C H A P T E R

2
Factors: How Time and
Interest Affect Money
In the previous chapter we learned the basic concepts of engineering
economy and their role in decision making. The cash flow is fundamental
to every economic study. Cash flows occur in many configurations and
amountsisolated single values, series that are uniform, and series that
increase or decrease by constant amounts or constant percentages. This
chapter develops derivations for all the commonly used engineering economy factors that take the time value of money into account.
The application of factors is illustrated using their mathematical forms and
a standard notation format. Spreadsheet functions are introduced in order
to rapidly work with cash flow series and to perform sensitivity analysis.
The case study focuses on the significant impacts that compound interest
and time make on the value and amount of money.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Purpose: Derive and use the engineering economy factors to account for the time value
of money.
This chapter will help you:
FP and PF factors

1.

Derive and use the compound amount factor and present

worth factor for single payments.

PA and AP factors

2.

Derive and use the uniform series present worth and capital
recovery factors.

FA and AF factors

3.

Derive and use the uniform series compound amount and

sinking fund factors.

Interpolate factor values

4.

Linearly interpolate to determine a factor value.

PG and AG factors

5.

Derive and use the arithmetic gradient present worth and

uniform series factors.

Geometric gradient

6.

Derive and use the geometric gradient series formulas.

Calculate i

7.

Determine the interest rate (rate of return) for a sequence of

cash flows.

Calculate n

8.

Determine the number of years required for equivalence in

a cash flow series.

Spreadsheets

9.

Develop a spreadsheet to perform basic sensitivity analysis

using spreadsheet functions.

48

CHAPTER 2

Factors: How Time and Interest Affect Money

2.1

SINGLE-PAYMENT FACTORS (F/P AND P/F )

The most fundamental factor in engineering economy is the one that determines
the amount of money F accumulated after n years (or periods) from a single
present worth P, with interest compounded one time per year (or period). Recall
that compound interest refers to interest paid on top of interest. Therefore, if an
amount P is invested at time t  0, the amount F1 accumulated 1 year hence at
an interest rate of i percent per year will be
F1  P  Pi
 P(1  i)
where the interest rate is expressed in decimal form. At the end of the second
year, the amount accumulated F2 is the amount after year 1 plus the interest from
the end of year 1 to the end of year 2 on the entire F1.
F2  F1  F1i
 P(1  i )  P(1  i )i

[2.1]

This is the logic used in Chapter 1 for compound interest, specifically in

Examples 1.8 and 1.18. The amount F2 can be expressed as
F2  P(1  i  i  i 2 )
 P(1  2i  i 2 )
 P(1  i)2
Similarly, the amount of money accumulated at the end of year 3, using
Equation [2.1], will be
F3  F2  F2i
Substituting P(1  i)2 for F2 and simplifying, we get
F3  P(1  i)3
From the preceding values, it is evident by mathematical induction that the
formula can be generalized for n years to
F  P(1  i ) n

[2.2]

The factor (1i) is called the single-payment compound amount factor (SPCAF),
but it is usually referred to as the FP factor. This is the conversion factor that,
when multiplied by P, yields the future amount F of an initial amount P after n
years at interest rate i. The cash flow diagram is seen in Figure 21a.
Reverse the situation to determine the P value for a stated amount F that
occurs n periods in the future. Simply solve Equation [2.2] for P.
1
PF
n
(1  i )

[2.3]

SECTION 2.1

49

Single-Payment Factors (FP and PF)

P=?

P = given

i = given

i = given

n2

n1

n2

F = given

F=?
(a)

n1

(b)

Figure 21
Cash flow diagrams for single-payment factors: (a) find F and (b) find P.

The expression in brackets is known as the single-payment present worth factor

(SPPWF), or the PF factor. This expression determines the present worth P of
a given future amount F after n years at interest rate i. The cash flow diagram is
shown in Figure 21b.
Note that the two factors derived here are for single payments; that is, they
are used to find the present or future amount when only one payment or receipt
is involved.
A standard notation has been adopted for all factors. The notation includes
two cash flow symbols, the interest rate, and the number of periods. It is always
in the general form (XY,i,n). The letter X represents what is sought, while the
letter Y represents what is given. For example, FP means find F when given
P. The i is the interest rate in percent, and n represents the number of periods
involved. Thus, (FP,6%,20) represents the factor that is used to calculate the
future amount F accumulated in 20 periods if the interest rate is 6% per period.
The P is given. The standard notation, simpler to use than formulas and factor
names, will be used hereafter.
Table 21 summarizes the standard notation and equations for the FP and
PF factors. This information is also included inside the front cover.
To simplify routine engineering economy calculations, tables of factor values
have been prepared for interest rates from 0.25 to 50% and time periods from 1
to large n values, depending on the i value. These tables, found at the rear of the
T ABLE

21

FP and PF Factors: Notation and Equations

Factor

Notation
Name
(FP,i,n) Single-payment
compound amount
(PF,i,n) Single-payment
present worth

Find/Given
FP
PF

Standard Notation
Equation
Equation
with Factor Formula
F  P(FP,i,n)
F  P(1  i)n
P  F(PF,i,n)

P  F[1(1  i)n]

Excel
Functions
FV(i%,n,,P)
PV(i%,n,,F)

50

CHAPTER 2

Factor values

Tables
1 to 29

Factors: How Time and Interest Affect Money

book, are arranged with factors across the top and the number of periods n down
the left. The word discrete in the title of each table emphasizes that these tables
utilize the end-of-period convention and that interest is compounded once each
interest period. For a given factor, interest rate, and time, the correct factor value
is found at the intersection of the factor name and n. For example, the value of
the factor (PF,5%,10) is found in the PF column of Table 10 at period 10 as
0.6139. This value is determined by using Equation [2.3].
(PF, 5%,10) 

1
(1  i)n

1
(1.05)10

1
 0.6139
1.6289

For solution by computer, the F value is calculated by the FV function using the
format
FV(i%,n,,P)
Q-SOLVE

An  sign must precede the function when it is entered. The amount P is determined using the PV function with the format
PV(i%,n,,F)
These functions are included in Table 21. Refer to Appendix A or Excel online
help for more information on the FV and PV functions. Examples 2.1 and 2.2
illustrate solutions by computer using both of these functions.

EXAMPLE

2.1
An industrial engineer received a bonus of $12,000 that he will invest now. He wants
to calculate the equivalent value after 24 years, when he plans to use all the resulting
money as the down payment on an island vacation home. Assume a rate of return of 8%
per year for each of the 24 years. (a) Find the amount he can pay down, using both the
standard notation and the factor formula. (b) Use a computer to find the amount he can
pay down.
(a) Solution by Hand
The symbols and their values are
P  $12,000

F?

i  8% per year

n  24 years

The cash flow diagram is the same as that in Figure 21a.

Standard notation: Determine F, using the FP factor for 8% and 24 years. Table 13
provides the factor value.
F  P(F P, i, n)  12, 000(F P, 8%, 24)
 12, 000(6.3412)
 $76, 094.40

SECTION 2.1

51

Single-Payment Factors (FP and PF)

Factor formula: Apply Equation [2.2] to calculate the future worth F.

F  P(1  i)n  12, 000(1  0.08)24
 12, 000(6.341181)
 $76, 094.17
The slight difference in answers is due to the round-off error introduced by the tabulated
factor values. An equivalence interpretation of this result is that $12,000 today is worth
$76,094 after 24 years of growth at 8% per year, compounded annually.
(b) Solution by Computer
To find the future value use the FV function that has the format FV(i%,n,A,P). The
spreadsheet will look like the one in Figure 15a, except the cell entry is FV(8%,24,,12000).
The F value displayed by Excel is ($76,094.17) in red to indicate a cash outflow. The FV
function has performed the computation F  P(1  i)n  12,000(1  0.08)24 and presented
the answer on the screen.

EXAMPLE

Q-SOLVE

2.2

The recent enhancements made by Ipsco, Inc., to its large-diameter spiral pipe mill in
Regina are estimated to save $50,000 in reduced maintenance this year.
(a) If the steel maker considers these types of savings worth 20% per year, find the
equivalent value of this result after 5 years.
(b) If the $50,000 maintenance savings occurs now, find its equivalent value 3 years
earlier with interest at 20% per year.
(c) Develop a spreadsheet to answer the two parts above at compound rates of 20% and
5% per year. Additionally develop an Excel column chart indicating the equivalent
values at the three different times for both rate-of-return values.
Solution
(a) The cash flow diagram appears as in Figure 21a. The symbols and their values are
P  $50,000

F?

i  20% per year

n  5 years

Use the FP factor to determine F after 5 years.

F  P(F P, i, n)  $50, 000(F P, 20%, 5)
 50, 000(2.4883)
 $124, 415.00
The function FV(20%,5,,50000) provides the same answer. See Figure 22a, cell C4.
(b) In this case, the cash flow diagram appears as in Figure 21b with F placed at time
t  0 and the P value placed 3 years earlier at t  3. The symbols and their values
are
P?

