Instrumental and Sensory Characteristics of a Baked Product Containing Barley

Flour with Varying Amounts of Beta-Glucan and Sugar Substitute

by
Niti Lathia
A Thesis submitted to the
Graduate School-New Brunswick
Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of
Master of Science
Graduate Program in Food Science
written under the direction of
Dr. Henryk Daun
Dr. Paul Takhistov
and approved by
________________________
________________________
________________________
New Brunswick, New Jersey
October 2011

ABSTRACT OF THE THESIS

Instrumental and Sensory Characteristics of Baked Product Containing Barley
Flour with Varying Amounts of Beta-Glucan and Sugar Substitute

By Niti Lathia

Thesis Directors:
Dr. Henryk Daun
Dr. Paul Takhistov

The objective of this study was to determine the influence of varying levels of
beta-glucan in barley flour on selected properties of a model baked product. Another aim
was to reduce sugar levels in the product by incorporating a natural sweetener stevia and
to monitor its influence using instrumental and sensory analysis. Batter rheology was
studied using a lubricated squeezing flow technique, pasting profiles of the barley flours
were determined with a rheometer, viscoelastic properties were evaluated using dynamic
oscillatory rheology to measure G and G, and firmness of the baked products was
monitored using a texture analyzer, for changes occurring due to varying -glucan levels
in barley flour and removal of sugar. L a* b* color values of barley flour and muffins
were obtained using a colorimeter. A descriptive sensory panel was trained to observe
changes in product attributes when stevia was used to replace sugar in the high betaglucan product.
Water absorption index was found to be significantly higher for high -glucan
barley flour. The color of both barley flours also had a significant difference in L*
(lightness) and b* (yellowness) values. Similarly, muffin samples prepared without
sugar, using stevia, were significantly lighter in surface color (higher L*), while the

ii

interior colors were darker (higher b*). Low beta-glucan dough showed a lower biaxial
extensional viscosity compared to the high beta-glucan dough, which indicates that the
level of beta-glucan present in the barley flour has an impact on the dough viscosity. The
pasting profiles of the flours were also found to be significantly different, where the high
beta-glucan barley flour resulted in a significantly higher peak viscosity but lower peak
time compared to low -glucan barley flour. Muffin firmness was found to be
significantly higher when sugar was omitted from the formulation, but there was no
significant difference in firmness among the two beta-glucan levels in the muffins. The
sensory descriptive panel found significantly higher firmness, surface roughness, and
bitterness attributes for the high -glucan muffins prepared with stevia. Additional
efforts will be needed to mask the undesirable attributes in the model baked product
occurring due to the removal of sugar.

iii

Acknowledgement

First and foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude towards both of
my thesis advisors, Dr. Henryk Daun, who brought the project to my attention, and
equally to Dr. Paul Takhistov whose lab I conducted my research in. Both professors
have provided guidance, support, encouragement, and have had patience in explaining
my numerous inquiries throughout the duration of my project research. Secondly, I
would like to thank Dr. Kit Yam for being on my thesis defense committee, whose input
and suggestions I value. In addition, a big thank you to my lab mates for their assistance
with learning new instrumentation as well as providing a fun learning environment.
Also, I appreciate the efforts of the undergraduate team of students that participated in the
sensory portion of this research as panelists; your help and cooperation was greatly
appreciated.
Most importantly, I would like to thank my parents and family for providing the
financial support for my graduate studies as well as love, encouragement, moral support,
providing comfort during the challenging times, and accepting my absence while I
worked towards completing my degree. I have relied on them for guidance and strength
throughout my academic career. Thank you for your confidence and unwavering support.

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ABSTRACT OF THESIS

ii-iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

vii

LIST OF TABLES

viii

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

ix

LITERATURE REVIEW CHAPTER ONE

1.0 Introduction

1.1 Health Benefits of Barley

1.2 Chemical and Physical Characteristics of Barley

10

1.3 -Glucans and Arabinoxylans

13

1.4 Properties and Molecular Interactions among Major Food Components

17

1.5 Beta-glucan extraction

17

1.6 Water absorption capacity and effect on end-products

19

1.7 Rheological Properties Influenced by barley flour beta-glucan content

21

1.8 Stevia as a Sweetening Agent in Consumer Products

22

1.9 Conclusions from Literature Review and Objectives for Research

24

MATERIALS AND METHODS CHAPTER TWO

2.1 Ingredients Used in Baking Procedures and Analytical Measurements

26

2.2 Water Absorption Index of Low and High -glucan Barley Flour

27

2.3 Microbakery Model Formulations for Barley Muffins

29

2.4 Rise and Moisture Loss of Muffins

32

2.5 Rheological properties of barley dough using lubricating

squeezing flow technique

33

2.6 Pasting Properties of High -glucan and low -glucan barley flours

36

2.7 Dynamic Rheological Properties of Muffin Batter

39

2.8 Assessing Muffin Firmness Using a Texture Analyzer

40

2.9 Evaluation of Colors Using a Colorimeter

42

2.10 Nutritional Comparison of Muffins

44

2.11 Sensory Methodologies Used to Evaluate Muffin Products

45

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION CHAPTER THREE

3.1 Water absorption values for barley flours

50

3.2 Increase in Muffin Heights After Baking

51

3.3 Muffin Moisture Loss After Baking

53

3.4 Rheological Properties of barley flour doughs and muffin batters

55

3.5 Pasting properties of barley flours

62

3.6 Color values for Barley Flour Varieties

64

3.7 Muffin Surface Color

66

3.8 Muffin Interior Color

71

3.9 Muffin Firmness

74

3.10 Nutrition Facts for Muffin Formulations

77

3.11 High -glucan Muffin Sensory Quantitative Descriptive Analysis

79

3.13 Conclusions and Suggestions for Future Work

85

vi

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)
National School Lunch Program (NSLP)
National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES)
Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI)
Recommended Daily Allowances (RDA)
Coronary Heart Disease (CHD)
Low density lipoprotein (LDL)
Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
Code of Federal Regulations (CFR)
Apparent Biaxial Extensional Viscosity (ABEV)
The International Commission on Illumination (CIE)
Rapid Visco Analyzer (RVA)
Quantitative Descriptive Analysis (QDA)

vii

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Nutritional Composition of Sustagrain Barley
Table 2: Average Nutrient Comparison for Hulless Barley, Oats, and barley variety
Prowashonupana (Prowash) Barley
Table 3: Formulations for Muffin Batters Used to Prepare a Model Baked Product
Table 4: Reference standards for selected attributes used in Spectrum Descriptive
Analysis panel
Table 5. Descriptors used to evaluate muffin samples in the QDA panel
Table 6: Water Absorption indices of high and low -glucan barley flour
Table 7: Percentage Increase in Muffin Height (Rise) After Baking
Table 8: Percentage Decrease in Muffin Weight (Moisture Loss) After Baking
Table 9: Pasting profile for low and high -glucan barley flours
Table 10: Consistency index and flow behavior index for muffin batter with varying
amounts of beta-glucan and sugar
Table 11: Average L a*b* Values for low -glucan and high -glucan Barley Flour
Varieties
Table 12: Average L, a*, b* color values for surface color of muffins prepared with low
or high -glucan barley flour with 100% sugar
Table 13: Average L, a*, b* color values for surface color of muffins prepared with low
or high -glucan barley flour with 0% sugar
Table 14: The average L, a*, b* color values for interior color of muffins prepared with
low or high -glucan barley flour with 100% sugar
Table 15: The average L, a*, b* color values for interior color of muffins prepared with
low or high -glucan barley flour with 0% sugar
Table 16: Average maximum peak force to compress muffins as a measure of firmness
Table 17: Nutrition Facts for Muffin Formulations
Table 18: The mean values of each attribute measured by the QDA panel for muffins
prepared with Sustagrain flour with 100% sugar and 0% sugar, sweetened with stevia

viii

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure 1: Molecular Structure of -(1

3)- and -(1

4)-glucan

Figure 2: Structural elements present in arabinoxylans

Figure 3: Extraction and purification of -glucans from barley and oats
Figure 4: Structural Components of Stevioside, Rebaudioside A, and Steviol
Figure 5: Nutrition Label for Bobs Red Mill Ground Flaxseed Meal and Bobs Red Mill
barley flour
Figure 6: Example of water separated from barley flour after centrifugation
Figure 7: Apparatus and set-up of TA.XT2 Texture Analyzer for Lubricated Squeezing
Flow Technique Analysis of Doughs Prepared Using Barley Flours
Figure 8: Typical RVA pasting profile of a normal maize starch for viscosity and
temperature as a function of time
Figure 9: Water absorption indices of high and low -glucan barley flour
Figure 10: Percentage Increase in Muffin Height (Rise) After Baking
Figure 11: Percentage Decrease in Muffin Weight (Moisture Loss) After Baking
Figure 12: Biaxial Extensional Viscosity as a Function of Biaxial Strain Rate for
Sustagrain Dough and Bobs Red Mill Barley Flour Dough
Figure 13: Pasting profile for low and high -glucan barley flours
Figure 14: Strain vs. shear rate relationship of muffin batter with varying levels of betaglucan and sugar
Figure 15: Effect of % Strain on G of muffin batters containing varying amounts of betaglucan
Figure 16: Effect of % Strain on G of muffin batters containing varying amounts of
beta-glucan
Figure 17: Average L a*b* Values for low -glucan and high -glucan Barley Flour
Varieties
Figure 18: Visual Difference in Flour Color.

ix

Figure 19: Surface color values for muffins prepared with low -glucan Bobs Red Mill
brand barley flour
Figure 20: Muffins prepared with low -glucan Barley Flour
Figure 21: Surface color values for muffins prepared with high -glucan barley flour
Figure 22: Muffins prepared with high -glucan Barley Flour
Figure 23: Interior color values for muffins prepared with low -glucan barley flour
Figure 24: Interior Surface Images of Muffins Prepared with low -glucan barley Flour.
Figure 25: Interior color values for muffins prepared with high -glucan barley flour
Figure 26: Interior Surface Images of Muffins Prepared with high -glucan barley flour
Figure 27: Typical texture profile curve for high -glucan muffins prepared with 100%
sugar and 0% sugar
Figure 28: The average maximum peak force to compress muffins as a measure of
firmness
Figure 29: The mean values of attributes measured by the QDA panel for muffins
prepared with high -glucan barley flour with 100% sugar and 0% sugar, sweetened with
stevia
Figure 30: Sweet steviol glycosides from leaves of Stevia rebaudiana

1
CHAPTER 1
LITERATURE REVIEW

1.0 Introduction

The history of barley usage dates back to approximately 8000 B.C. and is
considered one of the oldest cultivated crops as it was a mainstay of ancient civilization
and contributed to the diet of working class people up until the end of the 19th century.
Many food products such as porridges, broths, hard biscuits, and flat breads were
prepared utilizing barley. The fermentation of the grain led to the production of various
types of alcoholic beverages, beer being one of the most well-known and second highest
consumed alcoholic beverage today following wine (Jones 2009). Although barley has
lost its place as a primary staple for modern times, mainly due to the introduction and
proliferation of the wheat industry, the health benefits and functional food uses are being
discovered and it is emerging as a major ingredient in current food formulations
(Anonymous 2005).
The concept of functional foods has been gaining much attention in the recent
times. Although there is no legislative definition of a functional food, one of the wellaccepted definition is Food similar in appearance to conventional food that is intended
to be consumed as part of a normal diet, but has been modified to subserve physiological
roles beyond the provision of simple nutrient requirements (Sir, Kpolna et al. 2008).
Similarly, The Institute of Medicine's Food and Nutrition Board defined functional foods
as "any food or food ingredient that may provide a health benefit beyond the traditional

2
nutrients it contains" (Hasler 1998). Thus, fiber rich foods can be considered as a
functional food as it provides health benefits to the consumer.
One pressing issue in the American schools has been that of childhood obesity.
Over one-third of children ages 12 to 19 years old are overweight (Ogden, Carroll et al.
2008) and the prevalence of childhood obesity has increased three-fold from 1980 to
2000 according to Center of Disease Control Health data Division of Adolescent and
School Health (2008). The health consequences and social difficulties associated with
childhood obesity make this a tremendously problematic situation. As a result, many
institutions and individuals are involved in trying to figure out the sources and solutions
to childhood obesity. National data show that children who participate in the National
School Lunch Program (NSLP) obtain over half of their daily total food energy from
school meals. Many social programs have been established at the schools, but the main
way to target the problem is by targeting food products that are consumed by the school
children. One such way is to introduce nutritionally-sound and wholesome food products
into the school lunch programs, which are consumed by children and adolescents
everyday in the public schools. It is crucial that the product shall maintain quality
through processing, storage, preparation, and serving. Most importantly, it should
provide sensory acceptability among children so that it will be fully consumed and thus
provide the intended nutritional and health benefits.
The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) oversees a nationwide
program called National School Lunch Program (NSLP), which provides and manages all
breakfast and lunch meals being served to students in the public school system. The goal
of the program is to provide healthy, nutritious and wholesome food products to school

3
children that choose to consume meals provided at the public schools. As part of the
NSLP, the USDA sets federal nutrition requirements for the schools to follow when
creating a menu plan. The nutritional values of the meals served to students are reported
to the government as a weekly average. Federal nutrition requirements are that the meals
meet one third of the Recommended Daily Allowances (RDA) for protein, calcium, iron,
vitamin A and vitamin C as appropriate for the levels for the age group served. The
meals should also be limited to 30% calories from fat and 10% calories from saturated
fat. Along with these guidelines, the schools should also try to be consistent with the
most current Dietary Guidelines of America (2005) (USDA 2009).
One prevalent issue is the lack of consumption of fiber rich foods in childrens
diets. In a study conducted by The National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey
(NHANES), it was determined that grain based dessert products account for only 5% of
the total fiber consumption in the diets of children and adolescents between the ages 2-18
(2010). In 2002, the National Academy of Sciences released the Dietary Reference
Intakes (DRI) for macronutrients and fiber, which recommended that Americans of all
ages consume 14 g total fiber per every 1,000 kcal total energy intake, based on evidence
for reduced cardiovascular disease risk at that level. In addition, fiber protects against
constipation and has also been shown to have many other health benefits, including
decreased risk of some cancers, obesity, cardiovascular disease, and diabetes. One
striking result of this study was that the main sources of fiber in childrens diets were
foods that were relatively low in fiber density (eg, low-fiber fruits) (Sibylle, Diane et al.
2005). Thus, it is necessary to develop products with high fiber content which is aimed

4
toward the school lunch program and can contribute to the total daily fiber consumption
recommendation as given in the DRI.

