xgjh tF

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bjhF 3

ma
r_f ma

jehL muR
m
ytr ghl tHF
l btlglJ

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Kj g

- 2013

Ua g - 2014, 2015
(bghJ ghll btlgl KgUt )

ghl cUthfK bjhF

khy fa Muh kW g Wtd

f rhiy, brid - 600 006.

mrhf

jehL ghl kW fa gf fHf

f rhiy, brid - 600 006.

bt

ghl tiyjs

www.textbooksonline.tn.nic.in
ii

bghUslf
myF
v

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( 1 - 135 )

ca
1.

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2.

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23

nta
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eik NJs gUbghUf

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41

4.

mQ mik

61

aa
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msLfS msL fUfS

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6.

af

98

7.

utf

114

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126

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tuyhW
1.

gila ehfff

137

2.

.K. 6 M who z aff

156

3.

ilfhy

166

a
1.

jehL

178

2.

jeho aif mik

185

3.

jeho fhyiy

193

4.

jeho tsf

206

5.

jehL - ntshik

224

Foika
1.

239

ka muR
bghUa

1.

njit m

255

iv

ma
xgjh tF
Kj gUt

MaUF....
ma
jf
Ua
gig
btL
jUz
vKidUJ wghd Cfid, Mjuit e tU fngh,
fngh r_fnjhUF vf berhj efis g brnwh.
cy _iyKLFf vyh JJ fLofS, MfS
nkbfhL tUtjh, maiy bghUjtiu, mj mogil
bfhiffS, nfhghLfS vj X
Wahd tiuaiwF cglhJ,
fhynjhW khbfhnl Uj
fTL. ma cikfis,
fUJfis mt rhuij J rfhk ca glfSl ml
KaWnsh.
ma fUJfis fg brJ fw Kiw X mogilTwhf
midtuhY VWbfhsgLsJ. ghlf lbgWs braghLf
thyhf, mjj ghlfUJfis kL fWbfhsnth, rghfnth
khzhf ftdij Ff brtjF khwhf braghLfis brnghJ,
mtwh flagL Ko vgJ mLjnjh nrhjid nkbfhtjF
lkgjhf Uj ntL. gagLJ bghUf iykthf, jj
UlfSF mUnf v ilf ntL vgJ fU UjgL,
braghLfS MfS totikfgLsd. braghLf nkbfhtij
begLj, mit _W fshfgLsd.
) ehnd brnw

- khzt xbthUtU Rakhf nkbfhtd.

) ehfns brnwh - khzt FGfshf J nkbfhtd.

) cWneh mnth - Mauh brJfhl jfd.
_whtJ braghLf, nkbfht rnw fodkhd myJ rhu,
mghafukhd ntbghUf bjhlghditahf UF.
nkY mJ bfhnth jiy cs, ghl rhj aL cikf/
brf btW jftfns m nj fnzhl khzhfiu
mbrf rhJ nrhj TlhJ.
kL vgJ fwYfhd kbwhU js vw ntWgl nfhz
mQfgLsJ. JbfhSjiy KjikgLJtdh, cUnghLj vD
tHfij KYkhf ntuWf Kid fhlgLsJ. fwjtiw mwhl
th gagLJ w, fiy F w, gFjh jid nghwtiw
CfgLj ntL. xU dhF xF nkgl ilfis khzhf jU
th UFkhdh, mjF Kaf vnghJ ghuhlglntL.
nkY ma jffS, izajs KftfS, ghlf W
bfhLfgLsd. cflUJ Mftkhd fUJfS, krdfS
tuntfgLwd. jFahd krdf fU bfhsgL, cgLjgL.

- Ma FG
sciencetextbook@gmail.com
2

myF

yFyf
* mKf
* KJbfYgwit
* KJbfYsit
* yFf gntW tifahd
* dbgUf Kiwf
* fUWj
* Fo nghL yFf
* KilL FR bghgit
* s c K cahf khWj

ca

myF 1

yFyf
nfhlhd nfho tif cdf eh
thG eik R rhJ
thwd. mf bgafis
ekh id itJ bfhs Kokh?
midJ cdfis mjKs
tiffshf
J
eh
id
itJbfhs ca tYef ekF
cjsd.

blkh neRnu (Systema Naturae) vw

jf mt flj cdfis
gy FGfshf J tirgLdh.
eh
cdfis
bgaLtjF,
tifgLJtjF, xL brtjF
nda
tifghoa
Kiwiana
jnghJ
gagLJnwh.
tifghoa
fbga
goiy
cyfkhF. mj gy Jiz myFf
gntW
goiyfshf
fgL
tirgLjgLsd.

cd
bjhFfilna
cs
xWik, ntWik gf mogil
tifgLJjiy
f
fW
mJf. ghlit lh[hd
(taxonomy) vW miHghf. brh
tU lh (taxis) vw nuf
thijF
tirgLJj
vW
nehah (nomia) vw brhYF Kiw
vW bghU.

tifghoa gntW goiyf

cyf, bjhF, tF, Jiw, FLg,
ngd, d MF. j gu
cs midJ cdfS j
tifghL goiyf wF tir
mogil tifgLjgLwd.

tifghoa vgJ ca xU
MF. tifghoa cdfis
dflj, tj, bgaLj,
tifgLJj Matiw cslaJ.

cdf,
mt
bghJthd
gf mogil WW FGfshf
fgLsd. xbthU FGkYs
cdfS mtF Kija FGk
cdfUJ njhUf TL.
tifgLJj
iy
myF
dkhF.

Rl ehil rhj jhtua mP

fnuhy
nda
(1707-1778)
tifghoa gntW goiyfis
cUthdh. tifghoa goiyf
cdfSilna cs xWikf
mogil
mtiw
tirgLj
cjwJ. nda jdJ jfkhd

y bghJthd gf mogil
myJ
goiyf
cdf
tifgLjgLsd. mit tUkhW:
nkY mJ bfhnth

yFfis mt bghJik
jik, ntWghL Mat mogil
Kj
Kj
tifgLat
ya jijahd mlho
Mth. (384-322 . K.)

fnuhy
nda
vD
l ehL jhtua mP
jfhy tifghoa jij vd
miHfgLwh. (1707-1778)

yFyf
ehnd brnw

glij cWnehnd.
_W
fhuzf
mogil
glYs
ehfh nkir my vd
tifgLnd.
Murk

tifghoa goiyf

Ugf rk

kG, byhgl nghw cdf

Ugf rk jik bfhLsd.
cd
ika
mR
tahf
brYjgLw
nenfhL
s
kLnk cia tyJ, lJ vd U
rkghffshf wJ. J Ugf
rk vdgL.

cyf
bjhF

mgh X xGfw totKilaJ. it

rk jik mw cdf MF.
Vbd ika mR tahf brYw
vj xU s U rk ghffshf t
cliy giy.

tF

Jiw

3. fUiy mLFf: fUiy ts

nghJ cUthF brf Tlikng
fUiy mLFf vdgL. fU K
milnghJ, j mLFf btntW
cWfshf khWwd. X cd
U mLFf (btw mLF, cw
mLF) fhzgLkhdh mit <uLF
cf MF. cdf btw
mLF, cw mLF, eLw mLF
vd _W mLFfis bfhoUjh
mit _tLF cf vdgLwd.

FLg

ngd

tifgho mogil myFf:

1. mik iy: ydf brf
vifia bghUJ xU br c,
gybr c vd U fshf
fgLsJ.

btw mLF
eL mLF
cw mLF

2. rk jik: X cd mik,

tot, cd ika mir R
mikJs cl cWf mik
rk
jikia
cWneh,
m
ika
mR
tahf
brYjgLw vj xU s cia
UrkTWfshf
Fkhdh
mjifa rk jik Murk
vdgL. v.fh. iAuh

fU FWFbtL njhw

4. clF: clF vgJ clYFns

cs ut ua FahF. J
brkhd
klyij
kw
cWfis btw njhUJ
wJ. xU cikahd clF
cd eL mL fhzgLwJ.

ma

bra 1.1

ca

myF 1

clF
a
mogil
yFfis
_W
fshf
fyh.
cikahd clF cilait

cl
btgiyia
Niyf
VgL khwfis bghUgLjhk
xnu iyahdJ, RWNHiy l rW
mfkhf
cl
btgij
bfhoUF. it btg uj
yFf vdgL.

btw mLF
br

nkTa
gf
mogil
Niya mP M.v nlf
IJ cyf tifghL Kiwid cUth
midJ cdfis IJ cyf
tifgho tifgLdh.

cw mLF
eL mLF
clF

kG nghw cdf cikahd

clF fhzgLtjh, it clF
cilait vdgL.
clFawit

brRt
kW
gRwfsw
gy
brfshyhd
ydfis
yFyf fh bjhFfshf
tirgLsd.

btw mLF
eL mLF
cw mLF

bjhF 1. Jislf
(v.fh. flgR)
bjhF 2.Flf (v.fh. iAuh)

 clF yhj cdf clFaw

cdf
vdgL.
vLJfhL:
ehlhG.

bjhF 3. jilGf
(v.fh. ehlhG)

ngh clF cilait

bjhF 4. cUisGf
(v.fh. mfh)

btw mLF

bjhF 5. tisjirGf
(v.fh. kG)

eL mLF
cw mLF

bjhF 6. fQfhf
(v.fh. fugh )

clF

 cUisG nghw cdf

clFahdJ, cw mLF eL
mLF ilna fhzgLwJ. J
ngh clF vW jifa clF
bfhl yFfis ngh clF
cilait vW TWnwh.

bjhF 7. bkYlf
(v.fh. eij)
bjhF 8. Knjhf
(v.fh. eru )
bjhF 9. KJF ehQsit

5. cl btgiy: cl btgiyia

xGFgLJ
w
mogil
yFfis
uL
tiffshf
fyh. , jtis nghw y
yFf jf cl btgiyia
RWw
Niynfg
kh
bfhS w cilait. it F
uj yFf vdgL. gwit,
kj nghw y cdf jf

bjhF
1-8
cs
yFf
KJbfYgwit
vdgL.
Vbd
tif
yFf
cw
KJbfYbjhl
fhzgLtiy.
bjhF 9 KJF ehQsit. it
Fl ts fhyf KJF
ehiz
bfhoUwd.
fU
ts nghJ KJFeh tis

yFyf

M.v. nlf tifghoa

cyf

1. ghOah
2. irndh ghOah
( y gR gh )

nuholh

1. xU br ghf
2. nuhnlhnrhth

ir

1. irf

yFf

jhtuf

1. gy br ghf
2. iunahiglh
3. blnlhiglh
4. ndhbg
5. Mnahbg

1 . Jislf
2. Flf
3. jilGf
4. cUisGf
5. tisjir
Gf
6. fQfhf
7. bkYlf
8. Knjhf

1. K
 JF
ehQsit

jik
bfhl
cUis
tot
FUbjY Rth Md X mik
MF. KJF eh c eL mrhf
Ka
Mjhu
Rthf
csJ.
KJbfYs
cdf
KJF
ehzhdJ
KJbfY
bjhluhf
tsailwJ.

jJ tU ghOahf, E cz
Jffis
czthf
cbfhwJ.
Jislf
flYF
moYs
ghiwf, bkYlf XLf xo
thwd. t cl fha,
fhth Md EKfsh (spicules)
cWgLjgLwJ. v.fh. irfh.

