Wildlife Lab Environmental Issues 4300-001

Wildlife Lab:
Prothonotary Warbler
Kelsie Grover
Nick Rivera
Mike Scala
Stockton University

Introduction

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There is no mistaking the brilliant yellow-orange

colors of the prothonotary

warbler, a beautiful song bird inhabiting the eastern

wooded swamps. In order to

make sure song birds like the prothonotary warbler do not disappear,

we must make conservation

efforts a priority. This species requires specific habitat to

successfully breed and

reproduce. Wetlands are the preferred habitat for this cavity nesting

passerine. Fortunately,

Stockton University is a perfect candidate

for providing habitat

for this vibrant songbird because of its

abundance of wetlands.

Stockton has a unique ecosystem which

consists of lowlands,

highlands, and wetlands. To better

understand the

prothonotary warbler we must understand key

factors such as distribution, habitat, behavior,
current conservation efforts, and factors

Prothonotary warbler. Image taken by Nicholas Rivera

that cause population decline.

Distribution
Prothonotary Warbler Range Map

The prothonotary warblers breeding range spans

from the eastern coastal plains of southern
New Jersey to central Florida, and west to
east central Texas (Dunn, J. and K. Garrett.
1997). After the breeding season, it winters in
neo-tropical climates such as Veracruz,
Mexico, and south of Honduras. (Howell and
Webb 1995). Refer to Figure 1 for the
distribution of the prothonotary warbler
throughout North America. According to
eBird, there were only 14 prothonotary
warbler sightings in Atlantic County New
Jersey in 2015. In the same year, there were

Figure 1: Distribution of the Prothonotary Warbler

Source: Dunn and Garrett 1997

440 prothonotary warbler sightings across

all of New Jersey.

Habitat
As previously mentioned, prothonotary warbler habitat must contain the presence of water with
cavity nesting sites. Suitable nest sites will be near standing or slow moving water and can be located in

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hardwood forests, bald cypress
swamps, and include large rivers
and lakes (Walkinshaw 1953, Blem
and Blem 1991). Other nesting
factors include low elevation, flat
terrain, and shaded understory with
tree species such as willows,
maples, sweetgum, ashes, elms,
birches, black gum, and other
wetland flora (Robbins, C. S., D.
K. Dawson, and B. A. Dowell.
1989). All of the criteria mentioned
are present on Stocktons campus
making it a desirable location for a
nest box. Suitable wetland habitat
on Stocktons campus is
highlighted in Figure 2. Not only
do wetlands provide a source of
water, but they also provide shaded
understories.

Figure 2: Potential Nesting Habitat

Figure 2: Potential Nesting Habitat
Behavior
Males arrive at the nest site before females, find several suitable nest locations and then place
moss inside cavities to attract females (Petit, 1991). They are aggressive toward other species during
breeding, but will join flocks of other species during late summer (Warkentin and Morton 1995).
Interestingly, females are also territorial toward other females (Brewster, W. 1878). Males and females
tolerate foraging within 50 cm of one another with little or no aggression. (Kowalski, M. P. 1985). The
prothonotary warbler normally feeds on butterflies, moths, flies, beetles and spiders that fall within a
seven meter height range (Petit, 1990).

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Decline

The prothonotary warbler is considered to be of least concern on the red list of threatened species,
however, it is now on the bird watch list of 2014 because of its decreasing in numbers over the past
several years (Birdlife International, 2012).
Human impact seems to be the main reason
for population decline. Wetland forests
have been logged and converted for
agriculture. According to a study by
Dickson, only 10% of original wetland
forests in the lower 48 states remain
(Dickson et al. 1995). This is a huge
concern for the prothonotary warbler
Forested Wetland
Source:
https://coosa.wordpress.com/page/8/

because it requires such specific breeding

habitat. Even if the habitat is available,
lack of nesting cavities will reduce its numbers. Not only are their
breeding grounds in danger but their wintering grounds are also at high
risk. The prothonotary warbler winters in southern mangrove forests,
areas which have been rapidly degraded. Up to 50-70% of mangroves in

the neo-tropics have been destroyed for human development (Terborgh, 1989).

