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INTRODUCTION
Over the past thousand million years of Earth history the crust of the Earth has been
mobile.
As a consequence many of the rocks that we see now near of at the surface, no
matter what their origin have been squashed, stretched or fractured; they have been
deformed.
Deformation arises because large parts of the Earth (lithospheric plate) have been
moving relative to each other throughout geological time.
The movement of these plates generate stresses that lead to both compression
(collide) and tension (break apart or stretched).
The rocks comprising the crust respond to such stresses by undergoing changes of
shape (strain), therefore various geological structures are developed which provide a
record of type of deformation.
Compressional, tensional and shearing forces acting on rocks may cause them to
form:
(a) Fold
(b) Fractures
(c) Joints
Deformation of rocks
(1) Compression
(2) Tension
(3) Shear
The factors that govern the way a rock deform are as follows (Table 3):
(1) Confining pressure and temperature
(2) Time over which the stress is applied
Table 1
Stresses
Description
Tension
Shear
Table 2
Fracture
Description
Brittle
Ductile
Table 3
Factors
Description
Confining
Rock may behave in a brittle manner when
pressure and near the surface of Earth where the
temperature confining pressure and temperature are
relatively low.
Time over
which the
stress is
applied
Types of deformation
6.2.1
6.2.2
6.2.3
Fractures
Strike and dip
Joints
Fractures
Fault
Fault
Fault categories
Categories of faults:
(a) Normal fault
(b) Reverse fault
(c) Lateral fault
Note: (a) and (b) are also known as dip - slip faults and
(c) are known as strike slip - fault.
Normal fault
Reverse fault
Occurs when the crusts are compressed and one side of the layer
moved upwards relative to the other.
Lateral fault
Involves the horizontal movement along the strike of the fault plane.
Contd
Natural example of strike and dip. The strike of the dipping rock surface
is marked by its intersection with the water surface
Joints
Folds
Folded rocks in the Calico of southern California. Three folds are visible from left to right: a syncline, an
anticline and another syncline. We can infer compression was responsible for these folds.
Folds and their relationship to topography. Cross section illustrating that anticlines do not necessarily
correspond to high and low areas of the surface. Notice that the folds even underlie the rather flat area.
Recumbent fold
Folds categories
Categories of fold are:
(1) Monocline
(2) Anticline
(3) Syncline
(4) Overturned anticline and syncline
Monocline
Anticline
Up-arched rocks in which the older rocks are in the center and the
younger rocks are on the flanks.
Syncline
Folded downwards in which the younger beds in the center and the
older rocks on the flanks diagram of folds.
Unconformity
Q & A