1.1 KJF ehzwit:

2. bjhF: Flf

1. bjhF: Jislf

Flf
tzF
th
yFf
MF.
j
bjhF
yFf xo iyJ thgit
ghf vW jJ iyaW
jF jik bfhl Flf
bkLrh
vW
miHfgLwJ.
Flf clRt <uLF bfhl
MurkuhdJ. tF bjthd ig
nghw clF myJ iuig clF

gy br cf Jislfns
f vahd, tzF clyikig
bfhlit. it cl Jisf
bgUgjh, Jislf vdgLwJ.
tF th iy, jF khwhf cl
cs Ea Jisf tahf uhdJ
clD brwJ. t brf R
mikig bgwiy. MdhY

fl mnkhf

flgRf

ma

nkhuh

ca

myF 1
clF bfhl yFfshF. clF
utkhdJ
eLw
mLF
cSWfSF ilna fhzgLwJ.
bgUghyhd
cUisGf
jJ
thgit. mt y xLfshf
neh clhF jik bfhlitahf
fhzgLwJ. vLJfhlhf, ignya
Gf
mghafukhd
ahidfh
nehid clhFtjhf bfh
Gf kj Fl xLfshf
fhzgLwJ.

fhzgLwJ. J brj gF
bgWwJ. t cW mikf
iy. Flf thia R u
nghw czf fhzgLwd.
it iuia ogjF jfis
ghJfhJ bfhs gagLwd.
czf beknlhLf vdgL
bfhL brfis bfhoUwd.
j bfhL brf cs eR
iuia braHf brJ, of
cjwJ. v.fh. fl mnkhf, iAuh,
b# f.
3. bjhF: jilGf
jilGf jilahf, iy
nghy, ehlhit nghy tot bfhl
cf. it Jislf Flf
clyikig l fyhd clyik
cilait. t cl Ugf rk
jik bfhlit. clRtuhdJ _W
mogil mLFfsh cUth Ugjh
it
_tLF
cf.
nkY
clFawit. sndah jirahf
thH
Toa
jilGf
MF.
bgUghyhd jil Gf xLahf
thgit. v.fh. ehlhG. dij
rhj xLfSF bfhf,
cf
nghw
Jiz
cWf
Unjh cl iyJ Uf
cjwd.

cUisG

5. bjhF: tisjir Gf
Gf midJ bjhFia
nrj ydf MF. t cl
mik l cUis totKl nkY gy
flfshf fgLsJ. xbthU
flY xj cW mikf
fhzgLwd. jF bklhbkr
vW bga. Gf lh vdgL
EKfsh
lbga
brwJ.
t cl Ugf rkjikia

bfhf

kG

nkY mJ bfhnth

cf
sndah

kGit cHt eg vW
miHgJ V? kG ktsij
mff Ka gfhWwJ. J
cGj _y kYs mff
bghUf kW RH bragL jhtu
tsF cjwJ. kG nkY
Gkhd efdh kJff Wf
FiwJ
fyfgL
fhnwhl
cilajhf khWwd.

ehlhG

4. bjhF: cUisGf
j bjhFia nrj ydf
cUis Gf vdgL. t
clyhdJ cUis totkhd flfsw,
o vD joj jfh ciwdh
NHgoUF. it Ugf rk
bfhl _tLF cf. it ngh

yFyf
bfhlJ. clRt _tLFfsh MdJ.
t cl cikahd clF
fhzgLwJ. kG, mil nghw
cf
tisjirGfSF
vLJfhlhF.
6. bjhF: fQfhf
yF cyf fbga bjhF
fQfhf MF. it unlaf
(v.fh. eLf, whf), f (v.fh.
glh
f,
fugh
f),
muLf (v.fh. yf, njf),
anghLf (v.fh. uhf, kutilf).

nj
7. bjhF: bkYlf

Mnuhnghlh
vw
brhYF
izfgl fhf vW bghU.
fQfhf
izfgl
fh
mikig
bfhlit.
it
izfgl fQfhfis bfhL
efj, cQj, czj Matiw
nkbfhwJ. t cl jiy, kh,
tW vd flfshf fgL
csJ. t clgF ifo vw
bghUsh Md cWahd, fodkhd
wrlfjh NHgLsJ. midJ
clflfS
mirgo
izfgLsjh
afF
cjwJ. fQfhf Ugf rk
jik bfhlit. it wjiy uj
Xlij bfhlit. uj ehsf
mwit. clF utkhdJ midJ
cWfis NJ RHwJ.

e kof

bra 1.2

ehnd brnw

iAuh x uju eGtij

Enzh _y cWneh mj
glid
tiunj.
iAuh
glJl xL ghff Ff.
th cs lij flnj.
czf
vifia
Fnl.

tzJ
f kLnk KJbfYgw
yFf wiffis
bfhLsd

ma

eh fhQ KJbfYgw cdf

bgUghyhdit
bkYlfS,
fQfhfSnk MF. eij, Xlw
bkYl (slug), ko, KJ , fzth
(squid) Mnlhg nghw cdf
cliy
cWnehFnghJ,
gyjkhd
totfis fhz KowJ. Mdh
mit
bghJthd
cl
gfis
bgUwd.
t
clf
UJthd,
flfsW,
fsW
bka jirah Md nko vw
mikgh NHgLsd. nko
fha fhgndlh Md fodkhd
Xoid RuJ cliy ghJfhwJ.
bgUghyhd bkYlf jirahyhd
fhf _y lbgawd. nkY y
y (slug) nghw bkYlf XLf
fhzgLtiy.

ca

myF 1

8. bjhF: Knjhf

nkY mJ bfhnth

eru f, fl mf fl
btsf,
fl
mf
Mad
KnjhfSF vLJfhLfshF.
bjhF cdf midJ
Kfsh Md njh bfhLsd. it
flth cf MF. t s
cf Ugf rk jik Kj
cf
Mu
rk
jikia
bgWsd. _tLF cfshd it
clFilait. t cl, bka
btw Xodh NHgLsJ. Mdh
flfsW fhzgLwJ. Knjhf
jjik
thjit.
Vbd
itf cl cw iwj
fhth nghw mikig bfhLsJ.
fhthf
cldo
Wfzfhd FH nghw fhfshf
btna oUF. eru f FH
toyhd fhfis bfhL efwd.
FHfhf E cR zfis
bfhlJ. FH _y crgL
mGjjh
jirf
tYbgW
aFwJ. FH cR Kiw _y
fh gkhw, cz gkhw, f
bghUfis
btnaWj
nghw
braf eilbgWwJ.
1.2 KJbfYsit
KJbfYs cdf
f Kndho it nrjit.
yFf
KJbfYgwitfis
fhoY ms bgait. t
Ugf rk jik bfhlit.

eru

10

ACTIVITY 1.3

Mnuah
flFs
myJ
b# (ifnuhu shf) vD
xU tif Fl cynyna f
mf eRw bfhl yfhF.
J 60 kjfis bfhY msF
eR bfhlJ.
clF
_tLFfshY
MdJ.,
KJbfYsit fodkhd kW tis
jik bfhl r bjhl nghy
cUis
tot
vYfsh
Md
KJbfYid
bgWsd.
KJbfYf fh gfshd cl
flfis, _oa uj Xlij
eF tsj c vY rlfij
bfhlJ. it f ts milj
_isia bfhlit. KJbfYs
cf
IJ
tFfshf
fgLsd.
1. tF - f
f F uj uhf. it
midJ thgit. cl glF
nghw miklD brfsh NHgL
fhzgLwJ. JLf lbgaF
cjwd. f Rthr, brf
_y
eilbgWwJ.
brf
vYghyhd
_o
nghw
mikgh
_lgoUF jF xgFy vW
bga.
ytif
fshd
Rwh,
Uif(Rayfish)
nghwt
FUbjYgh
Md
mfrlf
fhzgLwJ. KJbfYf f
jank vikahd mik cilajhF.
it
uL
miwfis
bfhl
jaij bgWsd. xU M, xU
bt vw uL miwf
fhzgLwd.

yFyf
nkY mJ bfhnth

Uthf RWw VgL

khwfis flt mfw
bfhlit. njh _ykhf Rthr
eilbgW
fhuzjh
faf,
RWNH khR, thGl VgL
jilf nghwtiw it vjhf
czwd.
RWw
VgL
mFfis Uthfsh Kj
czu aY vW ma mP
ewd. my kiH, Xnrh gly
gh, nta NiynfL Ma
fhuzfsh U thfS y
df flj 20 MLf mJ
ld.
rhykhlf,
njiuf
Mait
UthfSF
vLJfhlhF.
Uthf ja _W miwfis
bfhlJ. mit U Mf, xU
bto MF.

rhykhl

nkY mJ bfhnth
bfhoa

2. tF - Uthf
Uthf KJbfYila F
uj uhf MF. Uthf
cl brf fhzgLtiy. it
Y, yY thG wid bgWsd.
Uthf, KJbfYf fa
tFghF.
Uthf
njh
cnuhkf iy. it RthjYfhf
brf, Eiupuiy gagLJwd.
t <ukhd njhY RthrnghJ
th gkhw cjwJ. jtisf,

eR
m
jtisUJ
(vbgnlhng oiufy) jahfgL
kUJ wjbjhU t ahf
bragLwJ.
kh~id
xj
gaDilaJ. Mdh gf isf
mwJ.

11

ma

bfhoa : ff vdgL f
cynyna mf eR jikilad.
KJFwnjh rtuf
nghw Tikahd Kf mo
mikJs
eRigf
eR
nrfgL
UF.
vf
jhFjnghnjh myJ mahk
fis
bjhl
nejhnyh,
Tikahd Kfis v cl
brY
eid
btgLJ.
j _y v wfnth myJ
braHfnth neL.

nkY mJ bfhnth

ca

myF 1

njiuia,
jtisia
ntWgLJf?
t.
v

njiu

vthW

nkY mJ bfhnth

jtis

Filahd
dfhf

l
dfhf

fuLKulhd,
brhubrhughd
fhj njh

<ugjKila,
bkikahd,
tHtHghd njh

f Fiwj
neunk
UF

mf neu
UF

elgJ nghw
mir, a
Js nghw
KiwY l
bgaU

jh
FJ brY

gf
ilahJ

nkjhil
gf cL

dfhf dfhf
uil r
uil r
ilahJ
cL

ildrhfS Ctd tFig

rhjitna. Mdh mit mWgJ
IJ a MLfSF Kdnu
wJ ld. gfS KjiyfS
ildrhfnshL bjhlila W
thG ydf MF.
nkY

fhjik
bfhlJ.
Ctdt ja _W miwfis
bfhlJ.
it
Eiupuf
_y
Rthwd.
4. tF - gwitf
gwitf uhd cl btgij
bfhl KJbfYsit MF. it
glF nghw clyikig wFfsh
_lgL fhzgLwJ. tF ehF

3. tF - Ctd
ghf, Mikf, Kjiyf, gf
Mait CtdtF vLJfhLf
MF. it F ujuhf.
RWNH
btgiy
caUnghJ
dfS
jfsJ
cl
btgiyia mfJ bfhL iuJ
bragL.
btgiy
FiwnghJ
t
cl brawD Fiw.
t njh cyj brfshyhdJ.

gh

Mij

12

yFyf
ntljhf gwitf fl:
J gwitf dbgUfF a ms
f wj lkhf fUjgLwJ. e jeho
fhu khtl (bridUJ VwjhH 75 ..
u) mikJs xU gFna ntljhf.
F tUif jU cehL, btehL gwitfS
fhku lhl, bAuh, vbuZ, wj myFila
bfhF, fuo _, btis I, o u, fW
wFila
N,
rhg
bgf
Kjad
Fljfit. etg Kj ut tiuyhd fhynk
gwitfis fhz Vw fhykhF.