Nest Box Protocol

The Cornell Lab of Ornithology suggests that nest boxes for this species should be made out of
pine. Given the fact that this species prefers wet habitat, the nest box was built with rot-resistant cedar to
ensure structural longevity. The nest box should be placed on land, between 4-12 feet high, and must be
facing towards water which should be located within 16 feet of the box. The house could also be placed
directly in standing or slow moving water, 3-5 feet above the high water line, and facing land. Although
placement in water deters predators, predator guards should still be installed regardless of location. Refer
to Figure 3 for the proposed nest box location on Stockton Universitys campus. Also refer to the attached

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Appendix A for blue prints of
the constructed nest box. After
placement of the nest box, in
the proposed location, the nest
box should be monitored. The
prothonotary warblers first
brood occurs early to midMay. Its second brood occurs
from late June to early July. If
occupied, the nest box should
be monitored on a weekly
basis after each brood. This
will help determine nest
productivity and success. Also,
eggs should be monitored for
parasitism by brown-headed
cow birds. This species is
prone to laying eggs in other
species nests, essentially
causing the nesting species to
raise the brown-headed
cowbird chick themselves
(Petit, 1999). The nest should
also be monitored for takeover

Figure 3: Prothonotary Warbler Nest Box

by house wrens and house

sparrows.
Conclusion
This migratory species needs a suitable habitat so that it can reproduce and positively increase its
population. Understanding the prothonotary warbler ecology and constructing a nest box for the species is
a productive way in maintaining the biodiversity of Stocktons campus. The nest box can help with long
term conservation for the prothonotary warbler and encourage its summer migratory path through
southern New Jersey. Continuing this study in the future will help increase this species' population and
help it to thrive in Stocktons environment.

Wildlife Lab Environmental Issues 4300-001

References
Blem, C. R. and L. B. Blem. (1991). Nest-box selection by Prothonotary Warblers. J. Field Ornithol.
62:299-307.
BirdLife International. 2012. Protonotaria citrea. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2012.
Brewster, W. (1878). The Prothonotary Warbler (Protonotaria citrea). Bull. Nuttall Ornithol. Club

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3:153-163.

Dickson, J. G., F. R. Thompson III, R. N. Conner, and K. E. Franzreb. (1995). Silviculture in central and
southeastern oak-pine forests. Pages 245-266 in Ecology and management of Neotropical
migratory birds: A synthesis and review of critical issues. Oxford Univ. Press, New York.
Dunn, J. and K. Garrett. (1997). A field guide to warblers of North America.Houghton Mifflin, New York.
Howell, S. N. G. and S. Webb. (1995). A guide to the birds of Mexico and northern Central America.
Oxford Univ. Press, New York.
Kowalski, M. P. (1985). Territorial behavior in the Prothonotary Warbler, Protonotaria citrea, betweenand within-season territory relocations. Proc. Indiana Acad. Sci. 594:598-599.
Petit, L. J. (1991). Experimentally-induced polygyny in a monogamous bird species: Prothonotary
Warblers and the polygyny threshold. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 29:177-187.
Petit, Lisa J. (1999). Prothonotary Warbler (Protonotaria citrea), The Birds of North America Online (A.
Poole, Ed.). Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornithology; Retrieved from the Birds of North America.
Petit, L. J., D. R. Petit, K. E. Petit, and W. J. Fleming. (1990). Intersexual and temporal variation in
foraging ecology of Prothonotary Warblers during the breeding season. Auk 107:133-145.
Robbins, C. S., D. K. Dawson, and B. A. Dowell. (1989). Habitat area requirements of breeding forest
birds of the Middle Atlantic States. Wildl. Monogr. 103.
Terborgh, J. (1989). Where have all the birds gone? Princeton Univ. Press, Princeton, NJ.
Walkinshaw, L. H. (1953). Life-history of the Prothonotary Warbler. Wilson Bull. 65:152-168.
Warkentin, I. G. and E. S. Morton. (1995). Roosting behavior of Prothonotary Warblers in the nonbreeding season. Wilson Bull. 107:374-376.

Wildlife Lab Environmental Issues 4300-001

Appendix A

Wildlife Lab Environmental Issues 4300-001