F  $50,000

i  20% per year

n  3 years

Q-SOLVE

52

CHAPTER 2

Factors: How Time and Interest Affect Money

FV(20%,5,,50000)

PV(20%,3,,50000)

(a)

PV(C5,3,,50000)
PV(D5,3,,50000)

FV(C5,5,0,50000)

(b)

Figure 22
(a) Q-Solve spreadsheet for Example 2.2(a) and (b); (b) complete spreadsheet with graphic, Example 2.2.

SECTION 2.1

53

Single-Payment Factors (FP and PF)

Use the PF factor to determine P three years earlier.

P  F (PF, i, n)  $50, 000(PF, 20%, 3)
 50, 000(0.5787)  $28, 935.00
An equivalence statement is that $28,935 three years ago is the same as $50,000
today, which will grow to $124,415 five years from now, provided a 20% per year
compound interest rate is realized each year.
Use the PV function PV(i%,n,A,F) and omit the A value. Figure 22a shows the result of
entering PV(20%,3,,50000) in cell F4 to be the same as using the PF factor.
Solution by Computer
(c) Figure 22b is a complete spreadsheet solution on one worksheet with the chart.
Two columns are used for 20% and 5% computations primarily so the graph can
be developed to compare the F and P values. Row 14 shows the F values using the
FV function with the format FV(i%,5,0,50000) where the i values are taken from
cells C5 and D5. The future worth F  $124,416 in cell C14 is the same (round-off
considered) as that calculated above. The minus sign on 50,000 makes the result a
positive number for the chart.
The PV function is used to find the P values in row 6. For example, the present
worth at 20% in year 3 is determined in cell C6 using the PV function. The result
P  $28,935 is the same as that obtained by using the PF factor previously. The
chart graphically shows the noticeable difference that 20% versus 5% makes over
the 8-year span.

EXAMPLE

2.3

An independent engineering consultant reviewed records and found that the cost of office
supplies varied as shown in the pie chart of Figure 23. If the engineer wants to know the
equivalent value in year 10 of only the three largest amounts, what is it at an interest rate
of 5% per year?
Year 1
Year 2

Year 0

$175
$600

$300
$135

$250

$400

Year 3
Year 4

Figure 23
Pie chart of costs, Example 2.3.

Year 5

Q-SOLVE

E-SOLVE

54

CHAPTER 2

Factors: How Time and Interest Affect Money

F=?
i = 5%

$300

10

$400

$600

Figure 24
Diagram for a future worth in year 10, Example 2.3.

Solution
Draw the cash flow diagram for the values $600, $300, and $400 from the engineers perspective (Figure 24). Use FP factors to find F in year 10.
F  600(F P, 5%,10)  300(F P, 5%, 8)  400(F P, 5%, 5)
 600(1.6289)  300(1.4775)  400(1.2763)
 $1931.11
The problem could also be solved by finding the present worth in year 0 of the $300
and $400 costs using the PF factors and then finding the future worth of the total in
year 10.
P  600  300(PF, 5%, 2)  400(PF, 5%, 5)
 600  300(0.9070)  400(0.7835)
 $1185.50
F  1185.50(F P, 5%,10)  1185.50(1.6289)
 $1931.06
Comment
It should be obvious that there are a number of ways the problem could be worked, since
any year could be used to find the equivalent total of the costs before finding the future
value in year 10. As an exercise, work the problem using year 5 for the equivalent total
and then determine the final amount in year 10. All answers should be the same except for
round-off error.

2.2

UNIFORM-SERIES PRESENT WORTH FACTOR AND

CAPITAL RECOVERY FACTOR (PA AND AP )

The equivalent present worth P of a uniform series A of end-of-period cash flows

is shown in Figure 25a. An expression for the present worth can be determined
by considering each A value as a future worth F, calculating its present worth

SECTION 2.2
P= ?

P = given
i = given

55

Uniform-Series Present Worth Factor and Capital Recovery Factor

n2

i = given
n1

A = given
(a)

n2

A=?
(b)

Figure 25
Cash flow diagrams used to determine (a) P of a uniform series and (b) A for a present worth.

with the PF factor, and summing the results. The equation is

1
1
1
P A
 A
 A

1
2
3
(1  i)
(1  i)
(1  i)

1
1
 A
 A
n 1
n
(1  i)
(1  i)
The terms in brackets are the PF factors for years 1 through n, respectively.
Factor out A.
1
1
1
1
1
P A


 


1
2
3
n 1
(1  i)
(1  i)
(1  i)
(1  i)n [2.4]
(1  i)
To simplify Equation [2.4] and obtain the PA factor, multiply the n-term
geometric progression in brackets by the (PF,i%,1) factor, which is 1(1i).
This results in Equation [2.5] below. Then subtract the two equations, [2.4] from
[2.5], and simplify to obtain the expression for P when i  0 (Equation [2.6]).
This progression follows.
1

P
1
1
1
1
 A


 

2
3
4
n
n  1 [2.5]
1 i
(1  i)
(1  i)
(1  i)
(1  i)
(1  i)
1

1
1
1
1
P A

 

2
3
n
n 1
1 i
(1  i)
(1  i)
(1  i)
(1  i)
1
1
1
1

 

P  A

1
2
n 1
(1  i)
(1  i)
(1  i)n
(1  i)

i
1
1

P A

n 1
1 i
(1  i)1
(1  i)
P

A 1
 1

i (1  i)n

n1

56

CHAPTER 2

Factors: How Time and Interest Affect Money

(1  i ) n  1
P  A
n
i(1  i )

i0

[2.6]

The term in brackets in Equation [2.6] is the conversion factor referred to as

the uniform-series present worth factor (USPWF). It is the PA factor used to
calculate the equivalent P value in year 0 for a uniform end-of-period series of
A values beginning at the end of period 1 and extending for n periods. The cash
flow diagram is Figure 25a.
To reverse the situation, the present worth P is known and the equivalent
uniform-series amount A is sought (Figure 25b). The first A value occurs at the end
of period 1, that is, one period after P occurs. Solve Equation [2.6] for A to obtain
i(1  i ) n
A P
[2.7]

n
(1  i )  1
The term in brackets is called the capital recovery factor (CRF), or AP factor.
It calculates the equivalent uniform annual worth A over n years for a given P in
year 0, when the interest rate is i.
These formulas are derived with the present worth P and the first uniform annual amount A one year (period) apart. That is, the present worth
P must always be located one period prior to the first A.
The factors and their use to find P and A are summarized in Table 22, and inside
the front cover. The standard notations for these two factors are (PA,i%,n) and
(AP,i%,n). Tables 1 through 29 at the end of the text include the factor values.
As an example, if i  15% and n  25 years, the PA factor value from Table 19
is (PA,15%,25)  6.4641. This will find the equivalent present worth at 15%
per year for any amount A that occurs uniformly from years 1 through 25. When
the bracketed relation in Equation [2.6] is used to calculate the PA factor, the
result is the same except for round-off errors.
(P A,15%, 25) 

T A BLE

22

PA and AP Factors: Notation and Equations

Factor

Notation

(1  i)n 1 (1.15)25  1 31.91895

 6.46415


4.93784
i(1  i)n
0.15(1.15)25

Name

Find/Given

Factor
Formula

Standard
Notation Equation

Excel
Function

(PA,i,n)

Uniform-series
present worth

PA

(1  i)n  1
i(1  i)n

P  A(PA,i,n)

PV(i%,n,A)

(AP,i,n)

Capital recovery

AP

i(1  i)n
(1  i)n  1

A  P(AP,i,n)

PMT(i%,n,P)

SECTION 2.2

Uniform-Series Present Worth Factor and Capital Recovery Factor

Spreadsheet functions are capable of determining both P and A values in lieu

of applying the PA and AP factors. The PV function that we used in the last
section also calculates the P value for a given A over n years, and a separate
F value in year n, if it is given. The format, introduced in Section 1.8, is

Q-SOLVE

PV(i%,n,A,F)
Similarly, the A value is determined using the PMT function for a given P value
in year 0 and a separate F, if given. The format is
PMT(i%,n,P,F)
The PMT function was demonstrated in Section 1.18 (Figure 15b) and is used
in later examples. Table 22 includes the PV and PMT functions for P and A,
respectively. Example 2.4 demonstrates the PV function.

EXAMPLE

2.4

How much money should you be willing to pay now for a guaranteed $600 per year for 9
years starting next year, at a rate of return of 16% per year?
Solution
The cash flow diagram (Figure 26) fits the PA factor. The present worth is:
P  600(PA,16%,9)  600(4.6065)  $2763.90
The PV function PV(16%,9,600) entered into a single spreadsheet cell will display the
answer P  $2763.93.
A = $600

i = 16%

P=?

Figure 26
Diagram to find P using the PA factor, Example 2.4.

Comment
Another solution approach is to use PF factors for each of the nine receipts and add
the resulting present worths to get the correct answer. Another way is to find the future
worth F of the $600 payments and then find the present worth of the F value. There are
many ways to solve an engineering economy problem. Only the most direct method is
presented here.