5. tF - ghof

ghof jaK EiupufS kw

tW gF cWfUJ jirahyhd
cjujhd
vw
mikgh
fgLsJ.
ghof jfSnf ca gghd
s
cfSF
ghLtjF
njitahd gh cg br gh
Rufis bfhLsd. v, id,
fy, lh, ahid, FuF, kj
nghwd ghofSF vLJfhlhF.
btsth
gwF
ghoF
vLJfhlhF.

ghof uhd cl btgij

bfhl KJbfYsit. t cl
gwitf cs wFfis nghyhk
cnuhkfsh NHgLsJ. t
njh ait RufS, vbz
RufS fhzgLwd. it khWgl
gyikig bfhlit. jifa g
mikF bAonuhlh (Heterodont)
gyik vW bga. ghof ja
ehF
miwfis
bfhlit.

nkY mJ bfhnth

btsthf vbuh w:
btsthfis nghy gy yFfS
vbuhw vW miHfgL
bahia gagLJwd. j
ydf vbuhF xia
vG mj_y RWwYs
ntWgl
bghUfUJ
tU
vbuhia gagL bghUf
cs lij mj bjhiyit
mJ
bfhwd.
jdh
btsthf jhf U lF
bry,
iuia
KG
Uo
ntilahl KowJ.

lhf

13

ma

fhf csd. t Kdfhf

wiffshf khWghL milJ gwgjF
cjwJ.
it
Eiupuf
_y
Rthwd. nkY t vYf
kw KJbfYs yFf vYig
l nyrhf csJ. t ja ehF
miwfis bfhlJ. wh, fhf, FU
Kjad eik Rs gwitf MF.
beUnfh, bgF, <K, fbrs
nghwit gwF jikaw gwitfSF
vLJfhlhF.

ntljhf gwitf fl:

ca

myF 1

bra 1.3
ghyh
t.
v dbgUf

yid flf
cl Jisf cs KJbfYgw
fl th cd ______________
XLila UJthd cliy bfhl
KJbfYgw
fl
th
cd______________

khWghL milj Kdfhfis
bfhl KJbfYila btg uj
uh ______________

Kfis bfhl KJbfYgw
flth c ______________
clflfis
fQfh
fis cila KJbfYgw uh
__________

Fo
nghL
gh
bfhLF
mlahd nuhkfis bfhl
KJbfY cila c ___________

cyj
brfis
bfhl
KJbfY cila yF __________
l flfis bfhl fhf
mw,
KJbfYgw
uh
______________

gh dbgUf

1.

xnu c
kL gF
bgW

uL cf gF
bgWwd (M,
bg) xbthW
nfLfis cg
br w
thjit

2.

nfLf
iz
eilbgWtJ
iy

M,
bg
nfLf
(J
br, ml br)
izJ
fUw
Kil cUthwJ.

njhWj Kjad. ghua xU br

cF vLJfhL MF. ghua U
rks Kiw dbgUf brwJ.
Kiw nghJ br eL xU
s
VgL
mJ
cfUit,
irnlhshrij U ghffshf
wJ. thW xU jh ghua
uL nr ghuafis cUthFwJ.

1.3.
 yFf
gntW
tifahd dbgUf Kiwf
cf
jfis
nghw
s
cfis cUthF w dbgUf
vdgL. cf jf dij
bjhlahf iyWj dbgUf
brwd.
midJ
cdfS
dbgUf br w bgwit.
dbgUf ghyh dbgUf, gh
dbgUf vd UtifgL.

jh

RUf

ghyh dbgUf:
ghyh dbgUf a cf
xnu c UJ cUthwd. xU
br cf X c sgL
jj
nr
cf
cUthf
ttFwJ.
ghyh dbgUf y Kiwf
gy s Kiw, Urk s Kiw,
mUj, b#f cUthj, nghf

14

cfU s

nr ghua

ghua U rksgLj

yFyf

iAuh mUl

y
cdf
RWNH
fhzgL rhjfkw NiyfS ghyh
dbgUfid Lwd.
vLJfhlhf
flgRf
rhjhuz Niy gh dbgUf
brwJ.
mit
Ugh
cahf
Ugjh (M, bg dbgUf
cWf xnu c fhzgLj)
M, bg dbgUf brfis
fUWjYfhf njhWwd. Mdh
rhjfkw Niyf mUfis
myJ brf ufshf mikj
b#fis cUthFwd. mf
ghJfhfhf
xbthU
b#Y
joj vzw fhwiwf bfhl
bt mLif uL cw ifo
mLFfis
bfhLsd.
j
b#f flgRf clUJ
btnaWwd. Vw NiynghJ
b#fYs iknuhig vD Jis
_y bruf btna xbthW
X s flgrhf tswJ.

b#

rhjfkw Niyf nuhnlhnrhth

bjhFia rhj mgh, shnkhoa
(knyah xL) nghwit jik
R TL xid cUth () mjD
nghfis ghyh dbgUf Kiw
cUthFwd. nuhnlhshr RU
mij R joj ghJfhghd X ciw
cUthwJ. jF TL cUthf ()
vW bga. Vw Niy nghJ
fiuJ s milwJ. nuhnlhshr
jDila giHa iyia milJ gy s
Kiw Vuhskhd jirahf thG
nr brf cUthf ttFwd.
KiwF ngh cUthf vW bga.
ghyh dbgUf eikf
1. xnu c nghJkhdJ.
2. f
vikahdJ.
njhWj.
fUWj
eilbgWtiy.

dbrf
nghwit

ghyh dbgUf ikf:

1. 
s cf, bgnwhlUJ mf
ntWgLtiy. ghyh dbgUf
gghdJ
cdf
ntWghL
clhjiy FiwwJ. vdnt a
df cUthf gy W MLf
Mwd.
2. Ugjfhj
gf
jh
cflUJ, s cfSF
vjj
khwK
yhk
fljgLwd.

15

ma

iAuh mUj Kiw _y ghyh

dbgUfij
nkbfhwJ.
Kiw nghJ iAuh cl Rt
mU nghw il njhWwJ. j
mUghdJ bjhl brgF _y bkJthf
tsailJ
ms
bgjh
tsailj gF E th
gFia
cz
fis
njhWwJ. il cUthd l
xU RUf VgL nr iAuh jh
iAuhUJ fgL j cahf
thwJ.

ca

myF 1

gh dbgUf:
gh dbgUf vgJ dbgUf
brf cUthFtij mogilahf
bfhLsd.
M
c
M
dbgUf br myJ J br
cUthtjF,
bg
c
bg
dbgUf br myJ ml br
(Kil) cUthtjF ttFwd.
gh
dbgUf
Kiw
M
dbgUf brY bg dbgUf
brY izJ xnu bryh Md
fUKilia cUthFwd. fUKil
xU a K cahf tswJ.
dbgUf
brf
cUthw
cWfis dbgUf cWf (Gonads)
vdgL. M dbgUf cW jf,
bg
dbgUf
cW
mlf
vdgL. X c xnu xU dbgUf
cWig kL bfhoUjh mJ xU gh
c vdgL (unisexual
organism)
tif c M ghdK bg
ghdK
jjahf
UF.
bAnkhnuhil
vW
miHfgLwd.
Ugh
cf
jfij, mlfij jdfnj
bfhLsd.
Ugh
cfSF
iAuh, ehlhG Mad vLJfhLf
MF.
ghua nghw xU br cf gh
Kiw dbgUf brwd. uL
ghuaf mUfUnf tJ xizJ
xU ghyij nghw bjhlig VgL
kua gfis (genetic material)
gkh bfhwd. wF mit J
jjahd
nr
brfis

cUthFwd.
tif
dbgUf iz Kiw
miHfgLwJ.

gh
vW

fUWj: M, bg dbgUf
brf iztJ fUWj MF.
fUWj
eilbgW
lij
mogilahf bfhL btfUWj,
cfUWj vd U tifgLwd.
bgUghyhd f kW Uthf
bg cf fUwhj Kilfis
Lwd.
M
cfS
M
dbgUf brfshd Jfis
Kilf
J
brYJwd.
Kiw
fUWjyhdJ
c
clYF btna eilbgWwJ J
btfUWj
vdgL.
Ctd,
gwitf, ghof nghw cdf
cl cw fUWj eilbgWwJ.
cfUWj M cahdJ J
brfis
bg
c
clD
brYJwJ.
ghd bgUf gof
M

bg

jf

mlf

J (n)

ml (n)

fUKil (2n)
fU
s c

Fo nghL yFf:
ghof Fo nghL yFfshF.
fUKilahdJ
jh
fUigF
fUthf tsJ neuoahf jhlUJ
Clrij bgWwJ. xU Fl
fhyF wF jhahdJ jid
nghynt UF xU Foia <DwJ.

iz Kiw
dbgUf - ghua

16

yFyf
nkY mJ bfhnth

KilL Fo nghL yFf:

t fU jh tWF UF
KilF
cUth,
sc
bttU tiu jh tWFnsna
UwJ. j sc fUF
cztgJ Kil cs fU cznt
MF. jh nr izR my.
v.fh. fLa.

ML

KGikaw cUkhw:

KilL FR bghgit:
f, gwitf, bgUghyhd Ctd
KilL FR bghF jik
thjit.
cfUWjYF

Kilf
clYF
btna
lgLwd. tif Kilf fU
tsailtjfhd fU cz csJ.
fUts jh clYF btna
eilbgWwJ.
Kilf
fod
Rzhyhd
XL
ghJfhig
bfhLgJl, fU cyJ lhkY
jLwJ. it XLila Kilf vd
miHfgLwd.

jifa ydf s c
KG ts milj yFfis ngh
njhw xUF. KG ts
milwJ.
fQfhf s c clig
R UF XL c tsnfg
gogoahf cJ K cahf khWwJ.
btLf
KilUJ
bttU s cF vW bga.
f jfsJ bgnwh cUtij
xUF. Mdh ms ajhf
UF. j tsailnghJ
jfsJ
nknjhid
cwJ.
thW gntW flfshf nknjhiy
khW fF njhYj vW bga.

K
cahf
khWtjFK
njhYj
fthdJ
gyKiw
eilbgWwJ. btL thif
RH
TLG
gUt
iy.
jifa
cUkhwF
KGikaw
cUkhw vW bga.

XLila Kilf

s c K cahf khWj:
xU fUw KilahdJ fUthf kh
tsJ xU K cahf khWwJ.
vLJfhlhf, f tzJ
s cahdJ G totij
bfhLsd. j s cahdJ
jf bgnwhiu xUgiy. it
clyikY
clbraY
gntW
khWjfSFgL
K
cahf
khWtjF cUkhw vW bga.

s c
Kil

K c

KGikaw cUkhw
Kil

17

s c

K c

ma

Fiu

ca

myF 1

KGikahd cUkhw:

Kil

tzJ,
gL
thif
RH
KGikahd
cUkhwfhd
vLJfhLfshF.
t s cf bgnwhiu xuhj
KY khWgl Gtot cilait.
j
Gf
(yhth)
ntfkhf iyfis cL tsailJ
ms bgajh mLj X iyahd
TLG
gUtij
milwJ.
gUt Fl fhytiu UJ
KG cahf ToUJ bttUwJ.

yhth

TLG

K
c

Complete metamorphosis

tzJ thif RH
Kil

yhth

TLG

Kc

nkY mJ bfhnth

njhYjYfhd Ahnkh
f mt _is fhzgL eu Ru brf vilnrh myJ
#&tid Ahnkhid RuwJ. Jnt njhYjiy fLgLJwJ.

kL - kh dhf
- m

1. nH bfhLfgLs m, M, Ma gFfis bghU, KGikahd tha

mikJ vGJf.
xWF il jugLsJ: gwitf XLila Kilfis Lwd.
gF m
jilGf
jtisf
iAuh
gwitf
s c

gF M
Kilf
bfhL brf
btL
U thf
xLf

gF
ghJfh
njhYj
XLila
bfhf, cf
brf, Eiupu

2. fh cfis fhuz T tifgLJf.

m) fugh

M) wh

) fhf

vLJfhL xW jugLsJ

FuF:

cyf : yFyf

bjhF : KJbfYsit fhuz : KJbfY csJ

tF

: ghof

fhuz : gRff iy

fhuz : cnuhkf fhzgLwJ

18

<) FuF

yFyf
3. uL cdf xnu FLgij rhUFnkahdh mitf xnu tir, tF,
bjhF l bgW. rah? jtwh? fhuz TWf.
4. f xU ca tYeuhf Ujh, fh thafSF vd g
brhf?
m) cdfis tifgLJ ca xU F vd bga?
M) tifgho myF.
) ika mir NJ xnu khahf mikahj cl cWfis bfhl c.
<) cikahd clF cila cf.
c) Fo nghL rjfis cUthF cdf.
C) khwhj clbtgiyia bfhl cf.
v) XL mw Kilf.
V) 
xU c thif
cmika ) khwf

RH

eilbgW

(wmika,

clbraa,

5. fh TWfis g RUfkhf vGJf.

m) ghof khWgl g mikig (bAonuhlh) bfhlit.
M) mUj vgJ ghyh dbgUf KiwahF.
) iAuh xU bAnkhnuhil c MF.
<) 
nfLf xiw ika iy bfhlit, Mdh irnfh uil ika iy
bfhlit.
6. fh brhfis rahf tirgLJf

M) irnfh, dbgUf cW, d brf, fUWj.