1.1 Health Benefits of Barley

Historically, barley has been used in many Asian, European, and African
countries in various products such as soups, flat breads, and porridges. Although the use
of barley declined through the 19th and 20th century as wheat and rice became more
prominent in the global diet, the various health benefits of barley are being discovered
and it is now known to be an excellent source of whole grain. Thus, it is becoming an
increasingly desirable product to use in formulations (Baik and Ullrich 2008). There are
numerous health benefits of barley flour, which are predominantly attributed to the fiber
present in the commodity.

1.1.1 Fiber content of barley

Dietary fiber is a major component of whole grains, which has low energy
density, and has been shown to act as a satiating ingredient. In fact, the current
recommendation for Americans for daily fiber consumption is between 25-35 g, with a
quarter of that amount required as soluble fiber (Hecker, Meier et al. 1998). One group
of dietary fibers, particularly the soluble fibers, is usually viscous or gel-forming.
Viscous dietary fibers, present in some whole grains such as oats and barley, create
gastric distention and delay gastric emptying. Subsequently, satiety-related hormones are

5
produced, which signal fullness. Thus, the consumption of whole grains containing
soluble fibers has been shown to increase satiety and thus thought to reduce overall
energy intake in a meal. Compared to other grains, barley contains a relatively high
concentration of beta-glucan, a viscous and fermentable dietary fiber, and therefore may
be highly satiating. Sustagrain barley, which contains 50% of the soluble fiber as betaglucan, was given to human subjects to study its effect on satiety along with oatmeal and
rice products, which contain fewer grams of fiber per serving. It was found that the
barley product, which contained the highest amount of fiber, was the most satiating as it
left subjects feeling not as hungry for the next meal when compared to meals where the
rice and oatmeal products were consumed (Schroeder, Gallaher et al. 2009).
The arabinoxylans present in barley are a source of insoluble fiber. It has been
found that enzymes present in the colon can specifically hydrolyze arabinoxylans,
resulting in arabinoxylan oligosaccharides. These oligosaccharides are said to have a
prebiotic effect, meaning that they promote the growth of beneficial bacteria in the gut.
Soluble dietary fibers play a role in the reduction of blood cholesterol and postprandial
blood glucose and insulin. Soluble arabinoxylans may possess these qualities as well
(Beaver 2008).

1.1.2 Effect of Barley on Glycemic Index and Insulin Response

The concept of glycemic index (GI) was first introduced in 1981 as a means for
identifying and classifying carbohydrate-rich foods based on their ability to raise
postprandial blood glucose levels. A lower glycemic response is desirable in both

6
healthy and diabetic individuals as it prevents the spiking of blood glucose levels. In a
study done with South Asian chapati flatbreads which contained varying percentages of
barley flour mixed with wheat flour, it was hypothesized that high-molecular weight
barley -glucan added to a food product subjected to mild cooking would be effective in
lowering postprandial glycemia. As predicted, it was found that the higher levels of glucan resulted in lower serum glucose levels. The fiber may affect glycemic response
by forming a physical barrier to enzymatic hydrolysis of starch (KNUCKLES, HUDSON
et al. 1997). This suggests that the addition of high level of -glucan containing barley
would be beneficial those individuals and populations that have a prevalence of type-2
diabetes (Thondre and Henry 2009).
In another study done with human subjects at a higher risk for insulin resistance,
they were fed varying amounts of -glucan containing Sustagrain barley. It was found
that those who consumed 10 g of -glucan in their diet showed significantly lower spikes
in blood glucose levels, which was measured over a two hour glucose tolerance test. This
is significant for those that are at risk for developing type-2 diabetes or have insulin
resistance, which is often seen in obese individuals and nowadays even in children.
Although a rather larger dose of the barley fiber containing food would need to be
consumed, it is a reasonable amount and shows that it could be very beneficial for
individuals who are at a higher risk for developing type 2 diabetes or have insulin
resistance (Kim, Stote et al. 2009). As this study was done in at-risk women whose
average age was 51.6, it is possible that the amount of barley -glucan necessary for a
similar effect on children or healthy individuals with normal blood glucose and regulated
insulin levels would be much lower.

7
In a similar study done with 10 men who were fed bread products as a breakfast
meal prepared with three different levels (35, 50 and 75%) of the (13;14)--glucan
rich barley genotype Prowashonupana, 50% common barley, or 100% white wheat, and
their postprandial blood glucose and insulin responses were measured. It was found that
for the subjects that consumed the bread prepared with 50% and 75% Prowashonupana
barley had a statistically significant reduction in glucose response levels. For bread that
was prepared with a 50% common barley composition, there was not a significant
reduction in postprandial glucose levels. This is an important indication that the higher
percentage -glucan formulated bread had a much more beneficial effect on glucose
levels (stman, Rossi et al. 2006). There is strong evidence from numerous studies that
high fiber, particularly from -glucan in barley, has a beneficial effect on blood glucose
levels and thus could delay or prevent the onset of insulin resistance or diabetes.

1.1.3 Effect of Barley Fiber on Lowering Cholesterol

The fiber components of barley, particularly the soluble -glucan have been
shown to have a cholesterol-reducing effect in a study conducted using rats as a model,
where food products such as tortilla, granola bar, and pudding with added -glucan were
fed. The soluble fraction, which contains mostly pectin, arabinoxylan, and -glucan, has
the ability to lower blood serum cholesterol, through its tendency to increase viscosity in
the intestine, thus affecting the bile acid-cholesterol cycle. Through this mechanism, the
cholesterol-lowering effects occur by blocking the absorption of fat in the intestines
(Hecker, Meier et al. 1998). In another study conducted using human subjects who were

8
fed a barley-rich diet, the low-density lipoprotein cholesterol concentration was
significantly lower at week four in the barley group than in the standard group, who were
not fed a diet containing barley (Li, Kaneko et al.).
Coronary Heart Disease (CHD) is the cause of almost 500,000 deaths annually
and the top risk factors for CHD include high total cholesterol levels and high levels of
low density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol. Supporting scientific evidence shows that
adding barley to one's diet can contribute to lowering serum cholesterol. As part of its
continuing initiative to provide Americans with the information they need to make
healthy nutritional choices about foods and dietary supplements, in 2005, the Food and
Drug Administration (FDA) approved that whole grain barley and barley-containing
products are allowed to carry a claim that they reduce the risk of coronary heart disease
(CHD) under the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR 101.81). Whole barley and dry
milled barley products such as flakes, grits, flour, meal, and barley meal are all products
that can use this health claim. An example of the health claim that may be used on
products is: "Soluble fiber from foods such as [name of food], as part of a diet low in
saturated fat and cholesterol, may reduce the risk of heart disease. A serving of [name of
food] supplies [x] grams of the soluble fiber necessary per day to have this effect." To
qualify for the health claim, the barley-containing foods must provide at least 0.75 grams
of soluble fiber per serving of the food, and the health claim in CFR 101.81 is based on
the consumption of total 3 grams of beta-glucan soluble fiber daily (FDA 2005; NBFC
2006). The addition of this health claim is very important as it is strongly supported by
scientific evidence and will make consumers more aware of the health benefits of
consuming barley products.

9
1.1.4 Antioxidant potential from barley

Some recent studies have focused on demonstrating and studying the antioxidant
properties and compounds found in barley. Antioxidants or phenolic structured
antioxidant compounds have been detected in barley and recent studies have shown that
cereals contain more phytochemicals than previously considered. These constituents of
barley are considered to be the most important source of antioxidants in cereals and exist
in both the free as well as bound form. The majority of the free phenolics are found as
flavanol compounds, whereas the bound phenolics are mainly phenolic acids. Both of
these groups are known to have antioxidant activity and possibly contribute health
benefits. Cereals are therefore claimed to be good sources of natural antioxidants.
Preliminary results suggest that these phenolic acids are absorbed in humans and that
their antioxidant activity may reduce the risk of coronary heart diseases, cancers, and
aging processes (Holtekjlen, Kinitz et al. 2006).
In addition to the potential health benefits associated with phytochemicals, these
phenolic compounds have important functional properties. Firstly, phytochemicals in
grains contribute to product quality in terms of color, flavor, and texture. The phenolic
acids and the flavanol polymers may be perceived as sour, bitter, and astringent.
Secondly, they also influence bread quality by interfering with the dough formation. The
changes in antioxidant properties were studied after baking bread containing barley. The
most significant change was seen among the different barley varieties, but much less after
storage or baking (Holtekjlen, Bvre et al. 2008).

10
1.2 Chemical and Physical Characteristics of Barley
1.2.1 Sustagrain Barley Variety

The Sustagrain barley variety is a proprietary barley variety that was developed
by ConAgra Foods through a conventional barley breeding program at Montana State
University in the late 1970s. This particular variety is generically known as
Prowashonupana, which is a waxy, hulless barley variety that has a unique
macronutrient composition. The varietys name is an acronym that represents its grain
characteristics and lineage: PRO: high protein (high lysine); WA: waxy starch; SHO:
short awned; NU: nude (hulless); and PANA: derived from the parent barley Compana.
It is much higher in fiber and protein, but lower in starch compared to many other
common cereal grains. Thus, this particular variety of barley can be used to formulate
products with desirable health benefits (Arndt 2006). Sustagrain barley is available as a
fine ground flour or and quick flakes which are tannish-brown in color (ConAgra).

11
Sustagrain Barley Nutritional Data (100g Basis)
Calories

390

Vitamin A

0 IU

Calories from Fat

60g

Vitamin C

0 mg

Fat

6.5g

Calcium

33mg

Saturated Fat

1.8g

Iron

3.6mg

Cholesterol

0g

Vitamin B1 (Thiamin)

0.6mg

Carbohydrates

64.3g Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)

0.3mg

Total Dietary Fiber 30g

Vitamin B3 (Niacin)

4.6mg

Soluble Fiber

12g

Potassium

452mg

Protein

18g

Zinc

2.8mg

Sodium

12mg

Table 1: Nutritional Composition of Sustagrain Barley (ConAgra)

1.2.2 Chemical Composition of Sustagrain Barley (Prowashonupana)

The carbohydrate distribution in Prowashonupana barley is at least 30% dietary

fiber and less than 30% starch. This unique composition of fiber to starch is about 2-3
times the amount of fiber and about half the amount of starch compared with other
common cereal grains. Approximately half the dietary fiber, 50%, consists of -glucan.
This particular variety also provides other whole-grain nutrients including healthy lipids,
vitamins, minerals, tocotrienols, and phytonutrients (Arndt 2006).

12

Nutrient (%)

Hulless
Barley

Oats

Prowash
Barley

Protein

13

15

20

Fat

Starch

60

59

21-30

Total Dietary Fiber

13

10

30

-Glucan

15

Table 2: Average Nutrient Comparison for Hulless Barley, Oats, and barley variety
Prowashonupana (Prowash) Barley (Arndt 2006)

Microscopic and chemical analyses were conducted to compare the structure,

macronutrient distribution, and macronutrient content of Prowashonupana barley variety
to another type of waxy, hulless (naked) barley variety: Bz 489-30. Waxy naked barleys
have previously been reported to contain 51.760.5% starch, 12.616.6% protein, 12.6
20.5% dietary fibre, 2.63.3% fat and 1.53.5% ash, while the content of -glucan has
been shown to vary between 6 and 11% of dry matter. In contrast, the Prowashonupana
variety has been shown to have a lower starch content (21-31%), while the contents of the
dietary fiber, protein and fat have been shown to be high (33-36%, 18-22%, and 6%,
respectively). Furthermore, the content of -glucan has been reported to be 2-3 times as
high as in other naked waxy barleys, varying from 15-18% of dry matter. This study
closely analyzed the association between structure and chemistry in the barley grain.
Through chemical isolation methods it was found that the cellulose and arabinoxylan
content was higher in the Prowashanupana variety of barley. It was hypothesized that the

13
thicker cell wall indicates a high content of -glucan while a large amount of starch
granules is associated with higher starch content. Fluorescence microscopy was used to
study the structural characteristics of the grains and it was observed that the
Prowashonupana barley variety had irregular endosperm cells with thicker cell walls, and
thus the higher -glucan content is unique to the Prowashonupana variety of barley
(Andersson, Andersson et al. 1999). These studies comparing different varieties of
barley with the Prowashonupana (Sustagrain) barley variety show that there is a definite
advantage to use the latter in product formulations that are geared towards providing a
nutritional and functional advantage.