Q-SOLVE

57

58

CHAPTER 2

Factors: How Time and Interest Affect Money

2.3

SINKING FUND FACTOR AND UNIFORM-SERIES

COMPOUND AMOUNT FACTOR (A/F AND F/A)

The simplest way to derive the AF factor is to substitute into factors already
developed. If P from Equation [2.3] is substituted into Equation [2.7], the following formula results.
1 i(1  i)n
A F

n
n
(1  i) (1  i)  1

i
A F

n
(1  i )  1

[2.8]

The expression in brackets in Equation [2.8] is the AF or sinking fund factor. It

determines the uniform annual series that is equivalent to a given future worth F.
This is shown graphically in Figure 27a.
The uniform series A begins at the end of period 1 and continues through
the period of the given F.
Equation [2.8] can be rearranged to find F for a stated A series in periods 1
through n (Figure 27b).
(1  i ) n  1
F  A
[2.9]

The term in brackets is called the uniform-series compound amount factor

(USCAF), or FA factor. When multiplied by the given uniform annual amount
A, it yields the future worth of the uniform series. It is important to remember
that the future amount F occurs in the same period as the last A.
Standard notation follows the same form as that of other factors. They are
(FA,i,n) and (AF,i,n). Table 23 summarizes the notations and equations, as
does the inside front cover. Tables 1 through 29 include FA and AF factor
values.
F=?

F = given
i = given

i = given
0

n2

n1

n2

A=?

A = given

(a)

(b)

Figure 27
Cash flow diagrams to (a) find A, given F, and (b) find F, given A.

n1

SECTION 2.3

T ABLE

23

FA and AF Factors: Notation and Equations

Factor

Notation

59

Sinking Fund Factor and Uniform-Series Compound Amount Factor

Name

Factor
Formula

Find/Given

(FA,i,n)

Uniform-series
compound amount

FA

(AF,i,n)

Sinking fund

AF

(1  i)n  1
i
i
(1 + i)n 1

Standard
Notation Equation
F  A(FA,i,n)
A  F(AF,i,n)

Excel
Functions
FV(i%,n,A)
PMT(i%,n,,F)

The uniform-series factors can be symbolically determined by using an

abbreviated factor form. For example, FA  (FP)(PA), where cancellation
of the P is correct. Using the factor formulas, we have
(1 + i)n 1 (1 + i)n 1
=
(F A, i, n) = (1 + i)n
n
i
i(1 + i)
Also the AF factor in Equation [2.8] may be derived from the AP factor by
subtracting i.
( AF, i, n)  ( AP, i, n)  i
This relation can be verified empirically in any interest factor table in the rear of
the text, or mathematically by simplifying the equation to derive the AF factor
formula. This relation is used later to compare alternatives by the annual worth
method.
For solution by computer, the FV spreadsheet function calculates F for a stated
A series over n years. The format is

AW method

Sec. 6.2

FV(i%,n,A,P)
The P may be omitted when no separate present worth value is given. The PMT
function determines the A value for n years, given F in year n, and possibly a
separate P value in year 0. The format is
PMT(i%,n,P,F)
If P is omitted, the comma must be entered so the computer knows the last entry
is an F value. These functions are included in Table 23. The next two examples
include the FV and PMT functions.
EXAMPLE

2.5

Formasa Plastics has major fabrication plants in Toronto and Hong Kong. The president
wants to know the equivalent future worth of a $1 million capital investment each year for
8 years, starting 1 year from now. Formasa capital earns at a rate of 14% per year.

Q-SOLVE

60

CHAPTER 2

Factors: How Time and Interest Affect Money

Solution
The cash flow diagram (Figure 28) shows the annual payments starting at the end of year
1 and ending in the year the future worth is desired. Cash flows are indicated in $1000
units. The F value in 8 years is
F  1000(FA,14%,8)  1000(13.2328)  $13,232.80
Q-SOLVE

The actual future worth is $13,232,800. The FV function is FV(14%,8,1000000).

F=?

Figure 28
Diagram to find F
for a uniform series,
Example 2.5.

i = 14%

A = $1000

EXAMPLE

2.6
How much money must Carol deposit every year starting 1 year from now at 5 1 2 % per
year in order to accumulate $6000 seven years from now?
Solution
The cash flow diagram from Carols perspective (Figure 29a) fits the AF factor.
A  $6000(AF,5.5%,7)  6000(0.12096)  $725.76 per year
The AF factor value of 0.12096 was computed using the factor formula in Equation [2.8].
Alternatively, use the PMT function as shown in Figure 29b to obtain A  $725.79
per year.
Q-SOLVE

F = $6000
1

i = 52 %
0

A=?
(a)

Figure 29
(a) Cash flow diagram and (b) PMT function to determine A, Example 2.6.

SECTION 2.4

61

Interpolation in Interest Tables

PMT(5.5%,7,,6000)

(b)

Figure 29
(Continued).

2.4

INTERPOLATION IN INTEREST TABLES

When it is necessary to locate a factor value for an i or n not in the interest tables,
the desired value can be obtained in one of two ways: (1) by using the formulas
derived in Sections 2.1 to 2.3 or (2) by linearly interpolating between the tabulated values. It is generally easier and faster to use the formulas from a calculator
or spreadsheet that has them preprogrammed. Furthermore, the value obtained
through linear interpolation is not exactly correct, since the equations are nonlinear. Nevertheless, interpolation is sufficient in most cases as long as the values of
i or n are not too distant from one another.
The first step in linear interpolation is to set up the known (values 1 and 2)
and unknown factors, as shown in Table 24. A ratio equation is then set up and
solved for c, as follows:
a c

b d

or

a
c d
b

[2.10]

where a, b, c, and d represent the differences between the numbers shown in the
interest tables. The value of c from Equation [2.10] is added to or subtracted from
value 1, depending on whether the factor is increasing or decreasing in value,
respectively. The following examples illustrate the procedure just described.
24 Linear Interpolation Setup

i or n

Factor

a tabulated
desired
b
tabulated

value 1
unlisted
value 2

TABLE

62

CHAPTER 2

EXAMPLE

Factors: How Time and Interest Affect Money

2.7
Determine the value of the AP factor for an interest rate of 7.3% and n of 10 years, that
is, (AP,7.3%,10).
Solution
The values of the AP factor for interest rates of 7 and 8% and n  10 are listed in
Tables 12 and 13, respectively.
0.14238
X

0.14903

7%

7.3%
8%

The unknown X is the desired factor value. From Equation [2.10],

7.3  7
c
(0.14903  0.14238)
87


0.3
(0.00665)  0.00199
1

Since the factor is increasing in value as the interest rate increases from 7 to 8%, the value
of c must be added to the value of the 7% factor. Thus,
X  0.14238  0.00199  0.14437
Comment
It is good practice to check the reasonableness of the final answer by verifying that X
lies between the values of the known factors in approximately the correct proportions.
In this case, since 0.14437 is less than 0.5 of the distance between 0.14238 and 0.14903,
the answer seems reasonable. If Equation [2.7] is applied, the exact factor value is
0.144358.

2.8
Find the value of the (PF,4%,48) factor.
Solution
From Table 9 for 4% interest, the values of the PF factor for 45 and 50 years are found.
0.1712

48

50

0.1407

45

EXAMPLE

From Equation [2.10],

a
48  45
c  (d ) 
(0.1712  0.1407)  0.0183
b
50  45

SECTION 2.5

63

Arithmetic Gradient Factors (PG and AG)

Since the value of the factor decreases as n increases, c is subtracted from the factor value
for n  45.
X  0.1712  0.0183  0.1529
Comment
Though it is possible to perform two-way linear interpolation, it is much easier and more
accurate to use the factor formula or a spreadsheet function.

2.5

ARITHMETIC GRADIENT FACTORS (P/G AND A/G )

An arithmetic gradient is a cash flow series that either increases or decreases by

a constant amount. The cash flow, whether income or disbursement, changes by
the same arithmetic amount each period. The amount of the increase or decrease
is the gradient. For example, if a manufacturing engineer predicts that the cost of
maintaining a robot will increase by $500 per year until the machine is retired, a
gradient series is involved and the amount of the gradient is $500.
Formulas previously developed for an A series have year-end amounts of
equal value. In the case of a gradient, each year-end cash flow is different, so new
formulas must be derived. First, assume that the cash flow at the end of year 1
is not part of the gradient series, but is rather a base amount. This is convenient
because in actual applications, the base amount is usually larger or smaller than
the gradient increase or decrease. For example, if you purchase a used car with a
1-year warranty, you might expect to pay the gasoline and insurance costs during
the first year of operation. Assume these cost $1500; that is, $1500 is the base
amount. After the first year, you absorb the cost of repairs, which could reasonably
be expected to increase each year. If you estimate that total costs will increase by
$50 each year, the amount the second year is $1550, the third $1600, and so on to
year n, when the total cost is 1500  (n1)50. The cash flow diagram is shown
in Figure 210. Note that the gradient ($50) is first observed between year 1 and
year 2, and the base amount ($1500 in year 1) is not equal to the gradient.
Define the symbol G for gradients as
G  constant arithmetic change in the magnitude of receipts or disbursements from one time period to the next; G may be positive or negative.
0

n1

Figure 210
Diagram of an arithmetic
gradient series with a
base amount of $1500
and a gradient of $50.

