3-9 SIGNAL FLOW GRAPHS. 104 The block diagram is useful for graphically representing control system dynamics and is uved extensively in the analysis and design of control systems An alternate approach for graphically topresenting control system dynamics isthe signal flow graph approach due to S_ Mason. It is noted that the signal flow graph approach and the block dia {ram approach yield the same information and one isin no sense superior fo the other. ‘Signal Flow Graphs. _ signal flow graph isa diagram that represents a set ol simultaneous linear algebraic equations. When applying the signal flow graph method sar differential equations into to analyses of control systems, we must first transform I algebraic equations in s “A signal flow raph consists of nctwork in which nodes are connected by direct ed branches. Each node represents a system variable, and each branch connected be- tween two nodes aets as a signal multiplier. Note that the signal flows in only one lisection. The ditection of signal flow is indicated by an arrow placed on the branch ‘ind the multiplication factor is indicated along the branch. The signal flow graph de: picts the flow of signals from one point ofa system to another and gives the relation ships among the signals, rc mentioned earlier. Signal flow graph contains essentially the same information as.ablock diagram I a signal flow graph is used to represent a control system, then @ fain formula called Mason's gain formula, may he used to obtain the relationships mong system variables without carrying out reduetion of the graph. Definitions. Before we discuss signal flow graphs, we must define certain terms Nove. A node isa point representing a variable or signal Transmintance. ‘The transmittance isa real gain or complex gain between two nodes. Such gains can be expressed in terms of the transfer funetion between two nodes Tunehh A branch isa directed ine segment joining two nodes. The gain of a branch js a transmittance. Input node or source. An input node or source is node that has only outgoing branches. This corresponds to an independent variable. ‘Ouput node oF snk. An output node or sink is a node that has only incoming branches This corresponds to a dependent variable Mixed node. A mixed node isa node that has both incoming and outgoing branches. Park, A path isa traversal of connected branches in the direction of the branch arrows If ag node is crossed more than once, the path is open. I the path ends at the rine node from which it began and does not cross any other node more than once, iis Sjosed. Ifa path eresses some node more than once but ends ata different node from Which it began itis neither open nor closed “Loop. A loop isa closed path ‘Loop gain, The loop gain isthe produet ofthe branch transmittances ofa loop. Nomouching loops. Loops are nontouching if they do not possess any common nodes. Forward path. © forward path is path from an input node (source) to an output node (sink) that does not cross any nodes more than once, Chapter 3. / Mathematical Madeling of Dynamic Systems Signal Moteapproach approach, ee block dix othe other ans. a set of aph method uations into sd by direct nected be in only one the branch, w graph de: he relation- information stem, then 2 tionships nwo nodes nodes. ofa branch aly outgoing ly incoming ng branches the branch ‘ends at the it node from ofa loop, ray common to an output ire 3.35 Sima flow graph Forward path gain. A forward path gain isthe product of the branch transmittances of a forward path 85 shows nodes and branches, together with transmittances, Properties of Signal Flow Graphs. A few important properties of signal low ‘graphs are as follows 1. A branch indicates the functional dependence of one signal on another A signal ppasses through only in the direction specified by the arrow of the branch, 2. A node adds the signals ofall incoming branches and transmits this sum to all out going branches. 