) d, cyf, FLg, ngd.
<) gwitf, Uthf, f, ghof.
- M
fh dhfSF uL tfSF fhk ilaf:
1. ghof btg uj uhf KJbfYs F uj uhf tFfis
goaLf.
2. 
ghof cfUWj eilbgWwJ. bt fUWj eilbgW yFf
tFid FLf.
3. 
s cf () gy khWjfSF cgL KbtLahf khWwd.
sFf.
4. 
jtis, njiu btntwhdit. Mdh uLnk Uthf. bfhRF
yF bjhl clh? vthW?

19

ma

m) fgG, TLG, Kc, Kil.

ca

myF 1

5. eij, y (slug) bjhlilait. mtilna cs xU ntWghoid TWf.

6. tU glYs ghOah xU Fl dbgUf KiwahdJ fhlgLsJ.
m ku bghUf iz FH _y gkhw bragLwJ.

m) dbgUf Kiwia flf.

M) nj Kiw dbgUf eilbgW ntbwhU cd bgaiu TWf.
) tif iz Kiw a cd clhwjh?
7. eru FHfhf ntiyfis goaLf.
8. bghUjhj xiw njbjLJ kwtiw xUizJ tifgLJf. nH xU
vLJfhL bfhLfgLsJ.

Mij, , flgRf, iAuh.

- KJbfYgwit

bghUjhjJ - Mij
m) TLG, jtis, yhth, Kil.
M) Ctd, gwgd, f, Uthf.
) brf, brkl, _W miwf bfhl ja, Eiupu.

9. nH bfhLfgLs IJ yFf xbthF mjndhL bjhlila ehF

gf bfhLfgLsd. mtD myF bghUjhj gid kL
monfhoLf:
m) fl rhk - czf, thtd, xL, ienlhshLf.
M) tzJ - KJbfY, f, wrlf, Ugf rkjik.
) lh - khWgl gmik, F uj uhf, ehF miw bfhl ja,
gh Ruf.
<) Mnlhg - nkYiw, bkikahd cly, gf cWf, xj fl mik.
c) mil - cf, Ughjik, wxL, clFawit.
10. tU bjhFfis mj gfnshL bghUJf:
m) Flf - xLf
M) jilGf - fhwiwf bfhl vYf
) cUisGf - beknlhLf
<) tisjirGf - ngh clF
c) gwitf - xj fl mik

20

yFyf
-
1. F uj uhf btgiy khWghLfSF jfthW jik vthW jftikJ
bfhwd? vLJfhL jUf.
2. tifgLJ ma F tifghoa vW bga. cfis xU ca
tYeuhf fgid brJ bfhf. f KJia vthW tifgLJf
vgjfhd gfis goaLf.
3. 
s f Kia mila y khwfSF cshwd. j khwfis
tiuaWf. btL thif RHia, tzJ thif
RHnahL xLf.

4. g
 lYs y wif nghw mik fhzgLtjh khzt mjid gwitf
tF tifgLJwh.

m) tifghL rah?jtwh? jtW v rahd tFig jJ U fhuzf jUf.

M) mtFFa ntW uL vLJfhLf jUf.
) nkny jugl cd vbuh w _y bghUfis fl w
gid bgWsJ. c bra vthW miHfgLwJ?
5. bfhLfgLs gf mogil mfSfhd bjhFfis flJ
uf.
bjhF

fQfhf, fod wrlf cila c

Xodh _lgl bkikahd c
bfhfis,
cfis
ehlh nghw jilahd c

bgw

cl a Jisfis cila c
Kf cila njhid bfhl flth
cf

21

ma

KJbfYgwit

ca

myF 1
gJiufgl braghLf

bra

xU fhj jhis VG JLfshf btl.

btlgl JLf tifghoa VG myFfis vGj.
xbthU Jo wK Uw xl Toa ehlhit bghUj.
rhjhuz mil tifghoa myFfis iH, tirahf

bghUj.
mjid koF itf.
brJ fw

KJbfY cs yFf glf ytiw nrff.

gzhk kufhd isfis cila glid mil jahf.
gzhk tsnfg yFf glfis xl.
thW KJbfY cs yFfSfhd gzhk ku tiuglij
jahf.

cWnehf
c
 f brhj uhkF brY nghJ bgil nfh vthW Kilfis
milfhJ, FR bghwJ vgij cW ftf.
aifahd FR bghj g xU g ms vGj.

xgil
cDila RWw fhzgL IJ yFfis cWnehf.
mt bghJbgafis vGj.

mt ya bgafis izajs _ykhfnth, myJ nkiy
khzt _ykhfnth, myJ bgnwh _ykhfnth bjJ bfhL mf
tifghoid mltiz brf.
yFyf, bjhF, tF, Jiw, FLg, ngd, d

t. v

yF

KJbfYgwit

KJbfYsit

nkY ma

jff: 1. Developmental Biology - Arumugam.N, Saras Publications.

2. A Manual of Zoology, Volume I& II - Ekambaranatha Iyar, E.K. and
T.N.Ananthakrishnan, Viswanathan &Co.
3. Invertebrates - Barnes, R.D.,W.B.Saunders Publications.
izajs: http://www.worldanimal.net

http://www.animaltrial.com

22

myF

br f
* nuhnfnaho, nfnaho brf
* br E mik
* br r, brRt
* irnlhshr
* br EQWf
* cfU ( a)
* Fnuhnkhnrhf - o.v.V. mik
* brgF tiffS - iklh iyf
* bghUf gut

ca

myF 2

brf:

iungh
brRt

cd fa bragL myF
brf MF. gy a MLfSF
K KjKj xU br cf
njhd. fa vikahd xU br
cdf
W

thJ
bfhoUwd. jnghJ Jnghw
1000F nkgl btntW jkhd xU
br cdf flagLsd.
nkTa xU br cd Tlfis
nuhnfnahLf vW miHnwh.
nuhnfnahlh
vw
nuf
brhF Mugiy cfU vW
bghU. nuhnfnah cdf eF
tsailj cfU, rdh NHgl
br EQWfis bgUgiy.
nuhnfnahLfSF
rhW
ghOaf,
ygRghf.
j
kubghU xU bka iH nghw
tot,
br
r
cw
fhzgLwJ.
gy
a
MLfshf
nuhnfnahLf kLnk thJ
tjd.
jnghJ
mit
fyhd
t.
v.

nrhf
firiH
o.v.V.

br
r
fhN

nuhnfnaho br (ghOah)

mikila nfnaho
gzJsd.

brfshf

xbthU nfnaho brY eF

ts
milj
cfUit
bfhoUwJ. nkY, rdh NHgl
EQWfshd vnlhshr tiy,
nfhif cWf, iknlhfhaf,
fff, thFnthfis bfhL
Uwd. it br EQWf

nuhnfnaho brf

nfnaho brf

1.

bghJthf J ms aJ.
(1-10 ikuh)

xL ghif J
bgaJ. (5-100 ikuh)

2.

j cfUbghU cfU
rdh NHgoUgiy. vdnt,
bjthd cfUit bgUgiy.

j
cfU
bghU
cfU
rdh
NHgoUgjh,
J
bjthd cfUit bgWsJ.

3.

xU Fnuhnkhnrhik kLnk
bgWsJ.

xWF nkgl Fnuhnkhnrhfis

bgWsJ.

4.

nahy fhzgLtiy.

nahy fhzgLwJ.

5.

rdh
NHgl
br
cWfis bgUgiy.

6.

br gF, sj myJ bkhL

mUj
_y
eilbgWwJ.
iklho, aho br gFf
fhzgLtiy.

iklh,
tifahd
br
eilbgWwd.

7.

iunghnrhf ait.

iunghnrhf bgait.

24

ms

rdh
NHgl
br
cWfis bgUwJ.

ah
gFf

brf
vd miHfgLwd. kubghU myJ Fnuhnkhnrh xU rdh NHgL
fhzgLwJ. Jnt cfU MF. nuhnlhnrhth, xU br ghf, irf Mait
nfnaho br mikig bgWsd. nkY, midJ jhtufS, yFfS
nfnaho brfis bfhLsd.
jhtu brf, yF brfis g mUf. xU jhtu briy, xU yF
brnyhL vgo xLf? jhtu br fhzglToa bgUghyhd cWf
yF brfY fhzgLwJ. fh glfis cWneh, jhtu brF
yF brF cs ntWghLfis mltizgLJf.
brRt

brnahf

shkh r

nfhif cW
tGtGghd vnlhshr tiy
iunghnrh
nahy
a
irnlhshr
thnah

gRff
brhubrhughd vnlhshr tiy
iknlhfhah

yFbr E mik

t.
v.

br

glfis

cWnehf

jhtu br

_y

fh

ntWghLf

yF br

1.

br btgF
brYnyhdh Md cWahd
brRtiu bgUwJ

br brRtiu bgUgiy.

2.

yF briy fhoY jhtubr

bgaJ.

jhtu brnyhL xLnghJ yF br

aJ.

3.

br bgUgFia bga
thnahf MuJ
bfhLsd.

br bghJthf thnahfis
bgUgiy. mthW bgUjhY,
it ms f adthf csd.

4.

nkghL milahj jhtuf

brf kLnk brnuhnrh
fhzgLwJ.

midJ yF brfS
brnuhnrhfis bgWsd.

5.

nfnaho jhtubrf kLnk

iynrhnrhf fhzgL.

midJ yF brfY iynrhnrhf

fhzgLwd.

6.

br fffis bgWsd.

br fff fhzgLtiy.

7.

lh nr bghUshF.

isnfh# nr bghUshF.

25

ma

jhtubr E mik

jhtu, yF
magLwd.

iynrhnrh

ca

myF 2
ehnd brnw

bra 2.1

xU J j vLJ eGt itng. m rh~u bfhL rhankWnt.

eGt gFia J neu NnlWnt. eGtij TL Enzh
itJ ghng. Enzh bj ghOah xU _______ br MF.
(nuhnfnaho / nfnaho)
nkY mJ bfhnth
E
 nzh jhtu briy g mj vgJ
KoahJ. 1665- uhg A] rh jif bka
tfis Muhj nghJ m fhzgl fa
mikig br vW bgalh.
M
 l th t Ah (1674) jhnd totikj va
Enzh
_y
ghOah,
nuhnlhnrhth
Kjyhdtiw Muhjh.

 fhyhJ jhtuayhs uhg bus midJ
brfS cfUit bgWsd vgij fljh.

 , br cns fhzgL cUs bghUSF
nuhnlhshr vW bgalh.

