,=1, and the table of direction cosines becomes AV, Next, we select a sgion AV, With reference 32. MATHEMATICAL PRELIMINARIES to the definition (1.50b), we have AV, div A(é.n.6) = J shindShg AY, where ¢—0 a5 BY,0. We now write this equation for i= 1,2,...,7, and.add the results. Consequently = AV, div AG. mpb)= = Sighrnas+ 2 «Av, The boundary of AY, consists either of part of S or of the boundaries of two adjacent subregions. The contribution to the surface integral from two adjacent (internal) boundary surfaces vanishes, because their outward nor- mals m, have opposite directions over the commen boundary which results ip cancellation. In addition, > AV, .x;. Show that Aye yy + Opi Gat Oy t Oyj 0. 1.8 Expand the determinants in 1.6 and show that they are equal t0 é4- Enumerate all possible cases. 1S (9) Show that ¢ay2y2y, is the expansion of the determinant lal by rows. () Show that ec,gaéys is the expansion of the determinant |a,| by col- umns. 1.40 What are the cofactors 4, of each element of the determinant |ay|=a? Give an explicit answer using conventional notation. [4)|=A is the determinant of the cofactors of the 3x3 determinant show that A= a2, 1.42 Show that “Ser Spar= Aye Obst Gp Se Baye ‘EXERCISES 35 1.13 (@) Let an yy % WH yun |2t a] 2, Bee By | |. % oe)" oy oy dy % Oy Bs ‘Show that seg 2h Bg Ot Oe Bey “ry, Wi, Bs HH, By and a eee Be Hd Se Fy By By” ) Show that dAqu™aByy, where a=|ay| and A, is the cofactor of ay (see 117). 1.14 Define the two-dimensional Kronecker delta. 6,1 for a= and 8,0 for a#B. Also define the two-dimensional alternator ¢q9=2—a, where a= 1,2 and B=1,2, that is, ¢;,=¢,%0, ¢,,= ~e,,™ 1. Show that Barty Bags Canta 2 = det(ayg) = ap traap™ FeparSp2 eg apex on™ Faye yp am Sephari 36. MATHEMATICAL PRELIMINARIES. 1.15 Demonstrate the rule for the multiplication of 22 determinants. Use the notation of Exercise 1.14. 1.16 Consider a rotation of axes in the x-y plane as shown in the figure. Show 117 With reference to Exercise p= Spe are Cartesian tensors of or show that 8g 8g, and ‘two in a two-dimensional space. 1.18 Show that in a two-dimensional space, there is a unique scalar T =} ¢upTag associated with every skew-symmetric tensor of order two, so that Tap egg (see Exercises 1.14, 1.16, and 1.17). 1.19 (a) Use the method of Section 1.4 to show that . ala AD AxBcxD)=|—E B'D| (b) Show that Ax(Bx C)={C+A)B~(B-A)C. (1.336) 1.20 If D=AxB, show that |4r 4a As BB, B, Ba 1.21 Consider two RCS's, one primed, the other unprimed. If the direction wanases 37 1.22 Two coordinate systems are connected by the direction cosines ay, ‘where ‘The unprimed reference is rectangular, Cartesian, and right-handed. (@) Are the primed coordinate axes mutually orthogonal? Is the primed reference right-handed or left-handed? 1.23 Given a vector 4, and two second order tensors B, and Cy, prove that: (@) Fy=B,+C, is a second order tensor. ) Hy = A,By, is a third order tensor. © B, isa scalar. © @ Hy= A,B, is a vector. Given that T,N,N,= S, where S is a scalar and N, is an arbitrary w that Ty is a symmetric, second order tensor. () Given that 7,4,5,= 5, where $ is a scalar and A, and B, are independent and arbitrary vectors. Show that T,, is a tensor of order two. (© Given the equation TyyA,B,C, = 5, where S is a scalar and 4,, B, and C, are ident and arbitrary vectors. Prove that Tq is a tensor of order three. 1.25 If Nis a root of the equation [7 —A4,|=0, show that A is also a root of the equation [Tyg ~My =0, provided Tyg dytyjTy 84 Ayy= dy 1.26 Consider the nine scalar quantities Iy= /,(77,—x,x,)dm, where x, are Cartesian coordinates, r?