1.3 -Glucans and Arabinoxylans

Arabinoxylans and mixed linkage (13)(14)- -D-glucans, commonly

referred to as beta-glucans, are the major non-starch polysaccharides present in various
tissues of barley. Depending on the genotypic or cellular origin, both polymers exhibit
variations in their molecular structures. The molecular features of -glucans and
arabinoxylans are important in determining their physical properties, such as water
solubility, viscosity, and gelation properties as well as of their physiological functions in
the gastro-intestinal tract, which most notably provides the health benefits mentioned
previously. The potential application of -glucans as food hydrocolloids has been also
proposed based on their rheological characteristics. In addition to enhancing solution
viscosity, -glucans have been shown to gel under certain conditions. Arabinoxylans
have been shown to significantly affect cereal based processes such as milling, brewing,

14
and breadmaking. Furthermore, arabinoxylans offer nutritional benefits of soluble and
insoluble fiber, and because of the presence of phenolic moieties in their molecular
structures, they may also have some antioxidant properties (Izydorczyk and Dexter
2008).
-Glucan is a trivial name for the glucose polymer found in the endosperm cell
walls of barley and oats. The -bond is not digestible by enzymes in human
gastrointestinal tract, resulting in the classification of -glucan as a soluble dietary fiber
(Burkus and Temelli 2005). -glucans consist of linear unbranched polysaccharides of
linked -(1

3)- and -(1

4)-D-glucopyranose units in a non-repeating but non-

random order, as seen below:

Figure 1: Molecular Structure of -(1

3)- and -(1

4)-glucan (Chaplin 2009)

-glucans form 'worm'-like cylindrical molecules containing up to about 250,000

glucose residues that may produce cross-links between regular areas containing
consecutive cellotriose units. They form thermoreversible infinite network gels. 90% of
the -(1

4)- links are in cellotriosyl and cellotetraosyl units joined by single -(1

links with no single -(1

4) or double -(1

3)-

3)-links. The main use of -glucans is in

texturizing by functioning as a fat substitute, which is made possible by the increase in

15
viscosity. One such product, Nutrim, is prepared by subjecting an aqueous suspension of
barley flour to a high temperature mechanical shearing in the presence of thermostable amylase, followed by centrifugations and drying of the supernatant. In addition to glucans (515%, depending on the -glucan content in barley used for extraction), a
Nutrim preparation contains also starch, amylodextrin, and proteins and has been used to
make low fat cheddar cheese (Izydorczyk and Dexter 2008). In a study done using a glucan fat substitute product called Trimchoice, it was found that a 35% substitution with
fat resulted in shortbread cookies that were comparable in terms of texture, color, and
taste with the full-fat control (Sanchez, Klopfenstein et al. 1995). High molecular weight
-glucans are viscous due to labile cooperative associations whereas lower molecular
weight -glucans can form soft gels as the chains are easier to rearrange to maximize
linkages. Barley -glucan is highly viscous and pseudoplastic, both properties decreasing
with increasing temperature. Although these properties cause difficulty in the brewing
industry by negatively affecting fermentation and filtration, -glucans have important
functionality in foods as well as physiologically (Chaplin 2009).
Arabinoxylans are non-starch polysaccharides found in the cell walls of plants.
They are generally classified as hemicelluloses, or more specifically pentosans, a series
of 5 carbon sugars. Their general structure is comprised of -(1,4) linked Dxylopyranosyl backbone with -L-arabinofuranose units attached as side residues via (1,3) and/or -(1,2) linkages (Beaver 2008). They are present in Prowashonupana barley
at 12% dry weight basis (Andersson, Andersson et al. 1999)

16

Figure 2: Structural elements present in arabinoxylans (Izydorczyk and Dexter 2008)

The arabinoxylan structure affects its physiochemical properties. Arabinoxylans

have the ability to bind water which may alter the dough rheology, processing and
finished product attributes of many baked products. The high water holding capacity of
arabinoxylans delays starch gelatinization most likely by restricting the amount of water
available for starch gelatinization. The arabinoxylans also protect the starch from amylase enzymatic degradation which results in increased bread volume, better crumb
elasticity and increased shelf life (Beaver 2008).

17
1.4 Properties and Molecular Interactions among Major Food Components

Along with the many physiological benefits of barley -glucans, these compounds
exhibit certain rheological and physical properties in the food matrix that make it a
suitable for various food applications. Such beneficial health effects have been attributed
to the solubility of -glucans in water and their capacity to form highly viscous solutions.
Cereal -glucans exhibit considerable diversity in their structures, including the ratio of
tri- to tetramers, the amount of longer cellulosic oligomers and the ratio of -(1-4):-(1-3)
linkages. These structural features appear to be important determinants of their physical
properties, such as water solubility, viscosity, and gelation. The potential use of glucans as hydrocolloids in the food industry is based mainly on their rheological
characteristics, i.e. their gelling capacity and ability to increase the viscosity of aqueous
solutions. Thus, -glucans can be utilized as thickening agents to modify the texture and
appearance of food formulations or may be used as fat mimetics in the development of
calorie-reduced foods. -Glucan-rich fractions from cereals or purified -glucans have in
fact been successfully incorporated into products such as breakfast cereals, pasta, noodles
and baked goods (bread, muffins), as well as dairy and meat products (Lazaridou and
Biliaderis 2007).

1.5 Beta-glucan extraction

Extraction of -glucans can be done to verify the amount present in the barley
varieties. Subsequently, the properties of -glucans alone can be studied to model how

18
they behave when subjected to thermal, chemical, and physical changes. Extraction and
isolation of pure -glucans from oat and barley are conducted using the procedure
outlined in Figure 3. Pure -glucan has been added to several baked products with
successful applications (Thondre and Henry 2009). It is to be noted that this procedure is
widely accepted and used to confirm the amount of -glucans present in a commodity.

Figure 3: Extraction and purification of -glucans from barley and oats (Biliaderis and
Izydorczyk 2007).

19
1.6 Water absorption capacity and effect on end-products

The addition of -glucans to wheat flour used for bread-baking barley has been
shown to result in a higher water absorption capacity. The addition of -glucans to a
dough formulation also increases the development time, the stability, the resistance to
deformation and the extensibility of poor breadmaking quality doughs, as well as the
specific volumes of the respective breads, exceeding even that of the good breadmaking
cultivar. Traditionally, barley has not been used in bakery products because it lacks
substantial gluten proteins and the end-products have poor sensory qualities (Bhatty,
1999). Furthermore, studies showed that addition of fibrous materials to wheat flour
weakens the crumb cell structure, due to the dilution and weakening of the wheat gluten
protein network. Similarly, Dubois (1978) emphasized that especially utilization of the
water-insoluble fractions impair the gas retention of the dough and thereby change the
texture and appearance of the baked product. More recent studies have demonstrated that
-glucan-enriched barley fractions, blended with wheat flour, can produce bread with
acceptable sensory properties (Skendi, Biliaderis et al. 2010).
In a study done by Sharma and Gujral (2010), where several barley varieties were
used to determine differences in their water absorption, water solubility index, and oil
holding capacity, it was found that there was some difference among the different
varieties of barley. It was determined that the water solubility index ranged from 9.23%
to 11.77% in different cultivars. DWR-28 and RD-2552 varieties had highest and lowest
water solubility index respectively, however only DWR-28 showed significant difference
in water solubility index as compared to all other cultivars. The oil holding capacity

20
significantly varied among the cultivars and ranged from 1.5 to 1.68 g/g, DWR-28 and
RD-2052 had highest and lowest oil holding capacity among the cultivars. Water
absorption capacity ranged from 1.38 to 1.63 g/g, the highest exhibited by PL-172 and
RD-2052 and lowest exhibited by RD- 2503. Bhatty (1993) reported similar value for
water holding capacity and oil absorption capacity for barley flour. The water absorption
capacity could be attributed to -glucan content in barley flour because there was positive
correlation (R = 0.843) between -glucan content and its water absorption capacity.
It is known that the flow behavior and gelling properties of -glucans can largely
vary with the concentration and the molecular size of the polysaccharide concentration.
Thus, understanding the effects of barley -glucans with different molecular weights on
the rheological properties of wheat flour doughs with different breadmaking quality is
essential for determining both the dough handling properties during processing and the
quality of the end products. In a recent paper published by (Skendi, Papageorgiou et al.
2009), the effect of adding low (105 Da) or high (2.03 x 105 Da) molecular weight barley
-glucans in two wheat flours of different breadmaking quality were studied. Mechanical
spectra and creep-recovery analysis data within (low stress) and out (high stress) of the
linear viscoelastic region were obtained and revealed that the rheological behavior of glucan-enriched doughs depend on concentration and molecular weight of the
polysaccharide as well as on the flour type used. Addition of -glucan increased the G
values of the good breadmaking quality flour doughs, whereas decreased the G of the
poor quality wheat cultivar. Supplementation with -glucans increased the resistance to
deformation, flowability and elasticity of the doughs under low stress. Significant
correlations between frequency sweep and creeprecovery parameters of optimally

21
developed doughs from both flours were found. The addition of -glucan in the dough
recipe of the poor breadmaking wheat flour may result in similar rheological responses to
those obtained from non-fortified good breadmaking quality wheat flour.
Many authors have reported that due to the -glucans ability to absorb high
quantities of water, doughs fortified with -glucans display a significant increase in the
farinograph water absorption values. It is generally recognized that water plays the most
important role on the viscoelastic properties of the dough during mixing; i.e. the
distribution of the dough materials, their hydration, and the gluten protein network
development strongly depend on the quantity of added water (Skendi, Papageorgiou et al.
2010). Small deformation dynamic rheological tests and creep-recovery measurements
are often employed for dough characterization and the derived rheological data are
explored as predictors of breadmaking performance.

1.7 Rheological Properties Influenced by barley flour beta-glucan content

Rheology is concerned with how all materials respond to applied forces and
deformations. Basic concepts of stress (force per area) and strain (deformation per
length) are key to all rheological evaluations (Tabilo-Munizaga and Barbosa-Cnovas
2005). Shear-thinning behavior in foods may be conceptualized by the breakdown of
structural units in a food due to the hydrodynamic forces generated during shear. Most
non-Newtonian foods exhibit shear-thinning behavior, including many salad dressings
and some concentrated fruit juices. In fact, most foods fall into this non-Newtonian
category (Rao 1999). Beta-glucans are one such material that have been shown to exhibit

22
such behavior and have demonstrated viscoelastic properties (Papageorgiou, Lakhdara et
al. 2005). Data reported on the consistency and viscoelastic properties of batter are
important in the development of new products (Kalinga and Mishra 2009).
Characterizing the mechanical behavior of food materials is complicated by the
fact that many food materials are viscoelastic, so their mechanical properties lie between
that of a purely elastic solid and that of a viscous liquid. Using oscillatory rheology, it is
possible to quantify both the viscous-like and the elastic-like properties of a material at
different time scales; it is thus a valuable tool for understanding the structural and
dynamic properties of food systems (Wyss, Larsen et al. 2007).

1.8 Stevia as a Sweetening Agent in Consumer Products

Stevia is a generic name for the sweetness-providing compounds, particularly the
steviol glycosides, extracted from the herb Stevia rebaudiana (Bertoni). It is generally
available as a mixture of steviol compounds, with the predominant sweetness compound
being Rebaudioside A (Carakostas, Curry et al. 2008). Stevia has negligible caloric value
for use in food products and beverages since it is used at a very low concentration. Stevia
leaf extracts exhibit a sweetening level of 15-30 times sweeter than sucrose, dependent on
the extract quality and raw material (SM Savita 2004). In 2008, stevia gained approval
for mainstream food usage from a dietary supplement status. Therefore, products
containing stevia launched thereafter, and have been gaining popularity among food
manufacturers because of its natural label and low-calorie benefits (Lord and Sant'Angelo
2010). Although stevia has been gaining acceptance and has increasing use in the food
industry in the past few years, there are technical issues with the product due to the

23
presence of bitter compounds that are also incorporated into the sweetener during the
extraction process. There is also a lingering licorice aftertaste and sweetness at a higher
use concentration, which has been the cause for the limited acceptance of the product.
However, there are benefits of using stevia extracts, especially in baked products
where thermal processing occurs. Rebaudioside A has been shown to have thermal
stability in two specific studies. One was the use in pasteurized dairy product and the
other was in a laboratory baking study with temperatures up to 390 F. Due to its thermal
stability, stevia is suitable for baking applications. However, stevia is not the perfect
substitute for sugar in bakery applications. The sole function of stevia would be in
providing sweetness. Stevia lacks the ability to add texture, caramelize, feed the
fermentation of yeast or help tenderize a batter, all properties that sugar possesses. Also,
cakes made with stevia may not rise as well, and achieving a soft, chewy cookie may
require additional ingredients (Jones 2006).

Figure 4: Structural Components of Stevioside, Rebaudioside A, and Steviol

(Carakostas, Curry et al. 2008)

24
1.9 Conclusions from Literature Review and Objectives for Research

Appealing to the heightened awareness of health issues such as childhood obesity,

prevalence of diabetes, and lack of fiber in the diet, more nutritious products need to be
made available to school children. As manufacturers make the changes to their products
to improve the nutritional value, the food quality should not diminish. Thus far, barley
flour has limited approaches in modern-day food products despite its known health
benefits. This may be attributed to the presence of a bitter taste and a strong whole-grain
character as well as the requirement of high sugar content in baked products to mask this
taste. However, the addition of sugar increases the caloric value of the product. To
address this issue, a natural sweetener called stevia will be studied by incorporating it
into a model baked product prepared with barley flour. The essential food quality
properties of color, taste, texture, and nutritional value will be used to assess the food
characterization of a barley flour containing product.
The specific objectives in this research include identifying key parameters
responsible for processing and to monitor the effect of water absorption with varying
levels of -glucans in barley flour, specifically noting how this difference affects some of
the rheological properties. Another aim is to reduce sugar levels in the product by
incorporating a natural sweetener called Stevia and to monitor its influence through
instrumental and sensory analysis. Finally, the instrumental findings of the research will
be compared with the sensory aspects of the model baked product to determine whether
there exists a detectable difference though a human response.