$1500
$1550
$1600
$1650
$1500
+ (n 2)50 $1500
+ (n 1)50

64

CHAPTER 2

Figure 211

Factors: How Time and Interest Affect Money

0

n1

Conventional arithmetic
gradient series without
the base amount.
G
2G
3G
4G
(n 2)G
(n 1)G

The cash flow in year n (CFn) may be calculated as

CFn  base amount  ( n  1)G
If the base amount is ignored, a generalized arithmetic (increasing) gradient cash
flow diagram is as shown in Figure 211. Note that the gradient begins between
years 1 and 2. This is called a conventional gradient.
EXAMPLE

2.9
A sports apparel company has initiated a logo-licensing program. It expects to realize a
revenue of $80,000 in fees next year from the sale of its logo. Fees are expected to increase
uniformly to a level of $200,000 in 9 years. Determine the arithmetic gradient and construct the cash flow diagram.
Solution
The base amount is $80,000 and the total revenue increase is
Increase in 9 years  200, 000  80, 000  120, 000
Gradient 


increase
n 1
120, 000
 $15, 000 per year
9 1

The cash flow diagram is shown in Figure 212.

G = $15,000

$200,000
$185,000
$170,000
$155,000
$140,000
$125,000
$110,000
$95,000
$80,000

Figure 212
Diagram for gradient series, Example 2.9.

Year

SECTION 2.5

65

Arithmetic Gradient Factors (PG and AG)

In this text, three factors are derived for arithmetic gradients: the PG factor
for present worth, the AG factor for annual series and the FG factor for future
worth. There are several ways to derive them. We use the single-payment present
worth factor (PF,i,n), but the same result can be obtained using the FP, FA,
or PA factor.
In Figure 211, the present worth at year 0 of only the gradient is equal to the
sum of the present worths of the individual values, where each value is considered a future amount.
P  G(PF, i, 2)  2G(PF, i, 3)  3G(PF, i, 4)  . . .
 (n  2)G (PF, i, n  1)  (n  1)G (PF, i, n)
Factor out G and use the PF formula.
1
2
3
n2
n 1
PG


. . .


2
3
4
n 1
(1  i)
(1  i)
(1  i)
(1  i)n
(1  i)

[2.11]

Multiplying both sides of Equation [2.11] by (1  i)1 yields

1
2
3
n2
n 1
P(1  i)1  G


. . .


n2
1
2
3
(1  i)
(1  i)
(1  i)
(1  i)n 1
(1  i)
[2.12]
Subtract Equation [2.11] from Equation [2.12] and simplify.
1
n
1
1
1
iP  G

. . .

G
1
2
n 1
n
n
(1  i)
(1  i)
(1  i)
(1  i)
(1  i)

[2.13]

The left bracketed expression is the same as that contained in Equation [2.4],
where the PA factor was derived. Substitute the closed-end form of the PA
factor from Equation [2.6] into Equation [2.13] and solve for P to obtain a
simplified relation.
P

G (1  i ) n  1
n


i i(1  i ) n
(1  i ) n

[2.14]

Equation [2.14] is the general relation to convert an arithmetic gradient G (not

including the base amount) for n years into a present worth at year 0. Figure 213a
is converted into the equivalent cash flow in Figure 213b. The arithmeticgradient present worth factor, or PG factor, may be expressed in two forms:

or

1 (1  i)n  1
n
(PG, i, n) 


n
i i(1  i)
(1  i)n
(1  i)n  in  1
(PG, i, n) 
i 2 (1  i)n

[2.15]

Remember: The gradient starts in year 2 and P is located in year 0. Equation [2.14]
expressed as an engineering economy relation is
P  G(PG, i, n)

[2.16]

66

CHAPTER 2

Factors: How Time and Interest Affect Money

Figure 213
Conversion diagram from
an arithmetic gradient to a
present worth.

P=?
i = given
0

n1

n1

G
2G

3G
(n 2)G
(n 1)G
(a)

(b)

The equivalent uniform annual series (A value) for an arithmetic gradient G is

found by multiplying the present worth in Equation [2.16] by the (AP,i,n) factor
expression. In standard notation form, the equivalent of algebraic cancellation of
P can be used to obtain the (AG,i,n) factor.
A  G(PG, i, n)( AP, i, n)
 G( A / G, i, n)
In equation form,
A

G (1  i)n  1
n i(1  i)n


n
i i(1  i)
(1  i)n (1  i)n  1

n
G 

n
i (1  i )  1

[2.17]

The expression in brackets in Equation [2.17] is called the arithmetic-gradient

uniform-series factor and is identified by (AG,i,n). This factor converts Figure
214a into Figure 214b.
The PG and AG factors and relations are summarized inside the front cover.
Factor values are tabulated in the two rightmost columns of Tables 1 through 29
at the back of this text.
Figure 214
Conversion diagram of an
arithmetic gradient series
to an equivalent uniform
annual series.

A=?
i = given
0

n1

n
0

G
2G

3G
(n 2)G
(n 1)G
(a)

(b)

n1

SECTION 2.5

67

Arithmetic Gradient Factors (PG and AG)

There is no direct, single-cell spreadsheet function to calculate P or A for an

arithmetic gradient. Use the NPV function for P, and the PMT function for A,
after all cash flows are entered into cells. (The use of NPV and PMT functions
for this type of cash flow series is illustrated in Chapter 3.)
An FG factor (arithmetic-gradient future worth factor) can be derived
by multiplying the PG and FP factors. The resulting factor, (FG,i,n), in
brackets, and engineering economy relation is
1 (1  i)n  1

F  G
 n
i
i

The total present worth PT for a gradient series must consider the base and the
gradient separately. Thus, for cash flow series involving conventional gradients:
The base amount is the uniform-series amount A that begins in year 1 and
extends through year n. Its present worth is represented by PA.
For an increasing gradient, the gradient amount must be added to the
uniform-series amount. The present worth is PG.
For a decreasing gradient, the gradient amount must be subtracted from the
uniform-series amount. The present worth is PG.
The general equations for calculating total present worth PT of conventional
arithmetic gradients are
PT  PA  PG

and

PT  PA  PG

[2.18]

AT  AA  AG

[2.19]

Similarly, the equivalent total annual series are

AT  AA  AG

and

where AA is the annual base amount and AG is the equivalent annual amount of
the gradient series.
EXAMPLE

2.10

CN Rail is considering the deposit of $500,000 in an account for the repair of old and
safety-questionable bridges in British Columbia. Further, they estimate that the deposits
will increase by $100,000 per year for only 9 years thereafter, then cease. Determine the
equivalent (a) present worth and (b) annual series amounts if the funds earn interest at a
rate of 5% per year.
Solution
(a) The cash flow diagram from CNs perspective is shown in Figure 215. Two
computations must be made and added: the first for the present worth of the
base amount PA and a second for the present worth of the gradient PG. The
total resent worth PT occurs in year 0. This is illustrated by the partitioned
cash flow diagram in Figure 216. In $1000 units, the present worth, from

Q-SOLVE

68

CHAPTER 2

Factors: How Time and Interest Affect Money

$500

$600

$700

$800

$900

$1000

$1100

$1200

$1300

10

$1400

Figure 215
Cash flow series with a conventional arithmetic gradient (in $1000 units), Example 2.10.

PA = ?

PG = ?

A = $500
1 2
9 10

G = $100
1 2
9 10

+
$100
Base

Gradient

$900

PT = ?

PT = PA + PG

$500

$600

$700

$800

$900

$1000

$1100

Figure 216
Partitioned cash flow diagram (in $1000 units), Example 2.10.

$1200

$1300

10

$1400

SECTION 2.6

69

Geometric Gradient Series Factors

Equation [2.18], is
PT  500(P A, 5%,10)  100(PG, 5%,10)
 500(7.7217)  100(31.652)
 $7026.05

($7, 026, 050)

(b) Here, too, it is necessary to consider the gradient and the base amount separately.
The total annual series AT is found by using Equation [2.19].
AT  500  100( AG,5%,10)  500  100(4.0991)
 $909.91 per year

($909, 910)

And AT occurs from year 1 through year 10.

Comment
Remember: The PG and AG factors determine the present worth and annual series of the
gradient only. Any other cash flow must be considered separately.
If the present worth is already calculated [as in part (a)], PT can be multiplied by the
appropriate AP factor to get AT.
AT  PT ( AP, 5%,10)  7026.05(0.12950)
 $909.87

($909, 870)

Round-off accounts for the $40 difference.