=.x,x, and the integration extends over the volume 38. MATHEMATICAL PRELIMINARIES, ¥ of a rigid body with element of mass dm. Prove that J, is a symmetric tensor of order two, known as the inertia tensor in rigid body mechanics. 1.27 Show that the relation T= Ty implies Ty =Tyy if T, is a tensor of order two. The primed RCS i obtained from the unprimed RCS by an orthogonal rotation. 1.28 Given the equation Ty= Cyy,Ey where Ty= Ty and Fy Ey are sym- metric tensors of order two. Show that the 81 scalars Cj.) are the components of a tensor of order four with the symmetry properties Cyy = Guy = Cyue- 1.29 An arbitrary second order tensor can always be decomposed into the sum of a symmetric and a skew-symmetric tensor. Prove that this decomposi- tion is unique. 1.30—see Section 2.4, Consider the central quadric ¢,x x)= K, where ¢y= cp, x, is a vector from the origin to the surface of the quadric, and K is a scalar. Show that c, is a symmetric tensor of ofder two. Set n,~ x,/|r|, 80 that n1,= 1. Then cn ty = K/r'= S. Now extremize S subject to the constraint n, ‘symmetrical calculation, use the method of Lagrange MeGraw-Hill Book Co, New York, 1975, p. 595). Form the function F=S— dayn=(cy—A3,)un, where d is the Lagrange multiplier. Thea ar Fel My)n=0 ou = i 0, so that M—1A2+LA-h=0, where 11= cy or warases 39 #4. Consequently, with respect to the primed axes, show that att Nad tAgyx3s OF ‘The primed axes are called the principal axes of the central quadric. 131 Given the central quadric 10x24 Ily?+622—12xy +4yz—8zx=36, with reference to Exercise 1.30: (@) Show that this equation assumes the form K= c,,3,=36 where 1 -6 ~4 [el=;-6 af. -4 2 6 (© Show that that is, the given quadric characterizes a triaxial ellipsoid with semiaxes of length 'VI2 , V6, and V2. 1.32 Prove the identities Vx(¥e)=0 (1.56b) OV on+o2%0, (1.560) 40 MATHEMATICAL PRELIMINARIES 1.33. Prove the identities Vx(GA)=SGVKA-AXVS (1.566) V-(AxB)=B-(VxA)—A-(V xB) (1.S6t) where @ is a scalar field and A,B are vector fields. 134 (@) Show that Vx(VxA)=V(V-A)— VA, (1.56h) {b) Find V°V if $=e,y, +egug and V=0,(3/2r) +e9(1/7)(0/28). 1.35 Take the limit of the surface integral as V->0 and show that where Awe,A,+6,4,+e,4, and S is the surface of the parallelopiped with sides a, b, and c (see Fig. 15). 136 Take the limit of the surface integral as V-»0 and show that 1 curlA= Jim, 7 {ax Aas— cu iy Men KA where Ane,4,+6,4, +¢,4, and S is the surface of a parallelopiped with sides a, b, and c (see Fig. 1.5). 1.37 Show that a test for orthogonality of a curvilinear coordinate’system is provided by eH ae HG 3a 08 * Ga 36 * Ba OB ax ax, a & | ae a ‘OB dy * 96 Gy * OB ay ~° ede, yy dy dy Ba” By 8a” By Ba marases 41 1.38. Show that e,re,=(1/hg)(0z/8B) (see Table 1.2) 1.39 Show that a test for right-handedness of an orthogonal curvilinear coordinate system is provided by 140 Show that de, 1 hey 1 the, a hy OB? hy Oy Bey _ 1 Ay 1 Ay BW i, ae 42. MATHEMATICAL PRELIMINARIES Note: Assume that the derivatives of the basis vectors are linear combinations of the basis vectors. Use the relations de, Dep Oe Ca Gq = Se Gq 8F Ba aR XG e, = Fe lhe= Bffay #84 80.0N. In the next three exercises: (@) Find the scale factors hyshp,hy. (®) Find the element of volume dv. (©) Construct a table of direction cosines (see Table 1.2). @ Find gradf, divA, curlA and VY, if f=f(a,B,y) and A=e,A,+epAg+ eA, 1.41—Prolate Spheroidal Coordinates (u,v,$). «20, 0<0 S17, 0<@<2n. xeasinhusinocos y~asinhusinosing z= acoshucose Ra aaYcinbPutsinte), — Agmatsinhusin’s. 1.42—Parabolic Coordinates (u,0,$). u 20,020, 0<$< 2m. xewocosp | Rakautto yewosing | kaw? zal(r—w) 1.43 Toroidal Coordinates (1, 0,4). 0

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