25
CHAPTER TWO
Materials and Methods

A muffin type of baked product will be used as a model to assess the color,
texture, and sensory properties as an effect of the -glucan content and reduced sugar
levels on the final product. Most importantly, the interactions among the primary
components of the product need to be well-understood. Thus a model system of barley
flour, natural sweetener, water, and other minor components will be used to study the key
processing effects through instrumental and sensory analyses. The aim is to incorporate a
natural sweetener while keeping the low-calorie and low glycemic index aim in focus. At
the same time, the functional changes occurring due to the reduction in sugar levels and
increased beta-glucan content will also be monitored.
Similarly, the type of fat used in the product formulation is intended to provide
some health benefit to the consumer in addition to its role in the baked product
formulation. Thus, flaxseed meal will be added to the product as it provides a source of
beneficial omega-3 fatty acids and adds fiber. In a study done by (Fiscus, Harris et al.
1999), it was found that flaxseed substituted into whole wheat flour at 25% and 50%
levels showed similar sensory results to the control which used 100% wheat flour in the
preparation of peanut butter cookies and banana bread. Important food quality
characteristics such as flavor, texture, and mouthfeel were found to have no significant
difference between that of the control and the formulation with the flaxseed added.
Minor ingredients such as flavorings and leavening agents will present in the final
product, but not studied in depth in the analytical parts of the project. The main objective

26
is to determine and examine the behavioral differences among the different barley flours,
considering Sustagrain barley flour as the high -glucan and a commercially available
brand of barley flour as the low -glucan counterpart.

2.1 Ingredients Used in Baking Procedures and Analytical Measurements

Two varieties of barley flour will be used to study the functional changes caused
by the varying amounts of beta-glucan present in the two brands of barley flour. One is
barley flour manufactured by Bobs Red Mill, a commercially available brand, which will
be considered as the low beta-glucan barley flour. The other is Sustagrain, which as
previously mentioned, is a high beta-glucan (15%) containing barley flour sold under the
ConAgra Mills brand. The main objective is to identify the key behavioral differences
with other food components and compare how the beta-glucan levels affect the water
absorption capacity, rheological properties of the batter, textural properties in a model
baked product, and the final product color.
Ground flaxseed meal supplied by the company Bobs Red Mill will be used in
the muffin formulations to obtain color and textural measurements. The company
website states the following on the product page, In a 2 Tablespoon serving size (13
grams) the fiber content is 1.33 grams of Soluble Fiber and 2.67 grams of Insoluble Fiber.
Ground Flaxseeds are a good source of Omega 3 Fatty Acids. In a 2 Tablespoon serving,
there is 2400 mg of Omega 3 (2010).

27

Figure 5: Nutrition Label for Bobs Red Mill Ground Flaxseed Meal (left) and Bobs Red
Mill barley flour

2.2 Water Absorption Index of Low and High -glucan Barley Flours

The amount of water used for a baked product has a great effect on the outcome
of the final volume and texture (Osorio, Gahona et al. 2003). Therefore, it is necessary to
determine how much water would be absorbed into the flour prior to developing product
formulations. The water absorption index can be determined by simple methods using
barley flour and water. Water absorption capacity of flour was measured by the ratios

28
and centrifugation methods (Sharma and Gujral 2010) (Ding, Ainsworth et al. 2006).
0.12 g Sustagrain barley flour and Bobs Red Mill Barley flour were dispersed in 1 mL of
distilled water and placed in pre-weighed centrifuge tubes. The dispersion was stirred
using a stir-plate for 10 min followed by centrifugation for 25 minutes at 3000 rpm. The
supernatant was drained off by allowing the tubes to stand inverted for 10 minutes. The
water absorption index was calculated by dividing the weight of the flour and water
mixture obtained after draining off the supernatant by the original weight of the flour.
The averages of triplicate measurements are recorded. It was predicted that the higher glucan Sustagrain flour will have a higher water absorption index since increasing
amounts of -glucans have been shown to absorb more water (Sudha, Vetrimani et al.
2007).
Water absorption index was calculated by:

WAI = mf + mw
mf
where mf = mass flour and mw= mass water.

Figure 6: Example of water separated from barley flour after centrifugation

29
2.3 Microbakery Model Formulations for Barley Muffins
A dessert type baked muffin product was used as a model to characterize the
instrumental changes occurring in the system as a result of -glucan levels in the barley
flour as well as study the changes occurring due to the removal of sugar from the
formulation. Muffins were prepared using the following formulations, with process
variations occurring in the type of barley flour utilized (high or low -glucan) and the
reduction in sugar levels, while using stevia to maintain sweetness levels. The recipe
ingredients were adapted from (Idzorek 2010) and modified based on preliminary baking
experiments and the quantities were reformulated and adjusted to accommodate smallscale baking experiments. Ingredients such as eggs, banana, sugar, baking soda, vanilla
extract, and salt were sourced from local supermarkets. Banana puree was used since
fruit purees demonstrate humectant properties, promote tenderness and retain moistness,
increase shelf life, and can replace some of the sugar and/or fat in muffins and cakes (Hui
2006). The banana puree would also be helpful in providing some of the necessary
moisture to hydrate the barley flour in the formulation. Stevia leaves extract was
obtained from Spectrum Chemical.
Each set of muffins were prepared with the use of 1) Bobs Red Mill Barley
Flour as the low -glucan type or 2) Sustagrain Barley Flour as the high -glucan flour.
Each formulation was prepared with the same ingredients, with the process variation
occurring in the sugar:stevia use levels, as well as the addition of ground flaxseed meal in
the 0% sugar formulations. Stevia has been shown to have a potency level perceived as
200-300 times sweeter than sucrose (1.0). However, the sweetness potency, or the
sweetness perception, in a product is highly dependent on the sucrose equivalency level.

30
The stevia to sugar equivalency use level has been reported as 4-8%, with 6% level being
a reasonable average value (Prakash, DuBois et al. 2008). Initially, stevia sweetener
levels in the product formulations were based on the previously mentioned levels. Thus,
the amount of sucrose (9.88 grams) used in the full sugar control product required 0.59
grams of stevia (6.0%) to have a similar sweetness equivalency.
Preliminary baking experiments were done to test this level of sweetness using
stevia in the formulation and it was found to be too high of a sweetness level, which also
resulted in a strong bitter aftertaste. Stevia use level was thus reduced to 0.15 grams in
the formulations, or approximately 0.24% of the total formulation. This stevia use level
was employed for baking done for instrumental measurements as well as preparation of
samples used in sensory panels.
100%
Sugar
16.5

0%
Sugar
16.5

0% Sugar +
Flaxseed Meal
16.5

Salt

0.05

0.05

0.05

Baking Soda

0.44

0.44

0.44

Vegetable Oil

Water 105 F

10

10

10

Banana Puree

25

25

25

Eggs

5.5

5.5

5.5

Sugar

9.88

0.3

0.3

0.3

Flaxseed Meal

2.25

Stevia

0.15

0.15

72.67

62.94

65.19

Ingredient (g)
Barley Flour

Vanilla

Total

Table 3: Formulations for Muffin Batters Used to Prepare a Model Baked Product

31
Although the total weight of the batter formulations differs, the process control
was applied by weighing out muffin batters equally into mini-muffin tins. Equal amounts
of batter were utilized in all baking processes for instrumental experiments and sensory
analysis.
Procedure for preparing muffins:
A Frigidaire Gallery consumer electric convection oven was used for the baking
experiments. The oven was preheated to 325F and the temperature was maintained
throughout the preparation of the batter and baking process. A ripe banana was pureed in
a food processor (Hamilton Beach) until it reached a smooth consistency and did not
contain any visible chunks. In a mixing bowl, the dry ingredients consisting of barley
flour, salt, flaxseed meal and baking soda were combined and set aside. In another
separate mixing bowl, oil, eggs, vegetable oil, and sweeteners were mixed and beaten
with a hand-held electric mixer (Sears) on speed 3 until thoroughly blended, for
approximately 15 seconds. Then the banana puree, vanilla, water and dry ingredients
were added to the mixture and beat with the mixer on speed 2 for 15 additional seconds
until all ingredients are blended and uniform in appearance. The batter was then weighed
out to 12 1 grams in a paper muffin mold placed into a mini-muffin pan and baked for
ten minutes. The pan was then rotated 180 and baked an additional two minutes.
Muffins were then removed from the oven and allowed to cool in the pan at room
temperature for two minutes. Then, the muffins were transferred to a cooling rack for an
additional 30 minutes at room temperature. Muffins were stored in a sealed plastic ziptop bag at room temperature (25C) for further analysis. Texture, color measurements,
and photographs of the surface and interior were obtained within 12 hours of preparation.

32
2.4 Rise and Moisture Loss of Muffins

The variation for this experiment included the use of high and low -glucan
barley flours in the model baked product as well as the complete removal of sugar. When
sugar was omitted from the formulation, stevia was used to maintain sweetness levels.
The heights of the muffins were evaluated by obtaining the height of the batter prior to
baking and calculating the percentage of rise, or increase in height, after muffins were
prepared. A toothpick was inserted into the center of the batter and the toothpick was
marked at the level of the batter. The toothpick was then removed. The initial height of
the batter was recorded by measuring the distance between the mark made on the
toothpick to the end of the toothpick with a ruler, in centimeters. Final heights were
obtained in the same manner after allowing the muffins to be cooled for 30 minutes. The
percentage rise, or increase in muffin height, was calculated by:

% increase in muffin height = hf hi x 100%,

hi
where hf is the final height and hi is the initial height of the muffins.
The initial weight, 12 1 grams, of the muffin batter was recorded by placing the
batter in mini-muffin tin foil cups and weighing them on a scale. After baking, the
muffins were allowed to cool for 30 minutes and final weights were recorded. The
percentage change in weight, considered as moisture loss, was calculated by:

% decrease in muffin weight = mi mf x 100%,

mi
where mf is the final mass and mi is the initial mass of the muffins.

33

Average values of four replicates are reported for both the muffin rise and moisture loss
measurements.

2.5 Rheological properties of barley dough using lubricating squeezing flow

technique

The rheological properties of a dough are a great indicator of their behavior

during baking and determining the final product texture, rise, spread, and overall quality.
Cookie spread rate is governed by dough viscosity as doughs with lower viscosity had a
higher spread rate compared to doughs with a higher viscosity (HadiNezhad and Butler
2009).
Traditional determinations of rheological properties of wheat flour dough have
been carried out using tests and instruments such as the farinograph and alveograph,
which provide important information on rheological characteristics for the development
of baking products. However, it has been seen that these tests do not allow detecting
differences of composition of the flour and addition of ingredients, nor do they provide
detailed information on physical and characteristic properties of flow behavior (Osorio,
Gahona et al. 2003). Thus, a technique called lubricated squeezing flow viscometry has
been used to quantify changes in the behavior of doughs and can be used with high
viscosity materials. This technique can detect differences among the samples that cannot
be observed under shear conditions. It also solves two major problems that occur in food
viscometry: 1) the slip condition in the surface and 2) the inadvertent rupture of the
structure of the sample when introducing it in the reduced space of the conventional

34
rheometer. This technique has been previously applied to several high viscosity products
such as peanut butter, cheese, cooked cornmeal dough, mayonnaise, tomato paste, tortilla
dough, wheat dough, yogurt, dulce de leche (milk sweet), refried beans paste and
mustard. The lubricated squeezing flow viscometry technique is one of the basic types of
biaxial extensional flow, which is the type of flow behavior that occurs during the baking
process.
Both low and high -glucan barley dough were subjected to this type of
compression analysis to look at the flow properties of the doughs and how they affect the
final product texture. Dough samples were prepared using the previously determined
water absorption index values. Water was added to the barley flours and mixed
continuously for 3 minutes to allow the formation of a cohesive textured dough (Sudha,
Vetrimani et al. 2007). A TA.XT2 Texture Analyzer was used for the lubricated
squeezing flow technique. The TA-4, 38 mm cylinder probe was attached to a 25 kg load
cell. The platform as well as the surface of the probe were well lubricated with
commercially available food grade, edible vegetable oil to minimize any effects of
friction (Osorio, Gahona et al. 2003) and (Stojceska, Butler et al. 2007). Pre-test and
post-test speeds were set at 1.0 mm/sec and the test speed, or deformation rate, or
crosshead velocity, was set to 0.1 mm/sec. Dough discs measuring 1 cm in height and 2
cm radius were formed and placed on the platform. They were allowed to rest for 5
minutes prior to testing in order to stabilize internal tensions. The dough was compressed
to 60% of its original height, or 6.0 mm. The force, time, and distance parameters were
recorded automatically through the Texture Expert software. Samples were prepared and
run in triplicates with average values used for calculations of biaxial stress, biaxial strain,

35
and biaxial viscosities. Calculations to obtain biaxial viscosity vs. biaxial strain rate
curves were obtained following detailed methodology in (Osorio, Gahona et al. 2003).
Apparent biaxial extensional viscosity (ABEV) was calculated by the following formula:

ABEV = 2Ftht/R2v
where Ft is the compression force (N) at time of t; ht is the height of the dough sample
(m) at time t; R is the initial radius (m) of the dough sample; v is the crosshead speed
(m/s). Data points were obtained at each second time interval and plotted to obtain a
curve of the biaxial extensional viscosity versus biaxial strain rate.

Figure 7: Apparatus and set-up of TA.XT2 Texture Analyzer for Lubricated Squeezing
Flow Technique Analysis of Doughs Prepared Using Barley Flours

36
2.6 Pasting Properties of High -glucan and low -glucan barley flours

Rheological properties of starch pasting are traditionally studied by an instrument

called the Rapid Visco Analyzer. The working principle of this type of equipment is that
the rheology is directly related to the microstructure of starch and is influenced by many
factors such as the amylose/amylopectin ratio, the chain length of amylose and
amylopectin molecules, the concentration of starch, shear and strain, and temperature.
The sample is heated over a range of temperatures and the viscosity is recorded over a
period of time. Starch granules are generally insoluble in water below 50C, so the
viscosity of the starch mixture is low below this temperature. When the starch granules
are heated, the granules absorb a large amount of water and swell to many times of their
original size.
As the instrument generates shear conditions, the viscosity increases when the
swollen starch granules squeeze past each other. The temperature at which the rise in
viscosity is seen is known as the pasting temperature, which indicates the minimum
temperature required to cook a sample. As a sufficient amount of starch granules are
heated, there is period of time where there is a rapid increase in viscosity as the
temperature increases. The peak viscosity occurs at the equilibrium point where starch
granules are completely swollen and just as they begin the retrogradation process. The
peak viscosity and temperature indicates the water binding capacity of the starch. As the
temperature is held constant over a period of time, the starch granules begin to rupture
and polymer realignment occurs, which is evident by the decrease in apparent viscosity of
the paste and is known as the breakdown viscosity, which occurs at the beginning of the

37
cooling phase. The viscosity at this stage of heating also gives an indication of paste
stability. As the sample is cooled down back to the starting temperature, re-association
between the starch molecules, especially amylose, occurs to varying degrees, which
results in an increase in viscosity once again as a gel begins to form. This phase of the
pasting curve is referred to as the setback region, and occurs due to the retrogradation of
the starch molecules. The final viscosity gives an indication of the stability of the cooled,
cooked paste under low shear conditions (Cui and Liu 2005) and (Brabender 2005).
Below is a typical pasting curve used to illustrate the specific points in the pasting profile
determined during the duration of the run.