Additional Example 2.16.

2.6

GEOMETRIC GRADIENT SERIES FACTORS

It is common for cash flow series, such as operating costs, construction costs, and
revenues, to increase or decrease from period to period by a constant percentage,
for example, 5% per year. This uniform rate of change defines a geometric gradient
series of cash flows. In addition to the symbols i and n used thus far, we now need
the term
g  constant rate of change, in decimal form, by which amounts
increase or decrease from one period to the next
Figure 217 presents cash flow diagrams for geometric gradient series with increasing and decreasing uniform rates. The series starts in year 1 at an initial amount A1,
which is not considered a base amount as in the arithmetic gradient. The relation to
determine the total present worth Pg for the entire cash flow series may be derived
by multiplying each cash flow in Figure 217a by the PF factor 1(1i)n.
Pg 

A1
A1(1  g) A1(1  g)2 . . . A1(1  g)n  1


 
(1  i)1
(1  i)2
(1  i)3
(1  i)n

1
1 g
(1  g)2 . . . (1  g)n  1
 A1


 

2
(1  i)3
(1  i)n
1  i (1  i)

[2.20]

70

CHAPTER 2

Factors: How Time and Interest Affect Money

Pg = ?

Pg = ?

i = given
g = given

i = given
g = given
0

A1

A1(1 g)3
A1(1 g)2
A1(1 g)

A1(1 + g)
A1(1 + g)2
A1(1 + g)3
A1(1 + g)n 1

A1(1 g)n 1

A1

(a)

(b)

Figure 217
Cash flow diagram of (a) increasing and (b) decreasing geometric gradient series and present worth Pg.

Multiply both sides by (1g)(1i), subtract Equation [2.20] from the result,
factor out Pg, and obtain
(1  g)n
1 g

1
 1  A1

Pg

n 1
1 i
1 i

(1  i)
Solve for Pg and simplify.
Pg  A1

1 g
1

1 i
ig

gi

[2.21]

The term in brackets in Equation [2.21] is the geometric-gradient-series present

worth factor for values of g not equal to the interest rate i. The standard notation
used is (PA,g,i,n). When gi, substitute i for g in Equation [2.20] to obtain
1
1
1
1
Pg  A1


 

(1  i)
(1  i) (1  i) (1  i)
The term 1(1  i) appears n times, so
Pg 

nA1
(1  i)

[2.22]

In summary, the engineering economy relation and factor formulas to calculate Pg in period t  0 for a geometric gradient series starting in period 1 in the
amount A1 and increasing by a constant rate of g each period are
Pg  A1 ( P A, g, i, n)
n

1 g
1 

1 i

gi

( PA, g, i, n) 
i g
n

gi
1  i

[2.23]

[2.24]

SECTION 2.6

71

Geometric Gradient Series Factors

It is possible to derive factors for the equivalent A and F values; however, it is

easier to determine the Pg amount and then multiply by the AP or FP factor.
As with the arithmetic gradient series, there are no direct spreadsheet functions for geometric gradients series. Once the cash flows are entered, P and A
are determined by using the NPV and PMT functions, respectively. However,
it is always an option to develop on the spreadsheet a function that uses the
factor equation to determine a P, F, or A value. Example 2.11 demonstrates
this approach to find the present worth of a geometric gradient series using
Equations [2.24].

EXAMPLE

2.11

Engineers at La Ronde, the large amusement park in Montreal, are considering an innovation on the existing Monster roller coaster to make it more exciting. The modification costs
only $8000 and is expected to last 6 years with a $1300 salvage value for the solenoid
mechanisms. The maintenance cost is expected to be high at $1700 the first year, increasing by 11% per year thereafter. Determine the equivalent present worth of the modification
and maintenance cost by hand and by computer. The interest rate is 8% per year.
Solution by Hand
The cash flow diagram (Figure 218) shows the salvage value as a positive cash flow
and all costs as negative. Use Equation [2.24] for g  i to calculate Pg. The total PT is
PT  8000  Pg  1300(PF, 8%, 6)
1  (1.111.08)6
 8000  1700
 1300(PF, 8%, 6)
0.08  0.11
 8000  1700(5.9559)  819.26  $17, 305.85

[2.25]
Figure 218

PT = ?

Cash flow diagram of a

geometric gradient,
Example 2.11.
Pg = ?

i = 8%
g = 11%
1

$1700

$1300
4

$1700(1.11)
$1700(1.11)2

$8000

$1700(1.11)3
$1700(1.11)4
$1700(1.11)5

72

CHAPTER 2

E-SOLVE

Factors: How Time and Interest Affect Money

Solution by Computer
Figure 219 presents a spreadsheet with the total present worth in cell B13. The function used
to determine PT  $17,305.89 is detailed in the cell tag. It is a rewrite of Equation [2.25].
Since it is complex, column C and D cells also contain the three elements of PT, which are
summed in D13 to obtain the same result.

PV(B11,B7,0,B8)

SUM(D6:D12)

((1((1B10)/(1B11))^B7)/(B11B10))
B6B9*((1((1B10)/(1B11))^B7)/(B11B10))PV(B11,B7,0,B8)

Figure 219
Spreadsheet used to determine present worth of a geometric gradient with g  11%, Example 2.11.

2.7

Find i

Sec. 2.9

Chap.
7

DETERMINATION OF AN UNKNOWN INTEREST RATE

In some cases, the amount of money deposited and the amount of money received
after a specified number of years are known, and it is the interest rate or rate of
return that is unknown. When single amounts, uniform series, or a uniform conventional gradient is involved, the unknown rate i can be determined by direct solution
of the time value of money equation. When nonuniform payments or several factors
are involved, the problem must be solved by a trial-and-error or numerical method.
These more complicated problems are deferred until Chapter 7.
The single-payment formulas can be easily rearranged and expressed in terms
of i, but for the uniform series and gradient equations, it is easier to solve for
the value of the factor and determine the interest rate from interest factor tables.
Both situations are illustrated in the examples that follow.

SECTION 2.7
EXAMPLE

73

Determination of an Unknown Interest Rate

2.12

If Laurel can make an investment in a friends business of $3000 now in order to receive
$5000 five years from now, determine the rate of return. If Laurel can receive 7% per year
interest on a guaranteed investment certificate, which investment should be made?
Solution
Since only single payment amounts are involved, i can be determined directly from the
PF factor.
1
P  F (PF, i, n)  F
(1  i)n
3000  5000
0.600 

1
(1  i)5

1
(1  i)5
0.2

1
i
 1  0.1076 (10.76%)
0.6
Alternatively, the interest rate can be found by setting up the standard notation PF relation,
solving for the factor value, and interpolating in the tables.
P  F (PF, i, n)
$3000  5000(PF, i, 5)
(PF, i, 5) 

3000
 0.60
5000

From the interest tables, a PF factor of 0.6000 for n  5 lies between 10 and 11%.
Interpolate between these two values to obtain i  10.76%.
Since 10.76% is greater than the 7% available from a guaranteed investment certificate,
Laurel should make the business investment. Since the higher rate of return would be received on the business investment, Laurel would probably select this option instead of the
investment certificate. However, the degree of risk associated with the business investment
was not specified. Obviously, risk is an important parameter that may cause selection of the
lower rate of return investment. Unless specified to the contrary, equal risk for all alternatives
is assumed in this text.

The IRR spreadsheet function is one of the most useful of all those available.
IRR means internal rate of return, which is a topic unto itself, discussed in detail
in Chapter 7. However, even at this early stage of engineering economic analysis,
the IRR function can be used beneficially to find the interest rate (or rate of return)
for any cash flow series that is entered into a series of contiguous spreadsheet cells,
vertical or horizontal. It is very important that any years (periods) with a zero cash
flow have an entry of 0 in the cell. A cell left blank is not sufficient, because an
incorrect value of i will be displayed by the IRR function. The basic format is
IRR(first_cell:last_cell)

E-SOLVE

74

CHAPTER 2

Factors: How Time and Interest Affect Money

The first_cell and last_cell are the cell references for the start and end of the cash
flow series. Example 2.13 illustrates the IRR function.
The RATE function, also very useful, is an alternative to IRR. RATE is a
one-cell function that displays the compound interest rate (or rate of return) only
when the annual cash flows, that is, A values, are the same. Present and future
values different from the A value can be entered. The format is
RATE(number_years,A,P,F)
Q-SOLVE

The F value does not include the amount A that occurs in year n. No entry into
spreadsheet cells of each cash flow is necessary to use RATE, so it should be
used whenever there is a uniform series over n years with associated P and/or F
values stated. Example 2.13 illustrates the RATE function.
EXAMPLE

2.13
Professional Engineers, Inc., requires that $500 per year be placed into a sinking fund
account to cover any unexpected major rework on field equipment. In one case, $500 was
deposited for 15 years and covered a rework costing $10,000 in year 15. What rate of return
did this practice provide to the company? Solve by hand and by computer.
Solution by Hand
The cash flow diagram is shown in Figure 220. Either the AF or FA factor can be used.
Using AF,
A  F ( AF, i, n)
500  10, 000( AF, i,15)
( AF, i,15)  0.0500
From interest Tables 8 and 9 under the AF column for 15 years, the value 0.0500 lies
between 3 and 4%. By interpolation, i3.98%. (This is considered a low return for an
engineering project.)
F = $10,000