TL Enzh

br vgJ a ig nghw tHtHghd mlahd utD tzF br

cWf bghJsd.
brD fhzgL xL bkhj mikng nuhnlhshr vW miHfgLwJ.
bghJs xbthU mik br EQWf vdgL. br cs
cbghU nuhnlhshr MF. nuhnlhshr bghJthf c aa
js vW miHfgLwJ.
brRt

a
thnah

iynrhnrh
nfhif
cW

br ghff
vnlhshr
tiy

iknlh
fhah
brnuhnrh

brr:
(shkhr
shkhbykh)

shkh r

myJ

br cs midJ bghUfis
NJ fhzgLw bka r
shkh r vW miHfgLwJ.
r midJ cUs brfY

26

sho

fhzgL. brr f Kakhd

mikghF. Vbd bghUf brYF
cns EiHtij myJ brUJ
btnaWtij KiwgLJwJ. brr
xU jLF muzhf bragL br
ml jikia iyahf itJbfhs

brf
ehnd brnw

bra 2.2

btfha xU W JLgFia bto, mj njhiy

bjLng. fzho eGt xJ xU J
btfhanjh xU gFia itng. xU J bkj
yij btfhanjh J nrng. mfkhd rhaij
F bghUL ij fGnt. xU J rid itJ
_Liy bfhL _Lnt. d, Enzh cjah
cWnehFnt.

cjwJ. brr bjhlahd uil

mLF
ghnghLfsh
MdJ.
brr
uj
fhnghiAnu
_yTWfS bghJsd. midJ
br
EQWfS
brrdh
NHgoUwd.
shkh r gf:

J brYF viyahf mikJ,
fhaf VgLnghJ briy _o
ghJfhwJ. J
Fl y
bghUfis
kL
njbjLJ
brYF cns EiHtij myJ
brUJ
btnaWtij
fLgLJwJ. vdnt, J nj
flJ r vW miHfgLwJ.
x
nu br gy EQWfSF
ilna, mU cs brfSF
ilna
bghUf,
brf
fljgLtij mDkwd.
jhtu brf shkh rit
NJ fhzgLw joj mLF
brRt vdgL. xU jhtu br
glij cWneh m brRtiu
fLof, mJ vFsJ?

ghJfh, iwjikia mgnjhL

kLkyhk
brF
Fl
totij bfhLwJ. brRtuhdJ
js beG jikia bgUgjh
a jhtuf, bga kuf mf fhW
RnghJ mjDila totij iyahf
itJ bfhs cjwJ. jhf
njha
sbrf
brRt
Kjik brRt vwiHfgLwJ.
Kailj brfis xLif
Kjik brRtuhdJ bkajhf
mf ail jik bfhljhf
csJ. nkY J sikahd brf
tsia
CFwJ.
br
tsahdJ Wjgll Kjik
brRtuhdJ, joJ xU a mLid
shkh
rF
Kjik
brRtUF ilna cUthFwJ.
jF ulh iy brRt vW bga.
J Kjik brRtiu fhoY mf
joW fhzgLwJ. J
brfSF
ilna
bghUf
lbgatY Ka gF twJ.
bra 2.3

ehnd brnw

br vgij xU bga r Fskhf

fgid brJbfhL, m eh
_Ftjhf idJ bfhnt. eh
cztJ vd? vid R jgit
vbdd vgJ g ciuahWnt
myJ mij g fij vGJnt
myJ mijg gl tiunt.

brRt
brRt vgJ shkh rF
btna fhzgL mLfhF. J
brYnyh, vw bghUfsh
MdJ. iu cns mDkfhj
bghUshF. brRtuhdJ brF cW,

27

ma

btfhanjh
br
shkh
rF
btgF joj brRt fhzgLwJ; br
ika mlj, tl totkhd mik cfU; brrF
cfUF ilna fhzgL Tk irnlhshr; vd
mJ bfhnt.

ca

myF 2

irnlhshr
irnlhshr vgJ br KGtJ
us FiHthd, x CLUtToa
xnu jik bfhl bghUshF. J
mfkhd iu bfhLsJ, m y
maf fiuJsJ. J tiyd
nghw
iHfsh
MdJ.
br
EQWf cns bghUf
br
totij
iyWj
cjwJ.
irnlhshr
bkJthf
RHtjh br EQWfS Jl
izJ
aFwd.
f
irnlhshr Xl vW miHfgL.
J br EQWfis af iy
itUf cjwJ.

izfgLsJ. J uj nrif
Ka gfhWwJ.
gf
1. 
vnlhshr tiy br tsij
khw gfSfhd bga guig
mwJ.
2. 
brhubrhughd vnlhshr tiy uj
cg Ka gF twJ.
3. tGtGghd
vnlhshr
tiyahdJ OuhLf, Ahnkhf,
bfhGf cg gF twJ.
nfhif cW myJ nfhif clyf

irnlhshrK cfU nrJ

nuhnlhshr vW miHfgL.

nfhif cWf vgd jLnghw

gFfshd nfhif clyf, tiynghW
xnwhblhW izfgLs FHf,
EFf, fhWigfis bgW
fhzgLwJ. nfhif cW Kj Kj
fhnyh fh vguh tfglJ.
nfhif
cW,
vnlhshr
tiydYl izJ bragL
lnd myJ Ff nghw br
gFfis cUthFwJ.

vnlhshr tiyd

gf

vnlhshr tiyd, rdh

NHgl, E FHhf, iHfis
bfhl xnwhblhW izfgl
fyhd bjhF MF. J irnlh
shr KGtJ gu fhzgL. J
shkh r, cfU r bjhlahd
mikghF. vnlhshr tiyd
uL tifgL. mit brhubrhughd
vnlhshr tiyd, tGtGghd
vnlhshr tiyd MF.

1. nfhif
cW
iynrhnrhf
cUthf gF bgWwJ.

br
rF

fhzgL
irnlhshr Tk nghW csJ. J
vnlhshr vdgL. vnlhshrF
cfU rF ilna cs gF ut
to
csJ.
J
vnlhshr
vdgL.

2. br Rt, br r cgF J

fhuzkhf csJ.

bldh

tGtGghd
vnlhshr
tiyahdJ OuhLf, Ahnkhf,
bfhGf cg gF bgWwJ.
j Rt bkikahdJ, J FHfis
cUthFwJ.
ujij
cUthF
brf
fhzgLtJ brhubrhughd vnlhshr
tiy MF. Vbd, iunghnrhf
vnlhshr
tiy
rl

28

Ff
nfhif cW

brf
iynrhnrhf
iynrhnrhf bghJthf br
jbfhiyigf myJ brF
igf
vwiHfgLwd.
vnlhshr tiy, nfhif cW
t izj bradh it
cgahwd.

fhzgL
brkhd behf br cns myJ
btna
fhzgL
br
EQWfisnah myJ njitaw
bghUfis
brgjnfh
myJ
ijgjnfh cjwd.
gf

mgh cz F cz bghUfis
G brF utfis bfhL
mtiw brwJ.
gf
1. 
thnahf
fk
cfis,
ClbghUfis
nrgnjhL
kLkyhk bghUf mlia
mfwJ.
2. br iwjikfhf br
rL gut mGjij xnu uhd
iy UFgo brwJ.

1. brGFj
(~ngnfhirnlh)
vw f _y brD <fgl
Jffis brkhd brt gF
twd.
2.
 uj
btisaQf
cs
iynrhnrhf
nehUfis,
ma
bghUfis
mJ,
aifahf
cliy
ghJfhg
gfhWwd.
thnahf
xiw rdh NHgl bga ut
ua igf thnahf MF. it
yF brfis fhoY jhtu brf
mf fhzgLwd. K milj
jhtu brf, br bgUgF
thnahdh uggLsJ. it
RUF
Ffshf
bragL
mfgoahd , ffis brUJ
btnaWt gFbfhwd. it
czFfshf bragL cz
bghUfis
GFtY
gFbgWwd.
vLJfhlhf,

midJ
cUs
brfS
jfSF
njitahd
Mwiy
iknlhfhaf
UJ
bgWbfhwd.
vdnt,
iknlhfhaf br Mw
iyaf vW miHfgLwd.
xbthU iknlhfhah uL
rdh (cr, btr) NHgl
cUis totkhd br EQW MF.
j cr nl vdgL gy cw
kofis bfhlJ. j kof
iknlhfhah
cgFia
KGikaw Kiw wd. j
kof cguig mffbrJ Mw
F TL bghUfshd ATP (mondh
iu ghng) _yTWfis cUthFwJ.
Rthr f Ka gF tF F1
Jff myJ Mnrhf vW
miHfgL
F^
jiy
tot
clyfis
nl
bgWsd.
btr
cr

nkY mJ bfhnth

_gilj,
uj
br
EQWf ij iynrhnrhf
gF bgWwd. vdnt, it mF
giluf myJ Juthsf
myJ brnkyhsf vbwyh
miHfgLwd.

o.v.V
iknlhfhah

29

nl

ma

iknlhfhaf

ca

myF 2

iknlhfhah cr cns
fhzgL gF jsbghU (matrix)
vdgL. ATP
_yTWfis
cUthf
njitahd
behf
fhzgLwd.
gf
1. A
 TP nghw Mw F TL bghUfis
iknlhfhaf
cg
brwd.
2. iknlhfhah
jsbghU
iknlhfhah
DNA,
iunghnrhf fhzgLwd.
3. iknlhfhah jjik thj
br EQW MF.
fff
jhtu brf shoLf, brRt,
bga thnahf fhzgLtJ f
wj gghF.
jhtu brf kL fhzgL jL
tot
myJ
Kil
tot
EQWfSF
fff
vW
bga. fff fhzgL wkw
fffSF
btfff
(nfhshf) vW, wKila,
tz
fffis
Fnuhnkh
shf
vW
miHfgLwJ.
btfff jur (lh), bfhG,
uj _yTWfis nrJ itf
cjwd.
xnrif
wahd
giraij
bgWs
gRik
w
btr

uhd

cl

fffSF
gRfff
(Fnshnuhshf) vW bga. it
xnrif
fF
Ka
fhuzkhwJ.
gRff mik
xbthU
gRffK
uilrdh Md ciwia js
bghUis
bfhLsJ.
cr
fff
KG
sF
nybkyhfshf mikJ fhzgLwJ.
y gFf nybkyhf joJ,
ehzaf mL itfglJ nghw
mik
fhzgLwd.
it
uhdhf vW miHfgLwd.
xbthU uhdh ijyfhLf
vW miHfgL jL tot rdh
Md igfis bgWsJ.
xnrif wahd Fnshnuh
ijyfhL
r
mikJsJ.
jsbghU ijyfhLfsw gF
nuhkh
vW
miHfgL.
xnrif gFbgW vzw
behfis nuhkh bgWsJ.
brnuhnrh
yF brfY y nkghL
milahj jhtufY brnuhnrh
fhzgLwJ.
nuhnfnaho
brfY,
nkghL
milj
jhtu
brfY it fhzgLtiy. it
irnlhshr cfUF btna f
mU
fhzgLwJ.
it
brnahf vW miHfgL xU
n#ho
a
clw
Jffis
bfhLsJ.
g
brgF nghJ o ehf
(RUF ehf) njhWt Ka gF
twJ.

cr

cfU (a):
nuhkh

ijyfhLf

gRff

30

a ciw myJ cfU ciw vW

brf

Fnuhnko
nahy
nah
shr
a
ciw

cfU (a)

miHfgL uil rdh NHgl

X cUil tot mik cfU MF.
a ciw gy Jisfis bgW
fhzgLwJ. Jisf a
Jisf vW miHfgLwJ. it
a ciw tahf cfUF
cns
btna
_yTWf
fljgLtij mDkwd. cfU
uL
Kakhd
gfis
nkbfhwd. br vj tifahd
uj vnghJ cUthwJ vgij
khgj _y br braghil
fLgLJwJ;
nkY,
brj
f _y bgnwhlUJ nr
brfSF ku gfis flj
cjwJ.

Fnuhnkhnrhf
ghuga gis bfhl
nghW beUfkhf Ra Fnuhnko
iHf Fnuhnkhnrhf MF. it
brgFnghJ
kLnk
bjthf
bjwd. xbthU FnuhnkhnrhK
uL FnuhnkoLfsh Mdit. uL
rnfhj
FnuhnkoLfS
Fl

izwd.
F
brnuha
vW
bga.
J
ifdnlhnfh vW miHfgLwJ.
Fnuhnkhnrhf
brnuha
mikJs lij bghWJ mtiw
bra 2.4

ehfns brnwh

k
hztf 5 FGfshf J
bfhnth.
K

j
FG
vnlhshr
tiyd
mikig
tiugljh
tiuJ,
mj
mikig gfis vG kw
khztf ghitF itngh.

nahshr uL jkhd
ah mikf fhzgLwd.
1) nahy 2) Fnuhnko.

 ulhtJ FG nfhif cW
mikig gl tiunth. mj
mikia, gfis vG
kw
khztf
ghitF
itngh.

nahy vgJ uj, RNA

brJ fhzglToa xU nfhs tot
gF MF. iunghnrh cUthF lkhf
nahy
csJ.
nah
shr xW myJ mjF nkgl
nahyf fhzglyh.