Figure 8: Typical RVA pasting profile of a normal maize starch for viscosity ( - ) and
temperature (---) as a function of time (Cui and Liu 2005)

38
The pasting properties of high and low -glucan barley flours were studied using
a rheometer and a controlled temperature circulating water bath to emulate the Rapid
Visco Analyzer instrument. A Brookfield Digital Rheometer Model DV-III was used in
conjunction with a with a K10 model water bath circulator system controlled by a
Thermo Scientific Haake DC30 temperature control system, with an accuracy of 0.1C.
The pasting properties of the low and high -glucan barley flours was studied, as well as
with the addition of sugar with the same ratio to that in the muffin formulation. The
sample was prepared as a 5% wt/wt basis of barley flour in water suspension. Sugar was
present in the muffin formulations at 13.6% of the total formulation, therefore of sugar
was added was added to the 5% barley flour and water suspension at the same ratio. All
samples were mixed prior to transferring into the rheometer holding cell and allowed to
equilibrate for 3 minutes to reach an initial temperature of 50C. The shear rate was set
to 200 rpm or 68 1/s for the duration of the run and an SC4-31 spindle was used based on
manufacturers given maximum viscosity parameters. The temperature profile was set to
begin at 50 C, then increase to 95 C, hold at 95 C for 5 minutes, and then cool to 50 C
(Stojceska, Butler et al. 2007; Sharma and Gujral 2010; Sharma, Gujral et al. 2010; Sai
Manohar, Urmila Devi et al. 2011). Time (min), temperature (C), and viscosity (mPas)
were recorded by the Rheocalc Version 3.2 software. Peak viscosity (mPa s), breakdown
viscosity (mPa s), final viscosity (mPa s), setback viscosity (mPa s), peak time (minutes),
and pasting temperature (C) were obtained from the graph plotted through the duration
of the sample run. Averages of triplicate values are reported.

39
2.7 Dynamic Rheological Properties of Muffin Batters

An oscillating rheometer was used to directly study the rheological properties of

batters to characterize the behavior of -glucan concentration on the rheological
properties of the batter and resulting changes occurring during processing.

Apparent Viscosity
Muffin batters were prepared according to the same formulations used in baking
experiments and were run through a Rheometric Scientific ARES Rheometer to measure
the viscosity between strain rate of 1 to 398 s-1. The sample was loaded between two
parallel plate geometry probes and the gap was adjusted to 1.0 mm. All measurements
were made at 25C using 25 mm diameter parallel plates. Stress and strain rates were
recorded and plotted to obtain a stress vs. strain rate curve to fit a Power-law model to
obtain the flow behavior index (K) and the consistency index (n) from the slope of the
line. The flow behavior was described by power law model, where shear stress (Pa) was
related to the shear rate (1/s) and the consistency coefficient (K in Pasn), and flow
behavior index (n) were obtained by linear regression.

Dynamic Oscillating Rheology

Oscillatory rheology is a standard experimental tool for studying behavior of

foods which exhibit viscoelastic properties, essentially those foods that are between
solids and liquids in their behavior (Wyss, Larsen et al. 2007). A Rheometric Scientific
ARES Rheometer was used to determine the oscillating rheology properties of the muffin

40
batter. Initial experiments using barley flour solutions, based on approximate moisture
content in the muffin batter, were used to determine the frequency parameters at which
muffin batter samples would be tested. The frequency chosen for the duration of the
measurements was 20 s-1. The dynamic oscillatory-shear storage and loss moduli (G and
G) were measured and recorded as a function of % strain between 1 to 100%. All
measurements were made at 25C using 25 mm diameter parallel plate geometry with a
1.0 mm gap between the plates. Values reported are based on an average of 3 replicates.

2.8 Assessing Muffin Firmness Using a Texture Analyzer

As a measurement of food quality, texture is important for observing both

defective and acceptable food products. Texture can be defined as a group of physical
characteristics that arise from the structural elements of the food and are sensed primarily
by the feeling of touch, are related to the deformation, disintegration and flow of the food
when a force is applied (Taub and Singh 1998). A group of properties based on physical
structure, sense of touch, and functions of mass, distance, and time compose the
definition of texture (Bourne 2002). The classifications of this testing are puncture,
compression-extrusion, cutting-shear, compression, tensile, torsion, bending and
snapping and deformation. A comprehensive definition of food texture analysis and
methods for evaluation can be found at Bourne (2002), (Rosenthal 1999), and Texture
Technologies (2009).
The various methods for food texture analysis depend on the properties of the
food. A common texture instrument or universal testing machine measures force as a

41
function of time and distance. A simple test of measuring the force to push a probe into a
food surface is used to measure texture known as a puncture test. The force to deform the
sample is similar to the way molar teeth bite and chew. However, the puncture test
assumes a semi-infinite geometry because of the small surface area measured. A
compression test will measure the larger surface area of the food sample by forcing it to
flow or fracture and deform dependent on its composition. This type of a compression
test is widely used in the industry as a measure of food quality during shelf-life studies
and to observe changes occurring due to ingredient modifications. When the direction of
the force applied to the sample is parallel to the direction it is sliding this is known as
shear. A food product can also be measured for the force to be divided into two sections,
bent or pulled apart (Tabilo-Munizaga and Barbosa-Cnovas 2005). Using any test, the
most accurate data depends on a consistent sample temperature, size, shape, speed,
distance and direction.
Instrumental techniques do not completely indicate textural quality of a product
since they lack the uniqueness of consumers perception. A sensory texture analysis is
needed to measure the quality of a food dependent on its acceptability. However, human
experience of a trained expert can be compared to physical properties results for insight
on the reaction of texture differences. Using the human senses to manipulate the food
product by eating allows for many different variables to be identified. For example, in
study of apple firmness a difference of five Newtons using instrumentation is detectable
by human perception (Harker, Gunson et al. 2006). The process of eating can measure
the actions of biting, chewing, swallowing, etc. and determine which sensations are

42
perceived at any given point. Since texture has a high affect on liking of the product, the
quality of a food can depend on the description of its meeting chosen standards.
Muffins that were prepared using the previously described formulations with low
and high -glucan flour with varying amounts of sugar:stevia ratios and the addition of
flaxseed meal were evaluated using the TA.XT2 Texture Analyzer. A compression test
was conducted on all the muffin varieties to determine the firmness and how it is affected
by each variation in the muffins and between the two types of flours. A TA-11, 1-inch
diameter cylinder was used with a pre-test, test, and post-test speed of 2.0 mm/sec.
Muffin samples placed on the testing platform and were compressed to 10 mm of their
original height. An output of peak force (g) vs. time was obtained for each variety of
muffin in triplicate measurements, with average values reported (Texture Technologies,
Corp.). Differences between averages were determined by comparing muffin treatments
according to a t-test with a significance level of 5% (p = 0.05) using the Microsoft Excel
2003 Data Analysis ToolPak.

2.9 Evaluation of Colors Using a Colorimeter

Surface color is one of the important characteristics of baked products and is

considered as a critical index for judging baking quality. Baked products develop color
in the later stages of baking, simultaneously with crust formation and occur through
chemical processes including the Maillard reaction and sugar caramelization. The
Maillard reaction is responsible for color development at surface temperatures below
150C, while caramelization reactions occur when the product surface temperature

43
exceeds 150C (Onishi M 2011). It will be important to monitor these color changes
differences that occur due to the removal of sugar from the product, which may affect the
caramelization reactions occurring at the higher temperature stage of the baking process.
A Minolta CM-2500d Spectrophotometer with Spectra Match software was
used to measure surface and interior color of the low and high -glucan barley flour
muffin varieties in L a*b* color space. The International Commission on Illumination
(CIE) (1976) color space measures L for the luminance or lightness component with a
range 0 to 100 (dark to light), and a* (from green to red) and b* (from blue to yellow).
After preparing muffin samples as described above, measurements were taken for surface
color on top of the muffin and the interior crumb surface color from muffins that were cut
longitudinally from top to bottom. Measurements were taken as an average of three
locations across the surface of the same muffin. Differences between average L, a*, and
b* values were determined by comparing muffin treatments according to a t-test with a
significance level of 5% (p = 0.05) using the Microsoft Excel 2003 Data Analysis
ToolPak. It was predicted that the omission of sugar from the formulation will have a
significant impact on the surface and interior crumb browning, thus resulting in color
differences. The generation of brown pigments during a caramelization and Maillard
browning reactions will be lacking when stevia is used in the muffin formulation.
The colors for the two barley flours were also obtained by taking three
measurements across different locations on a Petri dish containing the flours. Visual color
differences of the barley flours and muffin surface and interiors were observed and
recorded with digital photographs using a Sony DSC-H50 digital camera with automatic
camera shutter speed settings and compared with L a* b* color values obtained from the

44
colorimeter to determine whether there were differences in the raw material and how they
would translate to changes occurring in the final product color.

2.10 Nutritional Comparison of Muffins

Nutritional values of barley muffin prototypes were evaluated using a software

called Recipe Calc, version 4.0 (Muller). Most ingredients nutrition facts were available
in the software database and were used as a basis for calculation of the finished product
nutrition facts. Ingredients that were not present in the database, such as specific
products including the Sustagrain barley flour, Bobs Red Mill barley flour, and Bobs
Red Mill Flaxseed Meal, were added into the software using the nutrition label provided
on the package or supplied by the manufacturer. All ingredients were added and the
nutrition labels were prepared based on the quantities used in the product formulations
and calculated automatically in the software. According to the Food and Drug
Administration, it is best to determine the values for nutrition labeling by conducting
laboratory analyses on its products, but a manufacturer can use average values calculated
from ingredient composition databases as long as it is confident that the values are
accurate and accurately represent the characteristics of the product (Mermelstein 2009).
Although the generated nutrition facts may not be an adequate tool for in labeling for
manufactured products, they provide a clear method of comparison among the different
formulations and varieties of the muffins for research purposes, particularly to identify
changes in carbohydrate levels, to denote differences in sugar and fiber levels.

45
2.11 Sensory Methodologies Used to Evaluate Muffin Products

Sensory evaluation is a scientific discipline used to evoke, measure, analyze, and

interpret reactions to those characteristics of foods and materials as they are perceived by
the senses of sight, smell, taste, touch, and hearing (Hui 2006). Sensory evaluation is a
technique that food scientists use the human body and its perception of the five basic
senses as a tool to measure differences and intensities of food characteristics. The
objective of the sensory panels pertaining to this research included looking at key
differences occurring due to the removal of sugar from the muffin formulations.

2.11.1 Quantitative Descriptive Analysis (QDA) Using Spectrum Method

Descriptive analysis methods involve the detection and the description of both the
qualitative and quantitative sensory aspects of a product by trained panels (Meilgaard,
Civille et al. 1999). Quantitative Descriptive Analysis (QDA) is the most sophisticated
sensory methodology. The results of QDA are a complete sensory description of the test
treatments (determined by the sensory panel), that provide a basis for relating specific
ingredients to specific changes in sensory characteristics of a product. QDA, particularly
the Spectrum Descriptive Analysis Method was chosen as the analysis tool for the study
since it yields quantitative data from panelist scores based on perceived intensities with
reference to pre-learned absolute intensity scales. The sensory findings may be used as
a comparison tool between the instrumental findings of the research and the human
response. Quantitative Descriptive Analysis does not provide information regarding

46
preference or liking of the product, but it is a tool to measure perceived intensities for
chosen attribute for a product.

2.11.2 Training Panel Members

Eight people with a general sensory background who regularly consumed baked
dessert products were recruited from an undergraduate course in the food science
department and voluntarily participated in the training process and sensory panel. A
semi-trained panel was formed and utilized for the sensory study. Each member of the
sensory panel underwent training sessions to familiarize with the terminology used to
evaluate the muffins. Training was conducted in a conference room setting with minimal
noise. At the training sessions: 1. panel members verbalized and discussed their
perceptions of a typical muffin by using descriptive words for the product; 2. descriptive
terminology was developed and agreed upon that best identified the observed perception
of the product being tested; 3. scales for recording intensities, as well as word/product
anchors for each scale category were determined and explained to panel members by the
panel leader. Attributes were chosen for the product in the following categories: 1)
appearance, 2) texture, 3) flavor/taste and 4) aroma. Once the panelists had agreed on the
meaning of the terms they had chosen to describe the muffin, a period of training
followed where panelists were given the definition of the chosen terminology and
reference samples were provided for each chosen attribute to demonstrate intensity levels
ranging from weak to strong. After training, the panelists were able to quantify the
degree to which the attribute was perceived in the product they were testing.

47
Three reference samples were chosen for each attribute to train panelists
according to Spectrum intensity scale values given in (Meilgaard, Civille et al. 1999).
Commercially available products were utilized and solutions for sweetness and bitterness
attributes were prepared using varying levels of sugar and caffeine in a water solution.
Reference samples were provided to panelists to be observed visually, smelled, and
consumed for training purposes.