3. A mixed node, which has both incoming and outgoing branches, may be treated as an output node (sink) by adding an outgoing branch of unity transmittance. (See Figure 3-35, Notice that a branch with unity transmittance is directed from 4, 10 another node, also denoted by x,.) Note, however, that we cannot change a mixed rhode toa source by this metho, 4. For a given system. a signal flow graph is not unique. Many different signal flow graphs can be drawn for a given system by writing the system equations differently. Signal Flow Graph Algebra. A signal flow graph of a linear system can be drawn using the foregoing definitions. In doing So. we usually bring the input nodes (soutees) to the left and the output nodes (sinks) to the right. The independent and dependent vari- ables of the equations become the input nodes (sources) and output nodes (sinks), re spectively The branch transmittances can be obtained from the coefficients of the equations To determine the input-oulput relationship, we may use Mason’s formula, which will be given Iter. or we may reduce the signal flow graph toa graph containing only input and output nodes. To accomplish this, we use the following rules 1. The value of a node with one incoming branch, as shown in Figure 3-36(a), is, 2. The total transmittance of cascaded branches is equal to the product of all the branch transmittances. Caseaded branches ean thus be combined into a single branch by multiplying the transmittances, as shown in Figure 3-36(b). 3. Parallel branches may be combined by adaling the transmittances, as shown in Figure 3-36(c. 4. A mixed node may be eliminated, as shown in Figure 3-36(a), 5. A loop may be eliminated, as shown in Figure 3-36(e). Note that n= be Section 3-9 /- Signal Flow Graphs 105Figure 3-36 Signal ow graphs and simplifications oS or ee eee Hence xy = abry + bex, om (78) Equation (3-77) corresponds toa diagram having a self-loop of transmittance be. Elin ination of the self-loop yields Equation (3-78), which clearly shows that the overall transmittance is ab/(1 ~ be), ‘Signal Flow Graph Representation of Linear Systems. Signal low graphs are ‘widely applied to linear-system analysis. Here the graph can be drawn from the system ‘equations or. with practice, can be drawn by inspection of the physical system, Routine reduction by use of the foregoing rules gives the relation between an input and output variable, Chapter 3. /- Mathematical Modeling of Dynamic Systems Figure 3. Sigal fo represent Ga) Equst () Equa and (c) Equac () comp Now grap system de Equation Oreom O78) be. Elim: xe overall sraphs are he system 1. Routine 1nd output Figure 3-37 Signal flow graphs representing (4) Equation (3-79, (5) Equation (3-80, and {6) Equation (3-8 (2) complete signal flow graph forthe system deseribed by Exquations 6-79-6-81) Consider a system defined by the following set of equations 2) = ayes + ate Hats + by G7) 2p = and, tank + ane + be (3-80) 2) = ay + ant + ands G81) where, and ware input variables and x, x,,and x; are output variables. signal flow sraph for this system, a graphical representation of these three simultaneous equations, indicating the interdependence of the variables, can be obtained as follows: First locate the nodes x;,.r, and x, as shown in Figure 3-37(a).Note that ais the transmittance be- tween x, and x,, Equation (3-79) states that x, is equal to the sum of the four signals. {441%}, aye, 4,545, and by 4. The signal flow graph representing Equation (3-79) is shown in Figure 3-37(a). Equation (3-80) states that x, is equal to the sum of d.%;, nX3- py%5, and byt. The corresponding signal flow graph is shown in Figure 3-37(b). ‘The signal flow graph representing Equation (3-81) is shown in Figure 3-37(c), The signal flow graph representing Equations (3-79), (3-80), and (3-81) is then ob- tained by combining Figures 3-37(a), (b),and (c) Finally, the complete signal flow graph for the given simultaneous equations is shown in Figure 3-37(d). In dealing with a signal flow graph, the input nodes (sources) may be considered ‘one ata time. The output signal is then equal to the sum of the individual contributions of each input. ‘The overall gain from an input to an output may be obtained directly from the sig nal flow graph by inspection, by use of Mason’s formula, or by a reduction of the graph toa simpler form. ‘Section 3-9. Signal Flow Graphsflow graphs of simple iphs the closed-loop trans \y by inspection. For more formula is quite useful Signal Flow Graphs of Control Systems. control systems are shown in Figure 3-38, For such si for function C(s)/R(s) [or C{s) /NC complicated signal flow graphs, Mas Figure Matty system Figure 3.38 Block diagrams and corresponding signal flow graphs Chapter 3. /- Mathematica! Modeting