_
whtJ FG iunghnrhf
mikig,
ehfhtJ
FG
iknlhfhah mikig,
IjhtJ
FG
gRff
mikig
tiuJ
mt
gfis vG, kw khztf
ghitF itngh.

Fnuhnko vgJ kubghUshd

DNA (o M ngh my) uj
bfhl bka iHfshyhd xU
tiynghw
mikghF.
brgFbghGJ Fnuhnko joj
fWnghw
Fnuhnkhnrhfshf
RUFwd. Fnuhnkhnrhf fis


d,
tF
fyJiuaho,
midJ
khztfS
br
EcWf mik, gf
g mJ bfhnth.

31

ma

iunghnrhf

bfhLsd.
xbthU
D
X
cd xU ghuga gF
fhuzkhwJ. f, bgnwhflUJ
rjfSF
ghuga
gf
fljgLtjfhd
brfis
DNA
_yTW to bgWsd.

ca

myF 2
brnuha

FnuhnkoL

fuf

brnuha

brnuha
fuf

Onyha

bklhbr

FnuhnkoL
Fnuhnkhnrh mik

Fnuhnkhnrhf tiff

tUkhW ehF tiffshf fyh.

1. bklh br Fnuhnkhnrh
brnuha
Fnuhnkhnrh
ika mikJ, uL fufS
bgUghY rkkhd s fhzgL. J
My vGJ V tot Fnuhnkhnrh
MF.
2. rbklh br Fnuhnkhnrh
brnuha
Fnuhnkhnrh
ika
UJ
rW
y
fhzgLtjh, j xU fu kbwhU
fuijl Filahf fhzgLwJ.
J My vGJ J tot Fnuhnkhnrh
MF.
3. mnuhbr Fnuhnkhnrh
brnuha Fnuhnkhnrh Kid
gFF mUnf fhzgLtjh, xU fu
f Filahf kbwhU fu f
skhf fhzgLwJ. J xU nfh
tot Fnuhnkhnrh MF.
4. Onyh br Fnuhnkhnrh
brnuha
bra 2.5

rbklhbr mnuhbr

Fnuhnkhnrh

xU

ehnd brnw

Onyhbr

Kid fhzgLwJ. vdnt, xU

gf xU fu kLnk fhzgL.
J xU nfh tot Fnuhnkhnrh
MF.
o.v.V (DNA) mik
Fnuhnkhnrhf,
tir
mikJs fsh Mdit. f,
o M iungh my (DNA) vw
ntbghUsh Mdit. nkghL milj
cdf DNA kubghUshf csJ.
DNA gy a nahilLfsh
MdJ. xbthU nahilL xU
IJ fhg rfiu, xU ghng bjhF,
xU ieu# fhujh MdJ.
ieu# fhuf U tifgL.
f,
of.
moid,
Fthid
fshF.
ij,
irnlh ofshF.
DNA
mik
thr,

vgtfsh btlglJ. o.v.V. X

<iH
mikghF.
uL
iHfS xiwbahW R, uil
RUshf mikJsd.

Fnuhnkhnrhf
tiffis
tzjh / tz /
dhfk bfhL khfis
mikngh.

uil RU KJbfYghf rfiu,

ghng _yTWf csd. ieu#
fhuf
rfiu
_yTWfSl
izfgLsd.

t
 Fgiw mtiw fhgL
thngh.

uL
gh
nahilL
iHfS
Fl
izfshd
f,
ofSF
ilna cs iAu# izfsh
izfgLsd.

g


eilbgW
kw
fhF
sFnth.

ma
itJ

32

brf
DNA mik

xbthU
KiwY
irnlhshr
gFgiltjF Kd cfU gF mil.
neKf brgF (Viklh)
moid
ij
irnlh
Fthid

br gF tiffS

Viklh vgJ X va Kiw br

gFghF. J neKf brj vW
miHfgLwJ.
cfU
L
xU
RUfij mj ika njhWwJ.
RUf bkJthf cneh brW Ko
cfUit uL nr cfUfshf
wJ.
ij
bjhlJ
irnlhshrY RUf VgL uL
nr brf njhWwd. tifahd
brj bghJthf nuhnfnahLf
fhzgLwJ. v.fh . mgh, ghOah.

a
ciw

Fnuhnkhnrh

nahy

iliy

brf
_W
Kiwf
gFgilwd. mit neKf brgF
(Viklh),
kiwKf
brgF
(iklh), Fw gF (ah).

RUF
ehf
Fnuhnko

bra 2.6

nuhiy

ma

cUst Ka gfS
xW dbgUf mil w MF.
dbgUf f, brgF _y
brf vifia mfgij
cslaJ. Vbfdnt cs brf
UJ
brgF
vw
f
_ykhfjh a brf njhWwd.
ts, bgUf, cl uhfF
brbgUf njit.

brnuha

br Rt

ehnd brnw

 jfYs
o.v.V.
mikglij
ghJ
xU
mil tiuJ bfhnth.

bklhiy

mdh iy

o

.v.V. uL iHfis
tz fsh unth.
nrbrf

t
 z oa Ffis gl
csthW uL iHfSF
ilna bghUJnth.

 jf cs glij ghJ
ghffis FJ bfhnth.
gilid
tFgiw
fhgL, o.v.V. mik g
thngh.

Mug Onyhiy

Ko Onyhiy
iklh (kiwKf br j)

33

ca

myF 2
WKiy (mdhiy)

kiwKf brj (iklh)

kiwKf brj cly brf
(J, ml ju) eilbgWwJ. J
bjhlahd xU bra MF. J ehF
iyf
eilbgWwJ.
mit: Kjiy (nuhiy), ikaiy
(bklhiy),
WKiy
(mdhiy), Wiy (Onyhiy).
iliy
xU br, iklho brgFF
cgLtjFK,
gFgiltjF
jid jahgL bfhwJ. j
iy iliy vW miHfgLwJ.
myf uo miltj
_y Fnuhnko bghUf uo
milwd.
Kjiy (nuhiy)
F
 nuhnko tiy RUL l
iHnghw
mikfshd
Fnuhnkhnrhfshf njhWwd.
xbthU
FnuhnkhnrhK
xWbfhW izahd uL
FnuhnkoLfis bfhLsJ. j
uL FnuhnkoLf izJs
, brnuha MF.
J
 UtgF UJ ika neh
o ehf (RUF ehf)
njhWwd. a ciw,
nahyR kiwa bjhlFwd.
ikaiy (bklhiy)


a
ciw
kiwJLwJ.

KY

Fnuhnkhnrhf
Filahf
jokdhf khWwd.
FnuhnkoLf brnuhafSl
br ikaF efwd.

o ehf
izwd.

brnuhaUl

xbthU
Fnuhnkhnrh
brnuhaU
ulhf
J
FnuhnkoLfis wJ.

 o ehf RUFtjh rnfhj
FnuhnkoLf JUtfis neh
GfgLwd.
x

bthU
FnuhnkoL
xU
brnuha gFia bgW, xU
Fnuhnkhnrhkhf khWwJ.
Wiy (Onyhiy)
n
 r Fnuhnkhnrhf
brwilwd.

JUtfis

 nahy , a ciw L
njhWwJ. vdnt, br U
JUtfY
uL
nr
af njhWwd.
o ehf kiwwd
c

fU gFgiltJ
(nfnahifd)
miHfgLwJ.

cfU

gF
vW

irnlhifd (irnlhshr gF)

irnlhshr
irnlhifd vdgL.

gFgiltJ

jhtubrf,
uL
nr
cfUfSF ilna br ika
brjL njhWtj_y irnlhshr
gF eilbgWwJ. vdnt, iklh
brgF Ko xnu khahd uL
nrbrf njhWwd.
ah (Fw gF)
cdf dbgUf brf
eilbgW xU tifahd brgF ah
MF. f Ko nfLf
cUthfgLwd.
brf,
mt
NHYilna
eilbgW bghUf ut / gkhw
irnlhshrF
mjF
btna cs RWwF ilna

34

brf

Mw njitaw flj, X ma
myJ
_yTW,
br
mfkhd
lUJ br Fiwthd lF
xU r _y gu X va guj
KiwahF. flj vj tsij
khw MwY njitgLtiy.
rLgut, va gut, vjhfgl
gut
Mait
Mw
njitaw
fljYF rhWfshF.
br mfkhd lUJ
br Fiwthd lF xU r
tna _yTWf fljgL f
rLgut vdgL.
brYF cns _yTWf
brY
f
crLgut
(vlhkh) vdgL. br UJ
_yTWf btna brY f
btrL
gut
(v[hkh)
vdgL. jhtubrf msffkhd
v[hkh
eilbgWtjh,
irnlhshr mj shkh rl
RU, brRtiu L y fhzgL.
f
ck
RUf
(shnkhiy) vdgL.
va gut f M#, fhg
ilMi[L th _yTWf shkh
r tna vj jkhd ilpL
jkf cj fljgLwd.
vjhfgl gut nghJ bghUf,
ilpL jkf, uj _yTWf
cjnahL
r
tahf
fljgLwd.
Mw njitgL flj vgJ,
bghUf, br Fiwthd lUJ
br mfkhd lF xU r
tna fljgLj MF. flj
MwyhdJ ATP (mondh iu ghng)

tot gagLj gLwJ. brr

cj
bghUfshdJ
brF
cns
myJ
brF
btna
vLJbrygLwd.
vnlhirnlh vw f
nghJ shkh r cwkhf koJ xU
EFia
njhWgj
_y
bghUfis
cth
bfhwJ.
vnlhirnlh
Kiw
iynrhnrhf bghUfisnah myJ
Kailj br EQWfisnah
vLJ bfhwd.
vn[hirnlh vgJ shkh
r
cgfkhf
EFdh
cftugl
bghUshdJ
brYF
btna jsgL f MF. J
behfis, Ahnkhfis RuF
brf eilbgWwJ.
~ngnfhirnlh (br GFj)
vgJ bghUf brD lto
vLJ bfhsgL f MF.
f
gFbgW
brf
~ngnfhirLf vW miHfgL.
it
~ngnfhiro
vW
TwgLwd.
(v.fh.
uj
btisaQf). ndhirnlh (br
mUJj) vgJ bghUf brD
ut
to
vLJ
bfhsgL
fahF. brr fhzglgToa
EJisf _ykhf bjhlahf ut
_yTWf
brdh
vLJ
bfhsgLwd.

ma

shkh r _y gntW tf
bghUf gkhw bragLwd.
bghUf r tahf fljgLtJ,
Mw njitaw fljyhfnth myJ
Mw njitahd fljyhfnth Ufyh.

vnlhirnlh
br GFj

br mUJj

ltot
bghUf
shkh r
bghfhf
EF
ngnfhnrh

35

irnlhshr

ca

myF 2

kL - kh dhf
-m
rahd ilid njbjLf:
1. br Mw iya
(gRff, a, iknlhfha, iynrhnrh)
2. njj brfis mF EQW
(brnuhnrh, thFnth, iynrhnrh, Fnuhnkhnrh)
3. nfLfis njhWF brgF
(iklh, Viklh, ah, iklh, ah)
4. bghUf ut to vLJbfhsgL f
(~ngnfhirnlh,
ndhirnlh)

vnrhirnlh,

Vg

vnlhirnlh,

5. _______________ brhubrhughd vnlhshr tiy rl izfgLsd.