Attributes

Low

Medium

High

Sweetness

Sucrose (2.0%)

Sucrose (7.5%)

Sucrose
(16%)

Bitterness

Caffeine (0.05%)

Caffeine (0.1%)

Caffeine
(0.2%)

Firmness

Cream cheese

Processed
American Cheese

Raw Carrot

Springiness

Cream cheese

Marshmallow
(mini)

Gelatin
dessert

Surface
Roughness

Gelatin dessert

Orange peel

Granola bar

Color Intensity

White bread

Whole-Grain
Complex

Cream of Wheat

Pumpernickel
Bread
Triscuit
Crackers

Banana Aroma

25% banana
puree in water

Whole Wheat
Bread
Cooked whole
wheat spaghetti
50% banana
puree in water

Banana puree

Table 4: Reference standards for selected attributes used in Spectrum Descriptive

Analysis panel (Meilgaard, Civille et al. 1999; Gmez 2002)

48
Definitions for each selected attribute were provided to the panelists by the panel leader,
as described in Table 5 and agreed upon by all panel members.

Term
Sweetness
Bitterness
Firmness
Springiness
Surface
Roughness
Color Intensity
Whole-Grain
Complex
Banana Aroma

Definition
The taste stimulated by sucrose and other sugars or sweet
substances.
The taste stimulated by substances such as quinine, caffeine, and
hop bitters.
The force required to compress between tongue and palate.
Degree to which sample returns to original shape after a certain
time period
Degree to which surface is uneven.
The intensity or strength of the color from light to dark
Baked toasted barley flour: the aromatics of a grain which has been
sufficiently heated to caramelize some of the starches and sugars.
Odor associated with ripe banana

Table 5. Descriptors used to evaluate muffin samples in the Quantitative Descriptive

Analysis panel

2.11.3 Testing Procedure

To obtain quantitative measurements, a 15-cm horizontal line scale was utilized

with word bipolar word anchors previously determined by the sensory panel, always
moving from left to right with increasing intensity. The task of the panelist was to mark a
vertical line across the horizontal line scale at the point that best reflects the relative
intensity of the particular term. The mark is converted to a numerical value by measuring
the distance from the left end of the line. Panelists were provided paper ballots to record
their responses along with water, napkin, and spit cup. The sample was presented in a
plastic souffl cup with a 3-digit random number code. In the first evaluation session,

49
muffin samples formulated with 100% sugar and prepared with high -glucan Sustagrain
barley flour were evaluated by the panelists. In the second session, muffins prepared
with stevia and high -glucan Sustagrain were evaluated by panel members. The same
formulation used for instrumental analysis was used the preparation of samples for the
sensory panels. Panelists were not aware whether they were evaluating a full sugar or no
sugar muffin.

50
CHAPTER 3
Results and Discussion

3.1 Water absorption values for barley flours

Water absorption values for low -glucan Bobs Red Mill brand barley flour and
high -glucan Sustagrain barley flour were 1.16 and 1.25, respectively and were found to
have statistically significant difference (p<0.05).

Water Absorption Index (WAI)

1.26
1.24
1.22
1.2

1.18
1.16
1.14
1.12
1.1

Low b-Glucan

High b-Glucan

Figure 9: Water absorption indices of high and low -glucan barley flour

51

Standard Error

Low -Glucan

Water Absorption
Index
1.16

High -Glucan

1.25

0.009

0.003

Table 6: Water Absorption indices of high and low -glucan barley flour

As predicted, the water absorption index of the high -glucan barley flour was
found to be significantly higher. This is due to the high water retention capacity of the glucan present in the flour, where higher amounts of -glucan have been shown to
demonstrate in increased amount of water absorption (KNUCKLES, HUDSON et al.
1997; Holtekjlen, Olsen et al. 2008; Sharma, Gujral et al. 2010). This difference in
water absorption of the low and high -glucan barley flours was predicted to have an
effect on dough rheology where the high -glucan barley flour will form a more viscous
or thicker batter due to its ability to retain more water into its molecular structure.

3.2 Increase in Muffin Height After Baking

There was no statistically significant difference (p<0.05) found among any of the
muffin sample variations, but there was a general trend observed between the muffins
prepared with 100% sugar having a higher % increase in muffin height, or rise. Also, a
trend was observed, although not statistically significant, where the muffins formulated
with low -glucan barley flour had a higher % increase in muffin height,. This may be
explained by the role of batter viscosity where the lower viscosity batters generally tend

52
to have a greater rise during the initial stages of the baking process. The batter prepared
with lower -glucan was expected to have a lower viscosity since the water absorption
was found to be much lower. Also, sugar has a functional component in the system as it
provides structure to the air cell matrix, giving it structural support to incorporate air into
the product. When sugar was removed from the formulation, the lack of air cell structure
formation results in a decreased loaf volume thus resulting in decreased final height.

Muffin Variation
High -glucan 100% Sugar

% Increase
in Height
53.77

Standard
Error
8.88

High -glucan 0% Sugar

46.42

3.10

Low -glucan 100% Sugar

61.80

2.31

Low -glucan 0% Sugar

51.46

6.62

Table 7: Percentage Increase in Muffin Height (Rise) After Baking

70

% Increase in Muffin Heights After Baking

% Increase in Height

60
50
40
Sustagrain

30

low B-glucan

20
10
0
100% Sugar

No Sugar

Figure 10: Percentage Increase in Muffin Height (Rise) After Baking

53
During baking there is considerable movement of the batter by convection
currents occurring in the oven. Development of these currents is dependent on the
temperature, batter type, and pan shape. Muffin batter can be considered as a high
viscosity batter, similar to cake batters utilized for traditional pound cakes. These kinds
of batters exhibit much less movement during baking compared to low viscosity batters,
which are used to produce high-ratio cakes. As the batter is heated, its viscosity
decreases during the initial stages of baking, as would be expected. However, the higher
temperature also triggers the leavening system and produces gas. As the bubbles increase
in size, the batter becomes a foam, which results in a higher apparent viscosity of the
system. As the temperature of the system increases, the starch gelatinizes, and much of
the free water becomes bound. This sets the baked product into a rigid system that does
not collapse as it cools. The top center of the muffin is the last to bake. If the muffin has
too little or too much water, a dip forms at the center, affecting the final height of the
product. Using the correct amount of water is important to produce a smooth contoured
crown which is desirable for a muffin-type of product (Hui 2007). Thus, water has an
important role in affecting how the product will rise and in turn, affect the textural
attributes of the product such as firmness.

3.3 Muffin Moisture Loss after Baking

Although there was no statistically significant difference (p>0.05) found in

percentage of moisture loss that occurred during baking, muffin samples showed a
general trend where formulations prepared with 100% sugar retained overall 2.5% more

54
moisture in the product after baking in contrast with muffins prepared with no sugar.
High and low -glucan preparations also showed no statistically significant difference
(p<0.05) in the amount of moisture loss occurring in the muffins. Although there was no
statistical difference found in the sample means, there was an evident effect of sugar
content on the moisture retention in the samples more prominently as a functional
property of sugar rather than the amount of -glucan present in the muffins. Higher glucan content was thought to result in moisture retention in the product, due to the
ability of -glucan to retain moisture and bind water in its structure. However, this trend
was not observed, as the moisture loss in both muffins prepared with the different barley
flours was very similar. It was found that -glucan concentration had no effect on the
moisture retention in this baked product, but it was reaffirmed that sugar plays an
important functional role in retaining moisture following the baking process.

Muffin Variation
High -glucan 100% Sugar

% Decrease Standard
in Weight
Error
10.07
1.84

High -glucan 0% Sugar

12.69

2.46

Low -glucan 100% Sugar

10.27

1.24

Low -glucan 0% Sugar

12.64

3.07

Table 8: Percentage Decrease in Muffin Weight (Moisture Loss) After Baking

55

% Decrease in Muffin Weight After Baking

16

% Weight Loss

14
12
10
8

high B-glucan

low B-glucan

4
2
0
100% Sugar

0% Sugar

Figure 11: Percentage Decrease in Muffin Weight (Moisture Loss) After Baking

3.4 Rheological Properties barley flour doughs and muffin batters

Barley dough rheology was studied using the lubricated squeezing flow technique
to observe the role of water and its interaction with low and high -glucan barley flours.
It was found that the viscosity of the high -glucan barley flour had a significantly higher
biaxial viscosity at the maximum strain rate compared to low -glucan barley flour
dough. This was expected due to the amount of -glucans present in the dough and their
ability to absorb water which has been shown to increase dough viscosity due to its
ability to bind and hold water into the -glucan structure. In several studies, it was found
that an increase in -glucan concentration added to a wheat dough demonstrated the
formation of a more resistant dough, increased mixing stability, and increased work input
which may lead to resistance in proofing and ultimately loaf height and volume

56
(Izydorczyk, Hussain et al. 2001; Skendi, Papageorgiou et al. 2009). Wheat dough has
been reported to show viscosities ranging from 104 to 105 Pa s, dependent greatly on the
water absorption values (Osorio, Gahona et al. 2003; HadiNezhad and Butler 2009).
The low -glucan dough showed a steady increase in viscosity as a function of
increasing strain rate, whereas the high -glucan barley flour dough demonstrated an
initial rapid rise in viscosity, and then leveled off to a constant viscosity as the strain rate
was increased. The rheological properties of the flours may be related to the trend
observed in the muffin heights, where the low -glucan muffins had an overall higher
percentage rise. This may have been due to the lower water absorption in the batter, thus
causing a lower viscosity batter, resulting in overall more water available during the
baking process. Viscosity has been explained to be the most important factor
contributing to overall volume of a baked product, where a higher viscosity batter results
in lower rise due to resistance to the ovens convective currents occurring during the
baking process (umnu and Sahin 2008). From these results, it is evident that the
concentration of -glucan in a dough or batter system has a great impact on the
rheological properties and will thus impact the way the model product behaves when it is
subjected to processing conditions such as batter mixing and baking.

57

Biaxial Visco sity (Pa s)

1.E+06

1.E+05
high b-glucan
low b-glucan

1.E+04
0.005

0.006

0.007

0.008

0.009

0.01

0.011

0.012

-1

Biaxial Strain Rate (s )

Figure 12: Biaxial Extensional Viscosity as a Function of Biaxial Strain Rate for
Sustagrain Dough and Bobs Red Mill Barley Flour Dough

The consistency of the muffin batter is an important parameter which influences

the overall quality of the baked product by controlling the final volume. Higher viscosity
of the batter helps incorporating and supporting air into the food matrix, thus resulting in
higher volume and crumb structure. Consistency of batters containing at different levels
of -glucan substitutions and sugar were compared. A non-Newtonian behavior was
noted for all batters, as consistency was determined to be dependent on shear rate. The
shear stress () and strain () data were fitted to the Power Law model ( = K []n) to
determine K (consistency index) and n (flow behavior index) values. The n and K values
of the different batter compositions with or without sugar are summarized below:

58

Strain (Pa)

10000

1000

LBG 100%
LBG 0%
HBG 100%
HBG 0%

100
1

10

-s

Shear Rate (1 )

100

1000

Figure 14: Strain vs. shear rate relationship of muffin batter with varying levels of betaglucan and sugar

Batter Variation

K (Pa sn)

LBG 100%

166.86a

LBG 0%

456.1b

HBG 100%

685.9c

HBG 0%

1367.5d

n
0.476a
0.3949b
0.383b
0.2935c

Table 10: Consistency index and flow behavior index for muffin batter with varying
amounts of beta-glucan and sugar

All batter formulations indicated a non-Newtonian behavior, or shear thinning, as

the n-value was < 1.0 (Rao 1999; Kalinga and Mishra 2009). In agreement with the
findings of (Kalinga and Mishra 2009), who added -glucan to a cake batter at levels up
to 40%, the flow behavior index and consistency significantly increased for batter

59
systems with increased levels of -glucan. In the same manner, muffin batter consistency
increased with increasing level of -glucans, reducing the ability of batter to flow as
indicated by higher K values. More so, the sugar also played a role where batters
prepared without sugar exhibited higher consistency, resulting in higher water uptake by
the -glucan structure in the barley flour in the absence of sugar from the batter resulting
in less air being incorporated into the batter. Practically, this means that during the
mixing of the batter, a higher shear rate may be required to ensure that the batter is
combined thoroughly to ensure that the barley flour is properly hydrated.
Batter viscosity is a function of several variables including materials (especially
their protein, starch, and polysaccharide contents), particle size, the amount of water
present (solids concentration), and temperature. Free water might play a critical role in
the viscosity value of higher -glucan barley flour batters because starch granules are not
soluble in cold water, where as -glucans are and readily absorb water. Generally a
higher viscosity is caused by lower water content (Xue and Ngadi 2006). Thus, the
higher beta-glucan barley flour batter absorbed more water than the lower beta-glucan
flour, binding more water into its molecular structure and exhibited a higher overall
viscosity compared to that of the low beta-glucan batters as expected.
All barley flour muffin batters exhibited strain-dependent G (storage modulus)
and G (loss modulus) behavior as those values are decreasing with increasing strain rate.
At shear rates where G is higher than G, this indicates that the storage modulus (G)
dominates, meaning that the material shows solid-like behavior and the deformations will
be essentially elastic or recoverable. However, if G is much greater than G, the energy
used to deform the material is dissipated viscously and the material's behavior is liquid-

60
like (Rao 1999). Likewise, when the loss modulus is higher at a given shear rate, the
material shows viscous-like behavior (Wyss, Larsen et al. 2007).
Overall, G and G values were higher for batters prepared with the high -glucan
barley flour. As seen in Figure 15 and Figure 16, batters prepared with low -glucan
barley flour with sugar and without sugar, as well as high beta-glucan batter with sugar
demonstrated a more solid-like behavior at strain rates below 15%. At strain rates higher
than 15%, G dominated, indicating that the batter properties were more liquid-like.
However, the high -glucan batter without sugar had a higher overall G at strain rates
below 25%, which may indicate that the higher -glucan content caused a more elastic
behavior at lower strain rates. At higher strain rates, G was greater than G thus the
batter demonstrated a more viscous flow behavior rather than elastic. This may be due to
the water-binding and gel-forming abilities of -glucan which are similar to gums in that
their viscoelastic properties are dependent on moisture content of the batter. In frequency
dependent sweep tests, increasing levels of -glucan added to wheat dough up to 40%
also resulted in higher G values when measured at a 0.1% strain rate through the
duration of the run (Kalinga and Mishra 2009). Similarly, in a study where -glucan was
added to wheat dough and measured for changes in G and G behavior over a strain rate
of 0.5%, it was found that both the G (elastic modulus) and G were increased
(Izydorczyk, Hussain et al. 2001).