Diagram to determine the rate of

return, Example 2.13.

i=?
0

Figure 220

10

11

12

13

14 15

A = $500

Solution by Computer
Refer to the cash flow diagram (Figure 220) while completing the spreadsheet (Figure 221).
A single-cell solution using the RATE function can be applied since A  $500 occurs each
year and the F  $10,000 value takes place in the last year of the series. Cell A3 contains the
function RATE(15,500,,10000), and the answer displayed is 3.98%. The minus sign on

SECTION 2.8

500 indicates the annual deposit. The extra comma is necessary to indicate that no P value
is present. This function is fast, but it allows only limited sensitivity analysis; all the A
values have to change by the same amount. The IRR function is much better for answering
What if? questions.
To apply the IRR function and obtain the same answer, enter the value 0 in a cell (for year
0), followed by 500 for 14 years and 9500 (from 10,000  500) in year 15. Figure 221
contains these numbers in cells D2 through D17. In any cell on the spreadsheet, enter the
IRR function IRR(D2:D17). The answer i  3.98% is displayed in cell E3. It is advisable
to enter the year numbers 0 through n (15 in this example) in the column immediately to the
left of the cash flow entries. The IRR function does not need these numbers, but it makes
the cash flow entry activity easier and more accurate. Now any cash flow can be changed,
and a new rate will be displayed immediately via IRR.

RATE(15,500,,10000)

IRR(D2:D17)

Figure 221
Spreadsheet solution for rate of return using the RATE and IRR functions, Example 2.13.

2.8

75

Determination of Unknown Number of Years

DETERMINATION OF UNKNOWN NUMBER OF YEARS

It is sometimes necessary to determine the number of years (periods) required

for a cash flow series to provide a stated rate of return. Other times it is desirable
to determine when specified amounts will be available from an investment. In
both cases, the unknown value is n. Techniques similar to those of the preceding section are used to find n. Some problems can be solved directly for n by

Q-SOLVE

E-SOLVE

76

CHAPTER 2

Factors: How Time and Interest Affect Money

manipulation of the single-payment and uniform-series formulas. In other cases,

n is found through interpolation in the interest tables, as illustrated below.
The spreadsheet function NPER can be used to quickly find the number of
years (periods) n for given A, P, and/or F values. The format is
NPER(i%,A,P,F)
Q-SOLVE

EXAMPLE

If the future value F is not involved, F is omitted; however, a present worth P

and uniform amount A must be entered. The A entry can be zero when only single
amounts P and F are known, as in the next example. At least one of the entries
must have a sign opposite the others to obtain an answer from NPER.

2.14
How long will it take for $1000 to double if the interest rate is 5% per year?
Solution
The n value can be determined using either the FP or PF factor. Using the PF factor,
P  F (PF, i, n)
1000  2000(PF, 5%, n)
(PF, 5%, n)  0.500

Q-SOLVE

In the 5% interest table, the value 0.500 lies between 14 and 15 years. By interpolation,
n  14.2 years. Use the function NPER(5%,0,1000,2000) to display an n value of 14.21
years.

2.9

SPREADSHEET APPLICATIONBASIC SENSITIVITY

ANALYSIS

We have performed engineering economy computations with the spreadsheet

functions PV, FV, PMT, IRR, and NPER that were introduced in Section 1.8.
Most functions took only a single spreadsheet cell to find the answer. The example below illustrates how to solve a slightly more complex problem that involves
sensitivity analysis; that is, it helps answer What if? questions.
EXAMPLE

2.15

E-SOLVE

An engineer and a medical doctor have teamed up to develop a major improvement

in laparoscopic surgery for gallbladder operations. They formed a small business
corporation to handle the financial aspects of their partnership. The company has
invested $500,000 in the project already this year (t  0), and it expects to spend $500,000
annually for the next 4 years, and possibly for more years. Develop a spreadsheet that helps
answer the following questions.
(a) Assume the $500,000 is expended for only 4 additional years. If the company sells
the rights to use the new technology at the end of year 5 for $5 million, what is the
anticipated rate of return?

SECTION 2.9

Spreadsheet ApplicationBasic Sensitivity Analysis

(b) The engineer and doctor estimate that they will need $500,000 per year for more
than 4 additional years. How many years from now do they have to finish their
development work and receive the $5 million licence fee to make at least 10% per
year? Assume the $500,000 per year is expended through the year immediately prior
to the receipt for the $5 million.
Solution by Computer
Figure 222 presents the spreadsheet, with all financial values in $1000 units. The IRR
function is used throughout.
(a) The function IRR(B6:B11) in cell B15 displays i  24.07%. Note there is a cash
flow of $500 in year 0. The equivalence statement is: Spending $500,000 now and
$500,000 each year for 4 more years is equivalent to receiving $5 million at the end
of year 5, when the interest rate is 24.07% per year.
(b) Find the rate of return for an increasing number of years that the $500 is expended.
Columns C and D in Figure 222 present the results of IRR functions with the $5000
cash flow in different years. Cells C15 and D15 show returns on opposite sides of
10%. Therefore, the $5 million must be received some time prior to the end of year 7
to make more than the 8.93% shown in cell D15. The engineer and doctor have less
than 6 years to complete their development work.

IRR(B6:B11)

IRR(C6:C12)

Figure 222
Spreadsheet solution including sensitivity analysis, Example 2.15.

IRR(D6:D13)

77

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CHAPTER 2

Factors: How Time and Interest Affect Money

ADDITIONAL EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE

2.16

P, F, AND A CALCULATIONS
Explain why the uniform series factors cannot be used to compute P or F directly for any
of the cash flows shown in Figure 223.
$100

$100

$100

$100

Figure 223
Sample cash
flow diagrams,
Example 2.16.

P=?
(a)
A = $550

5
F=?

(b)
$1300
$1200
$1100
A = $1000

PG = ?
(c)
$150

$100

$150

3
F=?

(d)

Solution
(a) The PA factor cannot be used to compute P since the $100 per year receipt does
not occur each year from 1 through 5.

79

PROBLEMS

(b) Since there is no A  $550 in year 5, the FA factor cannot be used. The relation F
 550(FA,i,4) would furnish the future worth in year 4, not year 5.
(c) The first gradient amount G  $100 occurs in year 3. Use of the relation
PG  100(PG,i%,4) will compute PG in year 1, not year 0. (The present worth of
the base amount of $1000 is not included here.)
(d) The receipt values are unequal; thus the relation F  A(FA,i,3) cannot be used to
compute F.

CHAPTER SUMMARY
Formulas and factors derived and applied in this chapter perform equivalence
calculations for present, future, annual, and gradient cash flows. Capability in
using these formulas and their standard notation manually and with spreadsheets
is critical to complete an engineering economy study. Using these formulas and
spreadsheet functions, you can convert single cash flows into uniform cash flows,
gradients into present worths, and much more. You can solve for rate of return
i or time n. A thorough understanding of how to manipulate cash flows using the
material in this chapter will help you address financial questions in professional
practice as well as in everyday living.

PROBLEMS
Use of Interest Tables
2.1 Find the correct numerical value for the

following factors from the interest tables.

1. (FP,8%,25)
2. (PA,3%,8)
3. (PG,9%,20)
4. (FA,15%,18)
5. (AP,30%,15)
Determination of F, P, and A
2.2 The Canadian military is considering the

purchase of a new helicopter for peacekeeping operations. A similar helicopter

was purchased 4 years ago at a cost of
$140,000. At an interest rate of 7% per
year, what would be the equivalent value
today of that $140,000 expenditure?