(iunghnrhf, iynrhnrhf, brnuhnrhf, nrhnrhf)
6. _______________ jhtu br fhzgLtiy.
(brRt, thnah, brnahf, gRff)
7. _______________ xU nuhnfnahLF vLJfhL MF.
(mgh, ghOah, <L, ir)
8. _______________ br cuw gFbghU MF.
(iynrhnrh, thnah, cfU, nfhif clyf)
9. ky m jf _______________ I bgWsd.
(gRff, btfff, Fnuhnkhsh, miknyh shLf)
-M
1. bfhLfgl glij ghf.
i. br gF iyia milahs fhz.
ii. j iyia bjhlJ, cldoahf br
vd khw VgL?

2. bfhLfgl glij cWnehf. m iyUJ

M iy tiu cfU fG khwfis
tf.
A

36

brf
3. xU cfU 24 Fnuhnkhnrhf Ujh, bklh iy nghJ vjid u nghw
mikf fhzgL. V?
4. brRtnuhL cs shkh r ck RUfdh RUdh, vn[hirnlh
vgJ vd?
5. ghuga mogil myF f MF. Fnuhnkhnrhf, f, DNA vthW
bjhl bfhLsd? tf.
6. gl bfhLfgLs br EQWig flJ, nH cs dhfSF
ilaf.
4

m) gl tiuJ ghff (1-6) Ff.

M) j br EQW KaJt vd?

) j br EQW fhzgL xnriffhd w bghU ahJ?
7. tU glfis cWneh dhfSF ilaf.
brnuha

fuf

brnuha

fuf

Onyha

M) glf fhzgL Fnuhnkhnrhf totfis FLf.

) brgF nghJ brnuha gF ahJ?
8. bghUjhj xiw flJ mjfhd fhuz TWf.
m) a, nahy, Fnuhnkhnrh, iunghnrh
M) gRff, brRt, oonahnrhf, brnah
) nl, cr, btr, uhd
9. glij cWneh mij bjhlJ tU dhfSF ilaf.
m) bfhLfgLs glij milahs fhf.
M) gl fhQ ehF ieu# fhufis bgaLf.
) o.v.V. uilRU khia btlt aht?
<) o.v.V. gFbghUf ahit?
c) o.v.V. vgj thf jUf.

37

ma

m) brnuha mikJs lij bghUJ Fnuhnkhnrhfis tifgLJf.

ca

myF 2

10. bfhLfgl sff mogil br E cWig flf.

m) jhtu briy R fhzgL brYnyhdh Md mik M) Fl y bghUfis cns EiHtij myJ brUJ btnaWtij
fLgLJwJ ) br KGtJ us Tk nghw bghU <) J iunghnrh cg KagF twJ c) J brYF brj gF twJ (irnlhshr, iynrhnrh, brRt, brr, nahy)
-
1. glij cWnehf.
m) bfhLfgLs glij milahs fhf.

M) gl tiuJ, ghff 1 , 2I Ff.

) j br EQWig fljt ah?
<) j gfis FLf.
2

2. tU glid ftdkhf cWneh ilaf.

brr fl ujjh fljgl
ntoa bghU

fluj giHa iyF U mnj bghUis

mf ms vLJ bry jahuhFj

fl uj

brr
Mw

fljgl bghU
brYF lgLwJ

m) J vj tif flJj vd TWf.

M) fid tiuaWf.
3. glid ftdkhf cWneh dhfSF ilaf.
3
5

38

brf
m) fhWs Rthr lbgW br EQW vJ?
M) br gfis fLgLJ brEQW vJ?
) iynrhnrhf cUthf gFbgW brEQW vJ?
<) uj cg gFbgW brEQW vJ?
c) cz nrj gFbgW brEQW vJ?
gJiufgl braghLf (CCE)
i. gl tiuj, gjh uj
t
 iugljh xU gF jhtu br mikig kbwhU gF yF br
mikig gl tiuJ ghffis Ff.
mtiw cWneh thj bra.
bgw tufis bfhL jhtu briy, yF briy ntWgLj.
fl gjhis ug.

t.v
1.
2.
3.

jhtu br
brRt ________
_____________ fhzgLwd.
thnahf ms ______.

yF br
brRt ________
___________ fhzgLtiy.
thnahf ms_______.

ii. bra tfw

khztf A, B vd uL FGfshf J bfhs.
FG A jhtu br mikig X mil tiuJ bfhs.

j
htubr, yF br glf cs br EQWf tiuagLs
gFfis milfUJ bto vLf.
b
toa br EQW glfis tz ngdh (Sketch Pen) bfhL
tzl.
F
 G A yF br mik cs btW lf jFj EQWfis
bghUj.
F
 G B jhtu br mik cs btW lf jFj EQWfis
bghUj.
r
 ahf bghUjgl d, jhtu br, yF br mikig g
fyJiuahl bra.

iii. iuF fh (Power Point Presentation)

b
 r EQWf glfis iuF fh xid jah brJ,
VnjD xU EQW g sFf.

39

ma

FG B yF br mikig X mil tiuJ bfhs.

ca

myF 2

iv. fhgLJj
tiugljh iklh brgF iyfis gl tiua.
cfU tiuagLs gF xU gh kia bghUj.
F
 nuhnkhnrhfSF xU tz iy, JUt iHfSF kbwhU tz
iy gagL xl.
x
 bthU iyY, vbdd eilbgWwd vgij glij cWneh,
thj bra.
xbthU iy G F vG, tiugljhis fhF itf.

v. mfuh jahj
fodkhd ma brhfis ghlgFUJ bjhFf.
g
 yf cs ma mfuh myJ fiyfsaij gagL
mbrhfSfhd bghUis flJ vGj.
d, mtiw mfutirgo bjhFJ rkf.

vi. cfsh Ko
F
 by lF jFj xU btis w bg (PET) ghoiy vLJ
bfhL mj nkgFia bto bfhs. by Fa uJF
jFjhngh Fl sF wK bto bfhs.
nkY G btlgl gho nk gF byir bghUj.
g
 hf ntoa bghUis (v.fh. kfuj ) xU ilkl gu itJ mj
nk ghoiy itf.
nkny cs byR tahf bghUis (kfuj ) ghf.
c
 fsh cUthfgl j va Enzh _y kfuj mikig
fhz Kowjh?
M
 v, cfsJ egfis j Enzh _y jhtugFfis
ghf bra.

nkY ma
jff:

1. Plant Physiology 2004 - Salisbury F.B and Ross C.W, Wadsworth

Publishers.
2. C
 ell Biology, Genetics, Molecular Biology, Evolution & Ecology - 2008

- Agarwal V.K and Verma P.S., S.Chand Publishers.
3. Life Science 1990 - Silver Burdett K Ginn Publications.

 ttp://www.sciencecentral.com
izajs: h
http://www.botany.org
http://www.khanacademy.org

40

myF

ik NJs gUbghUf
ikahditah?
* fyitf
* fyitf gf
* fyitF nrkF cs ntWghLf
* fyitf tiff
* xUgojhd fyit, mj tiff
* gygojhd fyit, mj tiff
* fyit gF bghUfis j

myF-3
myF 3

nta
nta
gUbghUf

gUbghUf tiff:

eh thG yf eik
NJs, eh ghJ, bjhL, czuToa
midJnk gUbghUfsh Mdit.
eh RthF fhW, eik Rs
mHfhd kuf, f, eh cQ
gHf, eh neF bryuhf,
e L Tiuf, Rtf, eh elJ
brY ikjhd vd, V ekJ cl cgl
midJ gUbghUfsh Mditna.

1.  aa iy mogil k,
k, th vd,
2.
 ia mogil jk,
fyit vd tifgLjyh.
gUbghUf aa iyf
k
midJ kfS tiuaWf
gl
totij,
tiuaWfgl
fdmsit bgWsd.
k
totij
khw
bgUks
Mw
njitgLwJ.
mJ ljiklD
mf mGj iyY RUf ayh
jikia
bgWsd.
bghJthf,
mf
mlia,
btgjh
jsnt
til
gig
bgWsd. k iy _yTWf
xGfhd
flikl
Wfkhf
izfgLsd.

gUbghUf lij milF.

mjhtJ
gUbghUf
Fl
fdmsit
bgWsd.
yt
fdms mfkhf, y Fiwj fd
ms bfhldthf csd.
vj xU bghUY mikJs
gUbghU msnt mj iwahF.
vdnt,
xbthU
gUbghUS
Fljf iwia, fd msit
bgWsJ.

midJ gUbghUfS k,
ut myJ th Ma _W iyf
VnjD xU iy csd. itna
gUbghU _W tif iyf vd
FlgLwJ.

nrk,

kf tiuaWfgl totij
bgUgiy. mit itfgLs
fy totijna bgWwd. it
Fljf
fdms
cilait.
jkhd mGjjh RUf ayh

42

th

eik NJs
gUbghUf
ikahditah?
eik NJs
gUbghUf
ikahditah?
jik cilait.
btggLJnghJ
kfis l, mf ms tilJ
th iyF khwkilwd. t
ml kfisl Fiw.
th
thfSF
Fl
tot
ilahJ. mit Uw fy
totij bgWwd. thfSF
Fl fdms ilahJ. mit
UF KG lij u gig
bgWsd. nkY js mGjij
brYdhY, it mfms RUf
aY jik cilad. btggLJnghJ
kfisl mf ms tilJ
thiyF khwkilwd. bghJthf,
t ml f Fiw.

gy jkf, Fghf thf

XuQ jkfshf Ugiy. mit
uL myJ _W mQf mla
bjhFgQfshf csd. (gl. M).
mjifa jkfSF rhWfshf
iAu#,
M#
Matiw
Flyh.

a iy gUbghU

nrkf

aif
ilF
bghUf
f mjhfnt a iy csd.
bgUghY mit w bghUfSl
izj
iynyna
ilwd.
j isthf mt aa,
nta gf khWjYFgnlh
myJ mit fla ayhj tifnyh
khw milwd. ikahd bghU
vgJ jjik thj gf
mla gUbghUis cslajhF.
a iy cs xU bghU, midJ
iyfY xnu jkhd aa,
nta gfis bgUF.

uL myJ _W jkf,
Fl jhrhu ntiz
_y
izJ
nrkfis
cUthFwd.
thW cUthd
nrkf,
mit
cUthf
bgw
jkf
aa,
nta
gf ntWgLwd. vLJfhlhf,
iAu#, M# Ma uL
jkfis xU bfhfy 2:1 vw
j, Fl gjidFgL
ida itF nghJ, mit mf
aJl idJ vD nrkij
cUthFwd. aa, nta
gf, iAu#, M# Ma
jkf gfUJ KYkhf
ntWgLwd.
xU ntnrk
MF.
xU nrk _yTid

gUbghU iaig bghWJ, mit

mls bghUis jk, nrk,
fyit vd tifgLjyh.

M) _yTWf

jkf
ntid
_ykhf
nkY
gFFglhj bghU jk vd
miHfgLwJ.
aiy xU
jk gfis bgWs fa
mynf mjk mQ vdgL. xU
jk mQf midJ xnu
tifahd aa, nta gfis
bgWs f a myFfis bfhlJ.
(gl. m)

) nrk

43

ma

jkf, nrkf, fyitf

m) mQf

myF-3
myF 3

nta
nta
ntidFgL
mnrkYs
jkfis fyh. (gl. )

3.1. fyitf
uL
myJ
mjF
nkgl
bghUf mt jjik khwhk
xnwhblhW fyJ cUthtnj fyit
MF.
vLJfhlhf, Ul kziy
fyJ cUthF fyitia fUJf.
kzY, U mt fyit iyY
jJt
gfis
bgWsd.
UJ, xU fyit uL myJ
mjF nkgl bghUf nrUjhY,
mit
ntiz
_ykhf
izfgLtiy.
rhwhf,
xU
bfhfy
iAu#
thit,
M# thit vjbthU j
fyJ
vLJbfhlhY
Fiwj
btgiy, mjhtJ bgh cUthfhj
iy mit idtiy. vdnt
xnwhblhW
fyfgl
iyY
mit nt idFglhk Ugjh,
iAu#D M#D mtFa
aa,
nta
gfUJ
ntWgLtiy.