61
10000.00

LBG 100%
LBG 0%

G' (Pa)

HBG 100%
HBG 0%
1000.00

100.00
0

20

40

% Strain (1-s)

60

80

100

Figure 15: Effect of % Strain on G of muffin batters containing varying amounts of betaglucan

10000

LBG 100%
LBG 0%

G" (Pa)

HBG 100%
HBG 0%
1000

100
0

10

20

30

40

50
60
% strain (1-s)

70

80

90

100

Figure 16: Effect of % Strain on G of muffin batters containing varying amounts of

beta-glucan

62
3.5 Pasting properties of barley flours

The swollen granules and partially solubilized starch act as essential structural
elements of bread and other baked products. Starches have a functional role in providing
the crumb structure as well as crust formation along with proteins, particularly the
glutens. Low and high -glucan barley flour slurries exhibited significantly different
pasting profiles due to the fact that the overall viscosity was significantly lower for the
low -glucan barley flour slurry compared to the high -glucan flour slurry. This may be
attributed to the amount of -glucan present in the barley flour itself, which has been
shown to cause an increase solution viscosity with a high correlation (Sharma, Gujral et
al. 2010). Non-starch polysaccharides such as -glucan have been explained to affect the
viscosity in the pasting profile. The peak time and pasting temperature were significantly
higher for the low -glucan paste compared to the high -glucan indicating that the lower
-glucan barley flour had an inhibitory effect on gelatinization of the starches by
delaying the onset. This may be due to the fact that the low -glucan barley flour itself
has a higher starch content. These results are consistent with the findings in a study
where 1 to 2% -glucan was added to dispersions of 40% wheat and maize starch and
showed that the addition of -glucan delayed the onset of gelatinization, but had no effect
on the pasting temperature (Symons and Brennan 2004).

63
Peak
Breakdown
Final
viscosity
viscosity
viscosity
(mPa s)
(mPa s)
(mPa s)

Setback
viscosity
(mPa s)

Peak
time
(min)

Pasting
temperature
(C)

Low -glucan

6.15a

3.60a

6.75a

3.15a

20.50a

94.20a

High -glucan

25.04b

15.15b

27.14b

11.99b

18.50b

89.95b

High -glucan
+ sugar

31.64c

12.45c

28.04b

15.59c

18.00b

91.48b

Table 9: Pasting profile for low and high -glucan barley flours
Change in letter within the column indicates a statistically significant difference within
the column
35.00

Low b-glucan
High b-glucan

Viscosity (mPa s)

30.00

90.00

HBG + Sugar

25.00

Temperature

80.00

20.00
70.00

15.00
10.00

60.00
5.00
0.00

50.00
0

10

15

20

25
Time (min)

30

35

40

45

Figure 13: Pasting profile for low and high -glucan barley flours

The rheological properties of starch dispersions are greatly influenced by the

amount of starch present in the barley flour and their ability to swell while being heated.
Starch granules swell rapidly during the first stage of swelling when the water diffuses
into the center of the granules. At this point in the heating stage, the degree of leaching
of amylose out of the granules is low. As the starch granules continue to heat, it starts to

64
deform and lose its original shape. Different granule structures in the starch greatly
influences the pasting profile. For example, if starch granules tend to hydrate with ease,
swell rapidly, and rupture to a great extent, the starch paste will lose viscosity relatively
easily during the cooling phase of the pasting curve. It was seen that the addition of
sugar in the high -glucan barley flour resulted in rapid increase in viscosity during the
heating phase and also a more rapid loss in viscosity during the constant temperature
phase of the pasting curve compared to the low and high -glucan barley flour slurries.

3.6 Color values for Barley Flour Varieties

The colors of the two barley flours showed significant color differences in the
instrumental values obtained with a colorimeter, consistent with their visual appearance.
The L* value was significantly higher (p<0.05) for the low -glucan Bobs Red Mill
brand barley flour, indicating that it is visually lighter in color. Similarly, the b* value
for the Sustagrain high -glucan barley flour was significantly higher (p<0.05), indicating
a more yellow color. The a* values for both flours indicated that there was no statistical
difference in the redness values. The difference in flour colors was predicted to affect the
surface and interior colors of the baked muffin product and may be caused by the use of a
different barley strain or milling process.

65

Standard
Error

Standard

Error

Standard

Error

Low -glucan

91.02

0.63

1.13

0.19

10.31

0.60

High -glucan

88.3a

0.24

1.43

0.06

16.26a

0.17

Table 11: Average L a*b* Values for low -glucan and high -glucan Barley Flour
Varieties
A change in letter within the columns indicates a statistically significant difference
(p<0.05)

100
90

Low b-glucan
Bob's Red Mill

80
70

High b-glucan
Sustagrain

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
L

Figure 17: Average L a*b* Values for low -glucan and high -glucan Barley Flour
Varieties

66

Figure 18: Visual Difference in Flour Color. Left: Bobs Red Mill low -glucan Barley
Flour. Right: Sustagrain high -glucan Barley Flour

3.7 Muffin Surface Color

Muffin surface colors were evaluated visually and with a colorimeter to determine
changes occurring due to the removal of sugar from the formulation and also as an effect
of flaxseed meal addition. The effect on color from using low and high -glucan flours
in the muffins was also compared. It was predicted that when sugar was removed from
the formulation, there will be difference in the color values as a function of the Maillard
browning and caramelization reactions occurring during the processing.
It was found that the L, a*, and b* values were significantly different for muffins
prepared with low -glucan 100% sugar muffins compared to the 0% sugar. The L value
(lightness) was significantly lower (p < 0.05) for the muffins prepared with 100% sugar,
compared to the 0% sugar as well as the 0% with flaxseed meal. There was no

67
significant difference found in the a* and b* values between the 100% sugar and 0% with
flaxseed muffins.
The difference in surface colors may be explained by sugars role in the
caramelization and browning reactions. When sugar was omitted from the formulation,
the muffins had significantly higher L values, indicating that they are lighter in surface
color. Although flaxseed itself has a darker appearance and was thought to contribute to
the darker surface color, the muffins prepared with 100% sugar indicated a darker color.
45
40
35
30
L

25

a*

20

b*

15
10
5
0
100% sugar

0% sugar

0% w/ flaxseed

Figure 19: Surface color values for muffins prepared with low -glucan Bobs Red Mill
brand barley flour

68

Figure 20: Muffins prepared with low -glucan Barley Flour. Left: 100% Sugar, Middle:
0% Sugar, Right: 0% Sugar + Flaxseed Meal

Muffins prepared with high -glucan barley flour showed a significant difference
(p<0.05) in the a* surface color value, or redness component, where the 0% sugar
muffins showed a higher value compared to that of the 100% sugar. There was also a
significant difference when comparing the L value for the 100% sugar with the 0% sugar
with flaxseed meal, where the muffin surface for the 100% sugar had a significantly
lower L* value, indicating a darker surface color. This may have been caused by the
additional caramelization browning reaction occurring due to the presence of sugar.
Although there was no significant difference in the a* (redness) value between the 100%
sugar muffin compared to the 0% sugar, there was a significant difference in the a* value
for the muffin with 0% sugar + flaxseed meal, which had a higher a* value. This may be
attributed to the flaxseed meal contributing to the redness of the surface color. The b*
value, or the yellowness component, did not indicate any difference among the variations.

69

45
40
35
30
L

25

20

15
10
5
0
100% sugar

0% sugar

0% w/ flaxseed

Figure 21: Surface color values for muffins prepared with high -glucan barley flour

Figure 22: Muffins prepared with high -glucan Barley Flour. Left: 100% Sugar, Middle:
0% Sugar, Right: 0% Sugar + Flaxseed Meal

70
Muffin surface color values prepared with 100% sugar using the different low and
high -glucan barley flours were significantly different in their L, a*, and b* values
(p<0.05). High -glucan barley muffins had higher L and b* values, whereas the low glucan muffins had higher a* value for surface colors. This may be due to the difference
in original barley flour colors between the two brands. However, the surface colors for
no sugar varieties only showed a significant difference in the L value, where the low glucan barley flour had a higher lightness value compared with the muffin surface
prepared with high -glucan barley flour.

Low -glucan
100% Sugar
High -glucan
100% Sugar

Standard
Error

a*

Standard
Error

b*

Standard
Error

27.72a

1.38

14.89a

0.97

38.91a

1.72

37.70

1.09

13.30

0.12

40.41

0.93

Table 12: Average L, a*, b* color values for surface color of muffins prepared with low
or high -glucan barley flour with 100% sugar
Change in letter indicates significance at (p < 0.05) within the columns.

Low -glucan 0%
Sugar
High -glucan 0%
Sugar

Standard
Error

a*

Standard
Error

b*

Standard
Error

40.77

0.76

10.89a

0.97

33.66a

0.89

38.36

1.40

13.93

0.16

40.68

0.68

Table 13: Average L, a*, b* color values for surface color of muffins prepared with low
or high -glucan barley flour with 0% sugar
Change in letter indicates significance at (p < 0.05) within the columns.

71
Comparison of the low -glucan and high -glucan muffins with 0% sugar
indicated that there was a significant difference in the a* and b* values of the surface
color of the muffins, where the high -glucan muffins prepared with Sustagrain barley
flour had higher a* and b* color values. This color difference may be due to the variation
in original barley flour colors between the two brands. Similarly, differences were seen
in the 100% sugar muffins as well.
Crust color formation is an important factor contributing to appearance as well as
flavor, aroma, and taste. The main component responsible for this critical reaction is
sucrose, which undergoes caramelization through a series of dehydration and
polymerization or condensation reactions. Another reaction that is also responsible for
crust color formation is the Maillard reaction, which occurs due to a reaction between the
aldehyde or ketone group in reducing sugars and the amino acids present in proteins from
the eggs and flour. During the baking process, as temperatures reach and exceed 100C,
the water activity is lowered, which makes ideal conditions for these browning reactions
to occur (Hui 2006).

3.8 Muffin Interior Color

Muffins prepared with low -glucan Bobs Red Mill brand barley flour showed
no statistically significant difference (p>0.05) in the interior crumb color L, a*, or b*
values between the 100% sugar and the 0% sugar formulations. However, there was a
significant difference (p<0.05) when comparing the 100% sugar control to the muffin
prepared with flaxseed meal, where the a* and b* values were lower in the flaxseed

72
formulation. Although not significant, there was a trend where the muffins prepared
without sugar had a higher interior L or lightness value. This may be due to the lack of
browning reactions taking place caused by the removal of sugar from the product and is
consistent with the outer surface lightness values for the low -glucan muffins.
As seen in Figure 22, muffins prepared with high -glucan barley flour with 0%
sugar and the addition of flaxseed meal showed a significantly lower L value and higher
a* and b* values compared to the 100% sugar control, possibly due to the darker color of
the flaxseed meal itself, resulting in a darker crumb color.

50
45

40

35

30
25
20
15
10
5
0
100% sugar

0% sugar

0% + flaxseed

Figure 23: Interior color values for muffins prepared with low -glucan barley flour

73

Figure 24: Interior Surface Images of Muffins Prepared with low -glucan barley Flour.
Left: 100% Sugar, Middle: 0% Sugar (Stevia), Right: 0% Sugar + Flaxseed Meal

60

a
50

40
30
20
10
0
100% sugar

0% sugar

0% w/ flaxseed

Figure 25: Interior color values for muffins prepared with high -glucan barley flour

Standard
Error

a*

Standard
Error

b*

Standard
Error

Low -glucan
29.00a
2.65
16.53
1.34
40.55
0.56
100%
High -glucan
46.46
1.75
10.23
0.57
34.58
1.68
100%
Table 14: The average L, a*, b* color values for interior color of muffins prepared with
low or high -glucan barley flour with 100% sugar

74

Low -glucan
0% Sugar
High -glucan
0% Sugar

Standard
Error

a*

Standard
Error

b*

Standard
Error

34.13

4.17

16.46

2.26

37.96

2.24

41.44

0.45

11.49

0.57

33.96

1.29

Table 15: The average L, a*, b* color values for interior color of muffins prepared with
low or high -glucan barley flour with 0% sugar

Figure 26: Interior Surface Images of Muffins Prepared with high -glucan barley flour.
Left: 100% Sugar, Middle: 0% Sugar (Stevia), Right: 0% Sugar + Flaxseed Meal

3.9 Muffin Firmness

Muffins showed a general trend where firmness was found to be higher for
formulations prepared without sugar, as predicted. Firmness values ranged from 6401120 g peak force, which are comparable values found in literature for high-fiber
muffins (Grigelmo-Miguel, Carreras-Boladeras et al. 1999) and (Baixauli, Sanz et al.
2008). There was a significant difference (p<0.05) in peak force, or firmness, between
the high -glucan muffins prepared with 100% sugar when compared to that with 0%

75
sugar (stevia) and 0% sugar with flaxseed meal. This indicates that there is a significant
textural difference when sugar is omitted from the formulation, resulting in higher muffin
firmness. However, there was no difference in muffins among the muffins prepared with
varying -glucan levels even though it was predicted that the higher -glucan barley flour
would result in greater firmness due to the increased water absorption and more viscous
batter. This indicates that there is a greater effect of sugars role in a baked product
rather than the functionality of -glucan resulting in higher firmness.
An important observation was that the muffin formulated using high -glucan
barley flour with 100% sugar and 0% sugar + flaxseed meal were also significantly
different in firmness values similar to the low -glucan barley flour muffins where the
0% sugar + flaxseed meal muffins showed a higher peak force, or firmness, compared to
the 100% sugar variety. Flaxseed has been shown to result in a higher water absorption,
thus increasing firmness due to a significant increase in batter viscosity when flaxseed
meal was added at 5% of the batter formulation (Shearer and Davies 2005). The
similarity in firmness between the 0% sugar muffin and the muffin prepared with
flaxseed meal may be explained by the fact that the addition of flaxseed meal provided
the necessary bulk in the product when sugar was omitted from the formulation.
Structurally, the addition of the flaxseed meal may result in similar muffin volume and
cell structure of the full-sugar variety. In fact, flaxseed mucilage in bread has been
shown to cause a softening effect, and the rate of firming was reduced compared with a
control bread (Shearer and Davies 2005).