2.3 Pressure Systems, Inc., manufactures high-

accuracy liquid-level transducers. It is investigating whether it should update certain

equipment now or wait to do it later. If the
cost now is $200,000, what will the equivalent amount be 3 years from now at an
interest rate of 10% per year?
2.4 Petroleum Products, Inc., is a pipeline

company that provides petroleum products

to wholesalers in Canada and the northern
United States. The company is considering
purchasing insertion turbine flowmeters
to allow for better monitoring of pipeline
integrity. If these meters would prevent one
major disruption (through early detection
of product loss) valued at $600,000 four
years from now, how much could the com-

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CHAPTER 2

Factors: How Time and Interest Affect Money

pany afford to spend now at an interest rate

of 12% per year?
2.5 Sensotech Inc., a maker of microelectro-

mechanical systems, believes it can reduce

product recalls by 10% if it purchases new
software for detecting faulty parts. The
cost of the new software is $225,000.
(a) How much would the company have
to save each year for 4 years to recover its
investment if it uses a minimum attractive
rate of return of 15% per year? (b) What
was the cost of recalls per year before the
software was purchased if the company did
exactly recover its investment in 4 years
from the 10% reduction?
2.6 Thompson Mechanical Products is plan-

ning to set aside $150,000 now for possibly replacing its large synchronous refiner
motors whenever it becomes necessary. If
the replacement isnt needed for 7 years,
how much will the company have in its
investment set-aside account if it achieves
a rate of return of 18% per year?
2.7 French car maker Renault signed a

$75 million contract with ABB of Zurich,

Switzerland, for automated underbody
assembly lines, body assembly workshops, and line control systems. If ABB
will be paid in 2 years (when the systems
are ready), what is the present worth of
the contract at 18% per year interest?
2.8 Atlas Long-Haul Transportation is con-

sidering installing Valutemp temperature

loggers in all of its refrigerated trucks for
monitoring temperatures during transit. If
the systems will reduce insurance claims
by $100,000 two years from now, how
much should the company be willing to
spend now if it uses an interest rate of 12%
per year?
2.9 GE Marine Systems is planning to supply

a Japanese shipbuilder with aero-derivative

gas turbines to power 11 DD-class destroyers for the Japanese Self-Defense Force.
The buyer can pay the total contract
price of $1,700,000 now or an equivalent
amount 1 year from now (when the turbines will be needed). At an interest rate of
18% per year, what is the equivalent future
amount?
2.10 What is the present worth of a future cost

of $162,000 to Digitech, Inc., 6 years from

now at an interest rate of 12% per year?
2.11 How much could Cryogenics Inc., a maker

of superconducting magnetic energy storage systems, afford to spend now on new

equipment in lieu of spending $125,000
five years from now if the companys rate
of return is 14% per year?
2.12 V-Tek Systems is a manufacturer of verti-

cal compactors, and it is examining its cash

flow requirements for the next 5 years. The
company expects to replace office machines
and computer equipment at various times
over the 5-year planning period. Specifically, the company expects to spend $9000
two years from now, $8000 three years from
now, and $5000 five years from now. What
is the present worth of the planned expenditures at an interest rate of 10% per year?
2.13 A manufacturer of toilet flush valves wants

to have $2,800,000 available 10 years

from now so that a new product line can be
initiated. If the company plans to deposit
money each year, starting 1 year from now,
how much will it have to deposit each year
at 6% per year interest in order to have the
$2,800,000 available immediately after
the last deposit is made?
2.14 The current cost of liability insurance for

a certain consulting firm is $65,000. If the

insurance cost is expected to increase by
4% each year, what will be the cost 5 years
from now?

PROBLEMS

2.15 Grand Bay Gas Products manufactures

a device that empties the contents of old

aerosol cans in 2 to 3 seconds. This eliminates having to dispose of the cans as hazardous wastes. If a certain paint company
can save $75,000 per year in waste disposal costs, how much could the company
afford to spend now on the device if it
wants to recover its investment in 3 years
at an interest rate of 20% per year?
2.16 Atlantic Metals and Plastic uses austenitic

nickel-chromium alloys to manufacture

resistance heating wire. The company
is considering a new annealing-drawing
process to reduce costs. If the new process will cost $1.8 million now, how much
must be saved each year to recover the
investment in 6 years at an interest rate of
12% per year?
2.17 A green algae, Chlamydomonas rein-

hardtii, can produce hydrogen when

temporarily deprived of sulfur for up to
2 days at a time. A small company needs
to purchase equipment costing $3.4 million to commercialize the process. If the
company wants to earn a rate of return of
20% per year and recover its investments
in 8 years, what must be the net value of
the hydrogen produced each year?

81
now on the new technology if the annual consulting services will no longer be
needed? Assume the park uses an interest
rate of 15% per year and it wants to recover its investment in 5 years.
2.20 Under an agreement with the Internet

Service Providers (ISPs) Association,

SBC Communications reduced the price
it charges ISPs to resell its high-speed
digital subscriber line (DSL) service
from $458 to $360 per year per customer
line. A particular ISP, which has 20,000
customers, plans to pass 90% of the savings along to its customers. What is the
total future worth of these savings over
a 5-year horizon at an interest rate of 8%
per year?
2.21 A civil engineer deposits $10,000 per year

into a retirement account that achieves a

rate of return of 12% per year. Determine
the amount of money in the account at the
end of 25 years.
2.22 A recent engineering graduate was given

a raise (beginning in year 1) of $2000. At

an interest rate of 8% per year, what is the
present value of the $2000 per year over
her expected 35-year career?
2.23 Ontario Moving and Storage wants to have

2.18 How much money could RTT Environ-

mental Services borrow to finance a site

reclamation project if it expects revenues
of $280,000 per year over a 5-year cleanup
period? Expenses associated with the project are expected to be $90,000 per year.
Assume the interest rate is 10% per year.
2.19 Edmonton Playland and Aquatics Park

spends $75,000 each year in consulting

services for ride inspection. New actuator element technology enables engineers
to simulate complex computer-controlled
movements in any direction. How much
could the amusement park afford to spend

enough money to purchase a new tractor-trailer in 3 years. If the unit will cost
$250,000, how much should the company
set aside each year if the account earns 9%
per year?
2.24 Vision Technologies, Inc., is a small com-

pany that uses ultra-wideband technology

to develop devices that can detect objects
(including people) inside buildings, behind walls, or below ground. The company
expects to spend $100,000 per year for
labour and $125,000 per year for supplies
before a product can be marketed. At an
interest rate of 15% per year, what is the

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Factors: How Time and Interest Affect Money

total equivalent future amount of the companys expenses at the end of 3 years?
Factor Values
2.25 Find the numerical value of the following

factors by (a) interpolation and (b) using

the appropriate formula.
1. (PF,18%,33)
2. (AG,12%,54)
2.26 Find the numerical value of the following

factors by (a) interpolation and (b) using

the appropriate formula.
1. (FA,19%,20)
2. (PA,26%,15)
Arithmetic Gradient
2.27 A cash flow sequence starts in year 1 at

$3000 and decreases by $200 each year

through year 10. (a) Determine the value of
the gradient G; (b) determine the amount
of cash flow in year 8; and (c) determine
the value of n for the gradient.
2.28 Manulife expects sales to be described

by the cash flow sequence (6000  5k),

where k is in years and cash flow is in
millions. Determine (a) the value of the
gradient G; (b) the amount of cash flow in
year 6; and (c) the value of n for the gradient if the cash flow ends in year 12.

2.29 For the cash flow sequence that starts in

year 1 and is described by 900  100k,

where k represents years 1 through 5,
(a) determine the value of the gradient G
and (b) determine the cash flow in year 5.

2.30 Omega

Instruments has budgeted

$300,000 per year to pay for certain
ceramic parts over the next 5 years. If the
company expects the cost of the parts to
increase uniformly according to an arithmetic gradient of $10,000 per year, what is

it expecting the cost to be in year 1, if the

interest rate is 10% per year?
2.31 Petro-Canada expects receipts from a

group of stripper wells (wells that produce less than 10 barrels per day) to decline according to an arithmetic gradient
of $50,000 per year. This years receipts
are expected to be $280,000 (i.e., end of
year 1), and the company expects the useful life of the wells to be 5 years. (a) What
is the amount of the cash flow in year 3,
and (b) what is the equivalent uniform
annual worth in years 1 through 5 of the
income from the wells at an interest rate
of 12% per year?
2.32 Income from cardboard recycling at Moose

Jaw has been increasing at a constant rate

of $1000 in each of the last 3 years. If this
years income (i.e., end of year 1) is expected
to be $4000 and the increased income trend
continues through year 5, (a) what will the
income be 3 years from now (i.e., end of
year 3) and (b) what is the present worth
of the income over that 5-year period at an
interest rate of 10% per year?
2.33 Amazon is considering purchasing a

sophisticated computer system to cube

a books dimensionsmeasure its height,
length, and width so that the proper box
size will be used for shipment. This will
save packing material, cardboard, and
labour. If the savings will be $150,000 the
first year, $160,000 the second year, and
amounts increasing by $10,000 each year
for 8 years, what is the present worth of the
system at an interest rate of 15% per year?
2.34 West Coast Marine and RV is considering

replacing its wired pendant controllers on

its heavy-duty cranes with new portable
infrared keypad controllers. The company
expects to achieve cost savings of $14,000
the first year and amounts increasing by

83

PROBLEMS

$1500 each year thereafter for the next

4 years. At an interest rate of 12% per year,
what is the equivalent annual worth of the
savings?

be $4 million the first year, increasing by

$500,000 each year. Determine the equivalent annual worth in years 1 through 5 of
the companys net cash flow at an interest
rate of 16% per year.