of Dynamic Systemssimple Mason's Gain Formula for Signal Flow Graphs. In many practical cases, we wie Wish to determine the relationship between an input variable and an output variable of op tran the signal flow graph, The transmittance between an input node and an output mode is creer the overall gain, or overall transmittance, between these two nodes. lason’s gain formula, which is applicable to the overall gain, i given by r- yp, poy daa where 2, > path gain or transmittance of kth forward path 4 = determinant of graph vi 1 = (sum of al individual loop gains) + (sum of gan products ofa possible combinations of two nontouching loops) ~ (Sum of pain Droducts of all possible ‘combinations of twee montouching toops) * H 1H Dh Soot = Staley + 4, = sum of all individual loop gains BAol.. = sum of gain products ofall possible combinations of two nontouching ‘as loops Zbulcby = sum of gain products of all possible combinations of three a nontouching loops 4, = cofactor of the kth forward path determinant of the graph with the loops touching the kth forward path removed, that i, the cofactor is obtained from A by removing the loops that touch path: P, (Note that the summations are taken overall possible paths from input to output.) In the following, we shal illustrate the use of Mason's gain formula by means of two examples, EXAMPLE 3-13 Consider the system shown in Figure 3.39, signal flow raph for this system is shown in Figure 3-40, Let ws obiain the cloned Toop transfer function C(s)/R(s) by use of Mason's gain formula In this system theres only one F-ward path between the input Ris) and the output Cla) The Forward path gain it i 2 GG6, Figure 3.39 Mulipie-loop sytem, Section 3-9 / Signal Flow Graphs 109Figure 3-40 Signal flow graph for the system in Figure 339. EXAMPLE 3-14 From Figure 3-40, we see that there are three individual loops The gins of these loops are Ly = GG.H, yt b= GGG, bya [Note that since all three loops have a common branch, there are no nontouching loops Hence the determinant & is given by a (both) ~ Gt, + Hy + GGG. “The cofactor 4, ofthe determinant along the forward path connecting the input node and out put nade is obtained from 3 by removing the loops that touch ths path Since path , touches al three loops, we obtain act “Therefore the overall gain between the input R(s) and the output C(s), oF the closed-loop trans fer function, given by (CG. eee Fi, + GG GEG, “which is the same asthe closed-loop transfer function obtained by block diagram reduction ‘Mason's gain formula thos gives the overall gain C(s)/R(3} without a reduction ofthe graph shown in Figure 3-41. Obtain the closed-loop transfer function C(s}/R(s) by ‘se of Mason's gan formal In this system, there are three forward pais between the input R(s) and the output (s) ‘The forward path gains are AAGGs GGGG, R= GGG; ‘Chapter 3. /- Mathematical Modeling of Dynamic Systems in | Signal Now grse loops ate oops. Hence. the at node and out ith P, touches all losed-oop tran gram reduction "ofthe graph. son C(s)/R(s} bv the output C(s) PH Figure 3-41 Signal ow graph for There are four individu loops. The gains ofthese loops are = Gut, b= GH, Ls = 6.0.6, Ly = -GGGGuth, | {Loop tds not touch lop 1, Hene. he determinant 3 given hy ee eee ee (9) Te salto dx is vain from & by removing the loops that touch path F. Thezfone. by Femoving 1. Ls.L4.and ZL rom Equation (3-82), e oben ast Similarly. the cofactor 3 is Oe "e cfactr Asis obtained by removing Loa La. Land Ly. rom Equation (3-2) giving Ayelek The losed-foop transfer function C(s)/R(s) is then ce et an Roy PT EA + Base BA) GGGGG + CCGG, + GGG4) + GAH) WGN CGH. «GOGH. +G.GGGih + GHOGH, Sommments. The usual uplication of signal low graphs sin ystem diagramming aoianig tuations deserbing linear system is represented bya signal flow peaph bo oe, tanshing nodes that represent the system variables and by interconnecting the neces see petted. dltected.transmittances which represent the relationships among the var aera’ gsi formuta may be used to establish the relationship betwee an input and an output, (Alternatively. the variables inthe system may be eliminated one by ona wag fenuetion techniques) Mason's gain formulas especially useful in reducing roe ‘and complex system diagrams in one sep, without requiring step-by-step reductions, Section 3-9 / Signal Flow Graphs mm