76

1100
900
Force (g)

700
100% Sugar HBG

500

0% Sugar HBG

300
100
-100 0

1.5

3 Time (s)4.5

Figure 27: Typical texture profile curve for high -glucan muffins prepared with 100%
sugar and 0% sugar
Peak Force (g) Standard Error
Low -glucan 100% sugar

825.30a

45.79

Low -glucan 0% sugar

920.87a

97.75

Low -glucan 0% sugar + flaxseed meal

1125.20a

107.08

High -glucan 100% sugar

643.80a

26.07

High -glucan 0% sugar

1004.97abc

41.24

High -glucan 0% sugar + flaxseed meal

1008.90abc

6.52

Table 16: Average maximum peak force to compress muffins as a measure of firmness

77

1200

Peak F o rce (g )

1000
800
600
400
200
0
low b-glucan
100%

Low b-glucan
0%

low b-glucan
0% flax

high b-glucan high b-glucan high b-glucan

100%
0%
0% flax

Muffin Variation

Figure 28: The average maximum peak force to compress muffins as a measure of
firmness
The functional role of sugar was found to be very important for the textural
attributes of the muffins. Sugar affects the texture by causing the grain and crumb
structure to become smoother, softer, and whiter. This is attributed to the action of sugars
in delaying the gelatinization of starch and the denaturation of protein. Sugar is also
responsible for a tenderizing effect in a baked product (Pyler 1973).

3.10 Nutrition Facts for Muffin Formulations

An important nutritional difference was seen in the calorie content and

carbohydrate levels when sugar was omitted from the formulation. A 33% and 35%
reduction in carbohydrates was seen when stevia was used as a sweetener in the low glucan muffins and high -glucan muffins, respectively. A 19% and 18% reduction in
calories was seen when stevia was used as a sweetener in the low -glucan muffins and

78
high -glucan muffins, respectively. Furthermore, the high -glucan muffins provide
nearly 6 grams of fiber, which can be considered as 20% of the daily recommended value
of fiber intake (based on an average 30 grams) (Sibylle, Diane et al. 2005). The variation
in the fat content of the muffins was due to the type of barley flour used, where high glucan Sustagrain barley flour contained more fat in the raw material as well as the
addition of flaxseed meal into the muffin formulation.

Serving Size: 4 mini

muffins
Calories (kcal)

100% 0%
100% 0%
0% Sugar 0% Sugar
Sugar Sugar Sugar Sugar LBG +
HBG +
LBG
LBG
HBG
HBG Flax
Flax
172
139
182
149
151
160

Calories from Fat (g)

59

59

69

69

66

76

Total Fat (g)

6.6

6.6

7.7

7.7

7.3

8.4

Saturated Fat (g)

1.3

1.3

1.3

Cholesterol (mg)

32

32

32

32

32

32

Sodium (mg)

169

169

169

169

169

169

Total Carbohydrates (g)

25.5

17.2

23.9

15.6

17.9

16.3

Dietary Fiber (g)

3.2

3.2

5.7

5.7

3.9

6.4

Protein (g)

2.8

2.8

4.3

4.3

3.3

4.8

Table 17: Nutrition Facts for Muffin Formulations (LBG = low -glucan, HBG = high glucan)
Each serving of the above formulations prepared with flaxseed meal provides 400
mg of omega-3 fats, calculated based on the Bobs Red Mill brand flaxseed meal
nutrition facts of 2400 mg per 2 Tbsp serving. This amount of omega-3 fatty acids is a
significant contribution to the daily intake.

79
3.11 High -glucan Muffin Sensory Quantitative Descriptive Analysis

The objective of a sensory descriptive analysis panel was to determine the key
differences in products when the functional ingredient sugar is removed from the product
formulation as well as to look at the key attributes of a baked product using barley flour.
Many studies have been previously reported with baked products prepared with a certain
percentage of a high-fiber flour or fruit dietary fiber component added into the
formulation. However, there have been limited applications where only a high-fiber
containing flour was used exclusively in the formulation. This presents many challenges
from a technical aspect such as determining processing parameters as well as from a
sensory point of view, where the high fiber components adversely affect the product
texture in terms of springiness, firmness, as well as color resulting in diminished sensory
appeal (Alpers and Sawyer-Morse 1996; Grigelmo-Miguel, Carreras-Boladeras et al.
1999; Baixauli, Salvador et al. 2008; Baixauli, Sanz et al. 2008). It is important that
when sugar is removed from a conventional product, that there is a significant health
benefit while maintaining the integrity and quality of a conventional product. As
mentioned, a significant nutritional difference was seen in the carbohydrate content of the
muffins when sugar was omitted from the formulation. However, there is also a concern
of product acceptability. If the product will be rejected by the consumer due to negative
attributes resulting from the removal of a functional ingredient, there would be no benefit
from the product. The sensory panel helps to serve as a tool to monitor some of the
changes that can be detected during consumption as a result of change in product

80
formulation. It is a key tool that may be used in product optimization as the sensory
profile of a product is the most important factor governing consumption.
Muffins prepared with high -glucan barley flour containing 100% sugar and 0%
sugar, sweetened with stevia, were evaluated with an eight member descriptive panel for
chosen attributes to compare the effect of the removal of sugar from the formulation. It
was found that the panel rated the surface roughness, firmness, and bitterness attributes as
significantly higher for the muffins sweetened with stevia. These results are in agreement
with the instrumental findings for the muffin firmness values as well as visual surface
roughness caused by the formation of tunnels and cracks in the no sugar muffins. Tunnel
formation in muffins is explained by the buildup of gases inside the crumb structure of
the muffin. Because barley flour may be considered as hard flour due to its higher fiber
content, steam becomes trapped inside the matrix during the baking process. When
enough pressure builds up, the gas escapes from the top, leaving a path from which it
escaped, known as a tunnel, which is an undesirable attribute in a muffin. Since sugar
has the capability of retaining moisture by binding water and acting as a humectant, when
it is removed from the muffin formulations, there is also unbound water present, which
may lead to previously described tunnel formation or cracks on the tops of the muffins
(Figoni 2010). Stevia has been described to have a lingering bitterness and licorice
aftertaste (Elkins 1997). This is consistent with the findings of this sensory panel, where
panelists indicated a significantly increased bitterness attribute intensity of the muffins
prepared with stevia in the formulation.

81
Surface Rougness
10.00
8.00

Banana Aroma

100% Sugar
0% Sugar

Color Intensity

6.00
4.00
2.00
0.00

Whole-Grain

Springiness

Bitterness

Firmness

Sweetness

Figure 29: The mean values of attributes measured by the QDA panel for muffins
prepared with high -glucan barley flour with 100% sugar and 0% sugar, sweetened with
stevia

Attribute

100% Sugar

Standard Error

Stevia

Standard Error

Surface Rougness

4.68

1.65

9.26

3.27

Color Intensity

8.91

3.15

8.75

3.09

Springiness

7.86

2.78

8.39

2.97

Firmness

5.89

2.08

8.10

2.86

Sweetness

4.63

1.64

3.31

1.17

Bitterness

1.21

0.43

6.64

2.35

Whole-Grain

5.88

2.08

7.81

2.76

Banana Aroma

7.70

2.72

4.39

1.55

Table 18: The mean values of each attribute measured by the QDA panel for muffins
prepared with Sustagrain flour with 100% sugar and 0% sugar, sweetened with stevia

82
Another important observation from the results of the descriptive panel findings
was that some of the flavor and aroma attributes were found to be different in the muffins
prepared with stevia. The only variation in the formulation was the removal of sugar and
the other ingredients were kept constant. So, although no statistical significant difference
was found for the sweetness, whole-grain, or banana aroma attributes, it is important to
note that these attributes were rated lower for muffins prepared with stevia. Panelists
indicated in their comments that the lingering taste of stevia may have caused a masking
effect of the banana aroma in the product. Similarly, the whole-grain complex flavor
may have been accentuated by the bitterness of the stevia, leading to a higher score for
the muffins prepared with stevia. Also, the color intensity and springiness attributes were
found to be rated very similarly for both muffin varieties. This may be an important
factor to consider because although there may be instrumental differences in surface and
interior crumb color, there is an undetectable difference in the visual sensory perception
of the two variations.
Bitterness may be considered as a negative aspect of product and may lead to
rejection of the food and prevent consumption. Thus, additional processing and
formulation changes would be necessary to mask the bitterness of stevia. There are
several ways to overcome this obstacle. One way would be to do a blend of sugar and
stevia to find a balance between the functional properties of sugar and the health benefits
associated with using stevia. This would also be helpful in preventing the delayed onset
of sweetness caused by the use of stevia, while maintaining sweetness levels.
Additionally, by using lower stevia-extract levels, the product has significantly less
bitterness and licorice off-notes coming from the stevia (Horn 2010). Few panelists also

83
noted that the bitterness caused by stevia masked the banana flavor in the muffin. This
was seen as a trend in the muffins prepared with stevia where the banana aroma rating
was lower, although not significant.
There are two approaches to improving the overall sweetness taste functionality
of stevia. The first is by modifying the structural components of the stevioside
compounds that are responsible for imparting a sweet taste perception and using a pure
extract with a maximum Rebaudioside A content, which has been reported to have a
clean and minimal bitter aftertaste. Generally, the quality and magnitude of sweetness
reaches a maximum with three to four monosaccharide units at the C-13 position of
steviol and one to two monosaccharide units at the C-19 position (Kinghorn 2002).

Figure 30: Sweet steviol glycosides from leaves of Stevia rebaudiana.(Kinghorn 2002)

Another approach to mask the bitterness characteristics of stevia is by using

specific novel bitterness blockers in the formulation, which are currently manufactured
by flavor companies, fragrance houses, and ingredient companies. These types of

84
compounds work by blocking the specific bitterness receptors on the tongue where the
bitterness flavor sensation is perceived. By using a combination of aroma chemicals,
plant extracts, bitter blockers, and mouthfeel enhancers, food products with stevia
extracts can have a sweetness profile that is more similar to that of sugar. Besides
improving the sweetness profile, these ingredients can be used to enable the use of less
expensive stevia extracts without compromising the taste. In fact, companies specializing
in extraction technologies offer bitter blockers that have the consumer-friendly label of
natural flavors.
One such compound is called thaumatin, which is a sweet protein derived from
the African serendipity berry, Thaumatococcus daniellii and it has been successful for
use in products at low concentrations to mask the bitterness caused by stevia (Suami,
Hough et al. 1997). This natural label helps maintain the healthful consumer perception
of the product. The mechanism by which these ingredients function is by binding to the
bitter taste receptors on the taste buds, thereby decreasing the perceived bitterness of the
lower stevia extracts (Horn 2010) and (Tallon 2009). In fact a 0.2% thaumatin solution
has been shown to result in approximately a 40% decrease in bitter response of stevia.
However, this study has been done only using a solution rather than actual products.
Also, to date, there has been limited scientific research on the chemical components of
such novel bitterness blockers. Much of the research has been patented by flavor and
ingredient companies as proprietary products that are used mainly for beverage
applications. Further in-depth analysis is required to study the mode of action of such
bitterness blockers or masking agents in baked products.

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3.13 Conclusions and Suggestions for Future Work

Relating back to the project objectives, several key observations were seen as the
beta-glucan and sugar levels varied. First were the significantly different viscosity, flow
behaviors, and pasting profiles of the barley flours as well as the affect of sugar in these
processes. One of the key components affecting these properties was water, which
resulted in a higher viscosity for the high -glucan barley flour batters. In this case,
processing parameters such as mixing speed and time may need to be adjusted to ensure
that the batter is properly mixed, allowing for the flour to be well-hydrated. Second was
the impact of sugar and how it affected the product texture when it was removed from the
formulation. There were significant changes seen in texture, muffin rise, as well as
differences in some of the color characteristics. More importantly, these changes were
more prominent as a result of sugar removal from the system rather than as an influence
of the -glucan content as predicted.
It is also important to note that some of the key sensory attributes selected in this
study may be comparable to the instrumental findings. For example, the muffin firmness
was rated similarly by the descriptive panel with the same observation seen in the
instrumental texture profile where muffins prepared without sugar had a significantly
higher firmness. However, the color was rated very similarly by the panelists for both the
varying sugar levels. This may be an indicator that although there may be some
statistically significant differences found instrumentally, it may not be detected by human
perception. Future work may include correlating some of the instrumental measurements
with sensory attributes as rated by a trained panel.

86
Water uptake by the high -glucan barley flour was also found to be much higher,
which affected the rheological properties, and in turn the product texture and height. This
provides an area for further study, where the water level may need to be optimized to
obtain a product that has a similar texture to a conventional baked product. Also, there is
an opportunity for improving and overcoming some of the challenges caused by using
stevia in a baked formulation. The use of bitterness blockers and sweetness enhancers
has been very limited in baked products and may prove to be helpful in reducing some
the negative attributes.

87
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