2.35 Ford Motor Company was able to reduce

by 80% the cost required for installing

data acquisition instrumentation on test
vehicles by using MTS-developed spinning wheel force transducers. (a) If this
years cost (i.e., end of year 1) is expected
to be $2000, what was the cost the year
before installation of the transducers?
(b) If the costs are expected to increase by
$250 each year for the next 4 years (i.e.,
through year 5), what is the equivalent annual worth of the costs (years 1 through 5)
at an interest rate of 18% per year?
2.36 For the cash flow shown below, determine

the value of G that will make the future

worth in year 4 equal to $6000 at an interest rate of 15% per year.
Year
Cash flow

0
1
2
3
4
0 $2000 2000G 20002G 20003G

2.37 A major drug company anticipates that

in future years it could be involved in

litigation regarding perceived side effects
of one of its antidepressant drugs. To prepare a war chest, the company wants to
have money available 6 years from now
that has a present worth today of $50 million. The company expects to set aside
$6 million the first year and uniformly
increasing amounts in each of the next
5 years. If the company can earn 12% per
year on the money it sets aside, by how
much must it increase the amount set aside
each year to achieve its goal?
2.38 A startup direct marketer of car parts ex-

pects to spend $1 million the first year for

advertising, with amounts decreasing by
$100,000 each year. Income is expected to

Geometric Gradient
2.39 Assume you were told to prepare a table of

factor values (like those at the back of this

book) for calculating the present worth of
a geometric gradient series. Determine the
first three values (i.e., for n  1, 2, and 3)
for an interest rate of 10% per year and a
rate of change g of 4% per year.
2.40 A chemical engineer planning for her re-

tirement will deposit 10% of her salary

each year into a high-technology stock
fund. If her salary this year is $60,000
(i.e., end of year 1) and she expects her
salary to increase by 4% each year, what
will be the present worth of the fund after
15 years if it earns 4% per year?
2.41 The effort required to maintain a scanning

electron microscope is known to increase

by a fixed percentage each year. A hightech equipment maintenance company
has offered it services for a fee of $25,000
for the first year (i.e., end of year 1) with
increases of 6% per year thereafter. If a
biotechnology company wants to pay for a
3-year contract up front, how much should
it be willing to pay if it uses an interest rate
of 15% per year?
2.42 Hughes Cable Systems plans to offer its

employees a salary enhancement package that has revenue sharing as its main
component. Specifically, the company will
set aside 1% of total sales for year-end bonuses for all its employees. The sales are
expected to be $5 million the first year,
$6 million the second year, and amounts
increasing by 20% each year for the next

84

CHAPTER 2

Factors: How Time and Interest Affect Money

5 years. At an interest rate of 10% per year,

what is the equivalent annual worth in
years 1 through 5 of the bonus package?
2.43 Determine how much money would be in a

savings account that started with a deposit

of $2000 in year 1 with each succeeding
amount increasing by 10% per year. Use
an interest rate of 15% per year and a
7-year period.
2.44 The future worth in year 10 of a geomet-

ric gradient series of cash flows was found

to be $80,000. If the interest rate was
15% per year and the annual rate of increase was 9% per year, what was the cash
flow amount in year 1?
2.45 Frederiction Furniture Industries offers

several types of high-performance fabrics

that are capable of withstanding chemicals as harsh as chlorine. A certain New
Brunswick manufacturing company that
uses fabric in several products has a report
showing that the present worth of fabric
purchases over a certain 5-year period was
$900,000. If the costs were known to geometrically increase by 5% per year during
that time and the company used an interest
rate of 15% per year for investments, what
was the cost of the fabric in year 2?
2.46 Find the present worth of a series of

2.48 A company that manufactures purgable

hydrogen sulfide monitors is planning

to make deposits such that each one is
5% larger than the preceding one. How
large must the first deposit be (at the end of
year 1) if the deposits extend through year
10 and the fourth deposit is $1250? Use an
interest rate of 10% per year.
Interest Rate and Rate of Return
2.49 What compound interest rate per year is

equivalent to a 12% per year simple interest rate over a 15-year period?
2.50 A publicly traded consulting engineering

firm pays a bonus to each engineer at the

end of the year based on the companys
profit for that year. If the companys initial
investment was $1.2 million, what rate of
return has it made on its investment if each
engineers bonus has been $3000 per year
for the past 10 years? Assume the company has six engineers and that the bonus
money represents 5% of the companys
profit.
2.51 Danson Iron Works, Inc., manufactures

angular contact ball bearings for pumps

that operate in harsh environments. If the
company invested $2.4 million in a process that resulted in profits of $760,000
per year for 5 years, what rate of return
did the company make on its investment?

investments that starts at $1000 in year 1

and increases by 10% per year for 20 years.
Assume the interest rate is 10% per year.

2.52 An investment of $600,000 increased to

2.47 A Windsor consulting firm wants to start

$1,000,000 over a 5-year period. What

was the rate of return on the investment?

saving money for replacement of network servers. If the company invests

$3000 at the end of year 1 and increases
the amount invested by 5% each year,
how much will be in the account 4 years
from now if it earns interest at a rate of
8% per year?

2.53 A small company that specializes in

powder coating expanded its building and

purchased a new oven that is large enough
to handle automobile frames. The building
and oven cost $125,000, but new business
from hot-rodders has increased annual

PROBLEMS

income by $520,000. If operating expenses

for gas, materials, labour, etc., amount to
$470,000 per year, what rate of return will
be made on the investment if only the cash
flows that occur over the next 4 years are
included in the calculation?
2.54 The business plan for a startup company

that manufactures multigas portable detectors showed equivalent annual cash

flows of $400,000 for the first 5 years. If
the cash flow in year 1 was $320,000 and
the increase thereafter was $50,000 per
year, what interest rate was used in the
calculation?
2.55 A new company that makes medium-

voltage soft starters spent $85,000 to build

a new website. Net income was $60,000
the first year, increasing by $15,000 each
year. What rate of return did the company
make in its first 5 years?
Number of Years
2.56 A company that manufactures plastic

control valves has a fund for equipment

replacement that contains $500,000. If the
company spends $75,000 per year on new
equipment, how many years will it take to
reduce the fund to less than $75,000 at an
interest rate of 10% per year?

85
company recovers its investment at an
interest rate of 12% per year?
2.58 An engineer who invested very well plans

to retire now because she has $2,000,000

in her retirement account. How long will
she be able to withdraw $100,000 per year
(beginning 1 year from now) if her account
earns interest at a rate of 4% per year?
2.59 A company that manufactures ultra-

sonic wind sensors invested $1.5 million

2 years ago to acquire part ownership
in an innovative chip-making company.
How long would it take (from the date
of the initial investment) for its share of
the chip company to be worth $3 million
if that company is growing at a rate of
20% per year?
2.60 Roger Lareveur owns a mutual fund that

has averaged an 18% annual rate of return since he bought it two years ago with
$100,000. In the unlikely event that these
stellar results should continue, how long
will it be (from the time he started) before
he can retire with $1.6 million?
2.61 How many years will it take for a uniform

annual deposit of size A to accumulate to

10 times the size of a single deposit if the
rate of return is 10% per year?

2.57 An engineering consulting firm is consid-

ering purchasing the building it currently

occupies under a long-term lease because
the owner of the building suddenly put it
up for sale. The building is being offered
at a price of $170,000. Since the lease
is already paid for this year, the next
annual lease payment of $30,000 isnt
due until the end of this year. Because the
firm has been a good tenant, the owner has
offered to sell to them for $160,000. If the
firm purchases the building with no down
payment, how long will it be before the

2.62 How many years would it take for an

investment of $10,000 in year 1 with increases of 10% per year to have a present
worth of $1,000,000 at an interest rate of
7% per year?
2.63 You were told that a certain cash flow

sequence started at $3000 in year 1 and

increased by $2000 each year. How many
years were required for the equivalent
annual worth of the sequence to be $12,000
at an interest rate of 10% per year?

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CHAPTER 2

Factors: How Time and Interest Affect Money

CASE STUDY
WHAT A DIFFERENCE THE YEARS AND COMPOUND INTEREST CAN MAKE
Stock Option Program Purchase
A young B.Eng. graduate from the Dalhousie Faculty of
Engineering went to work for a microelectronics company at the age of 22 and placed $50 per month into the
stock purchase option. He left the company after a full
60 months of employment at age 27, and he did not sell
the stock. The engineer did not inquire about the value
of the stock until age 57, some 30 years later.
1. Construct the cash flow diagram for ages 22
through 57.
2. The engineer has learned that over the 35 intervening years, the stock earned at a rate of 1.25% per
month. Determine the value of the $50 per month
when the engineer left the company after a total of
60 purchases.

3. Determine the value of the engineers company

stock at age 57. Again, observe the significant difference that 30 years have made at a 15% per year
compound rate.
4. Assume the engineer did not leave the funds invested in the stock at age 27. Now determine the
amount he would have to deposit each year, starting at age 50, to be equivalent to the value at age
57 you calculated in (3) above. Assume the 7 years
of deposits make a return of 15% per year.
5. Finally, compare the total amount of money deposited during the 5 years when the engineer was in
his twenties with the total amount he would have
to deposit during the 7 years in his fifties to have
the equal and equivalent amount at age 57, as determined in (3) above.