3.2. fyit gf
aa
iyf
xWgl
myJ ntWgl bghUfis csla
fyitf cUthwd. rhW : btfy.
J X cnyhffyit.
nyhf
fyit fhg, o Ma cnyhff
fyJsd.
U cnyhffS
k iy csd. xU fiur
nkY mJ bfhnth

xU bghU ajik
mj
aa gfUJ magLwJ.
rhwhf,
tkly
mGj,
0
bfhiy 100 C, ciwiy 0oC, ml
1.0 /br.3 bfhl wkw, kzkw,
Ritaw k vgJ a MF,

mla ut, k bghUfSF

, c fyj fyitia (cfiur)
vLJfhlhf Twyh.
fyitf aiy bghUf MfhJ.
Vbd mit mtYs xU bghU
gfis kL bgUgiy. khwhf
fiur KGtJkhf xnu tifahd aa,
nta gfis bgUgiy.
gl (<) fhosthW, fyit
btntW tifahd mQf myJ
_yTWf izJ fhzgLwd,
mit, mt jJt aa,
nta
gfisna
bgWsd.
fyit, jkf vj xU jY
aa Kiw izUfyh.
nkY a nrk vJ cUthtiy.

xU fyitia cUthf fhuzkhf

cs
bghUf,
mfyit
gFbghUf myJ TWf MF.
fyit tiff

vLJfhLf

k k

ehzaf,
cnyhffyitf

k k

fl

th k

if (fhYs
fhg Jff)

k k

urfyit
(cnyhf + ghjur)

k k

Ul MfAh
fyj fyit

th k

nkf, _Lg

k th

thth gu
ftugl f

k th

nrhlh ghdf

th th

fhW

( <) fyit

ikahd
xU
bghU
jk
iynyh, nrk iynyh Ufyh.

44

eik NJs
gUbghUf
ikahditah?
eik NJs
gUbghUf
ikahditah?
xU fyitah myJ nrkkh?

cGfgL
RthrfhW

nH FlgLs fhuzf
mogil xU nrkkhF.
xUgojhd ailaJ.
 bfhiy, ciwiy, ml
nghw agf Fl khwh
kfis bgWsd.
gf, m mls gF
bghUfshd iAu#, M#
gfUJ ntWgLwd.

78 % ieu#

20 % M#

16 % M#

0.03 % fhg
ilMi[L

4 % fhg
ilMi[L

f js
<ugj

Fljf
ms <ugj

fh ia

th

fhW xU fyitah myJ nrkkh?

nH FlgLs
fhW xU fyitahF.

78 % ieu#

fhuzfsh

fhW khwh iaid bgUgiy.

lF l mj ia khwkilwJ.
Fl l cs fh
iaigngh, m mls TWfis
mnj j fyJ braifahf
fhiw cUthf aY. thW
cUthFnghJ Mw khw vJ
ftiy.

iw rjj

ieu#

75.50 %

M#

23.20 %

Mfh

1.0 %

fhg ilMi[L

0.046 %

ah
a

fFiw
f Fiw

bra 3.1

ehfns brnwh

Uis, rg Sl d
jf fyFnth. kbwhU jf
nj bghUfis eF NnlWnth.
xU fhjij mt mU bfhL
brnth.
U
fhjjh
<fgLwJ. U rigL fhjjh
ftugLtiy. nrhjid, fyit
vthW nrkUJ ntWgLwJ
vgij fla gagL f va
nrhjid MF.

k fhiw d fh toj
nghw aa KiwF cgL
fh cs TWfis jjna f
aY.
kfhW Fl bfhiyia
bgUgiy, k fhW -1960 C Kj
-1830C btgiy tius viyF
bfhwJ.
fhW xU nrkkhf UFkhdh,
UJ btnawgL fhW, eik
NJs fhW ia ntWglTlhJ.
Mdh,
RthjnghJ,
bttU
fh, rhjhuz fh Ugijl
M# ms Fiwthf csJ.

lJ - rg, U
tyJ - U(II)rigL

45

ma

 xU Fl khwh iw jij
bgWsJ. cs jkfshd H,
O Matiw j 1 : 8 MF.

btlgL
RthrfhW

myF-3
myF 3

nta
nta
bra 3.2

bra 3.3

ehfns brnwh

ehnd brnw

tUtdtiw fyit, nrk vd

tifgLJnt.
i) cnyhf fyitf ii) if iii) gHrhW
iv) gh (v) fh (vi) rhjhuzc
(vii) fhg ilMi[L (viii) gT
(Ice Cream)

3.3. fyitf tiff

eik
Rs
fhW
ikahdjh? FG thj brnth

 uL tifahd fyitf csd.

mit,

lj (m) khwh j

i) xUgojhd fyit

a
xU
nrk,
vKiw
jahfglhY,
m
cs
jkf iw xU Fl khwh iw
jjh ToUF.

ii) gygojhd fyit

3.3.1. xUgojhd fyit mj tiffS
xUgojhd
fyitf
fyit TWf, xnu iy gu
fhzgLwd. fyit vgF
kh gFgh nkbfhlhY, mit
xnu
jkhd
jhrhu
fyit
Ugij
flayh.
xUgojhd
fyit btntW gFfY TWf

nkY mJ bfhnth

f gagLJ bg cs
vGJ gFahd uhig, fhgD
fkQ fyj fyit MF.

3.2.1. fyitF nrkF cs ntWghLf

fyit

nrk

jkf
VnjD
xU
j
mogil aghf fyJsd.
a bghU vJ cUthtiy.

fyit cs gFbghUf Fl
j mogil nta Kiw
izJ a nrkij cUthFwd,

fyit,
iyahd
cUFiy,
bfhiy, ml Ma gfis
bgUgiy.

nrkf, iyahd cUFiy, bfhiy,

mlia bgWsd.

fyit gf m mls
gF
bghUf
gfis
xJsd.

nrk gf m mls
gF
bghUfsha
jkf
gfUJ ntWgLwd.

fyit
xUgojhd
iynyh,
gygojhd iynyh Ufyh.

nrkf xUgojhdiy aig kL

bgWsd.

tofLj, fhjjh j nghw

aa Kiwf _y xU fyit
cs gF bghUfis jjna
f aY.

aa Kiw _y xU nrk cs
jkfis jjna f ayhJ.

46

eik NJs
gUbghUf
ikahditah?
eik NJs
gUbghUf
ikahditah?
ehnd brnw

M
vgJ
jiytia
Fzkhf cj xU kUJ. vKiw
jahfglhY, 60% fhg, 4.5%
iAu#, 35.5% M# Mait
iwrjj m lbgUF.
vdnt M xU __________
(fyit / nrk) vd mJ bfhnt.
aa, nta gf xnu jkhf
Uwd.
fhW xU xUgojhd
fyit MF. fh, ieu#, M#,
Mfh, w thf gFbghUfshf
mlsd. xUgojhd fyit cs
gFbghUf midJ xnu aa
iy csd. xU gojhd fyitf
fiurf vW miHfgLwd.

3.3.2. gygojhd fyit, mt tiff

gygojhd fyitf xnu iyah
Ugiy. vLJfhlhf, xU fy
nrfgl nkhid vLJ, y l
neu mfyid mirfhk Xl
itJLf. J neu fJghjh,
Jff midJ fy moghfY,
kL nkghfY J bjtilj
iy Ugij fhzyh. gygojhd
fyit gFbghUf th, k
myJ k vw xnu iy
Ugiy.
k - k gygojhd fyit rfiul c fyj fyit
k - k gygojhd fyit
Rzfol nrj fyit

_W tifahd xUgojhd fyitf

csd.

th - th gygojhd fyit - if

fyj fhW

iyikyhd
xUgojhd
k
fyit - cnyhf fyitf

k - k gygojhd fyit kbzbzl fyj fyit

k iyikyhd xUgojhd fyit

- fyj MfAh

bra 3.6

th iyikyhd xUgojhd fyit

- fhW

ehnd brnw

tU bghUfis xUgojhd
myJ gygojhd fyit vd eh
tifgLJnt.

xUgojhd fyitf

i) nj ii) ik iii) gHf fyit

( Fruit Salad ) iv) rfiu fiur

c
fiur
nj

bra 3.7
bra 3.5

ehnd brnw

ehnd brnw

ff x
 U
njfuo
kziy
fyFnt,
ff kz Jffis
fhz KgLnt,
ff  fyit
KGtJ
kz
Jff
xnu
iy
gusjh?
vd
cWnehFnt.
ff W, fyit
jikia bghUJ
tifgLJnt.

ff xU J ikia Ul fyFnt.

ff fyit KGtJ xnu jkhd wkhf
khWwJ vd cWnehFnt.
ff 
fyit xU
_________ fyit
(xUgojhd/gygojhd)
vd
khng.

47

Ul

ma

bra 3.4

myF-3
myF 3

nta
nta
gUbghU tifgLJj -

sf tiugl
gUbghU

a bghUf

fyitf
ia khWgL .

aa
Kiwf
v
bjLf aY.
aa khf iy.

xUgojhd fyit

gygojhd fyit

xU fyit
fyit KGtJ
ntWgL iaf.
khwhj iaf.
gF bghUfis gF bghUfis
jayh.
ja ayhJ.

3.4 fyit
j

ia khwhjJ.
aa Kiwf v f

ayhJ.
Fl aa khf csJ.

gFbghUfis

nrkf

jkf
xnu tifahd
mQfis bgwit.
cnyhff (Na, Ca),
mnyhff(O2,Cl2) ,
cnyhf nghf(Sb,As),
kj thf(He,Ne)

va
aa
Kiwf,
fyitfis jayh. xU fyit
gFbghUfis ja, mt
aa
gfis
bjUj
mta.
gf
jjik
thjitah?
myJ ntWglitah?
vgij
mj
dnu
gF
bghUfis
ja
aY.
vLJfhlhf, mt fiuwid
mogilahf bfhL xU fyitYs
uL
gFbghUfS
mtiw
f KoahJ.
UD mt
cUFiyf
ntWgoU,
mj
mogil mtiw fyh. mthW
ntWglitah vgij mj dnu
gFbghUfis
ja
aY.
vLJfhlhf,
xU
fyitYs
uL gFbghUfS mt
fiuwid
mogilahf
bfhL
mtiw f KoahJ.
UD
mt cUFiyf ntWgoU,
mj mogil mtiw fyh.
vdnt, gFbghUfis gjF K,
mt aa gfis mUgJ
aikahjJ.

uL myJ
nkgl
jkf Fl
iw j
csd.

gygojhd fyit gF
bghUfis j
1. bja itJ Wj: k
fiuahj aila bga Jff
mla kij mkUJ
bjLj.
2. tofLj :
k
fiuahj
a bfhl fa Jff
mla kij, mkUJ
bjLj.
3. gjfkhj :
uL kf
mla fyitUJ gjfkhF
aila
kij
kL
bjLj.
4. d: xWl xW fythj U
utf mla fyit UJ
mtiw jjahf bjLj.
3.4.1. 
gjfkhj
j

Kiw

fyitia

k iy UJ xU bghU
neuoahf th iyF khWtJ gjfkhj
vdgL.

48

eik NJs
gUbghUf
ikahditah?
eik NJs
gUbghUf
ikahditah?

rhjhuz
c,
fuK
fyj
fyitia
fUJnth.
uL
kiy bghUf MF. rhjhuz c
btgjh v MahF agwJ.
mjhtJ,
gjfkhF
jikawJ.
fu gjfkhF ailaJ. vdnt,
gjfkhj Kiw fuij, rhjhuz
cUJ bjLfyh.

bra 3.9

r
hjhuz c, fu Mait
fyj
fyitia
xU
fh
z vLJ bfhnlh.
fh z nkgF,
xU diy jiyHhf fJ
itnjh.
d
jL
ghf
EgFia gdh milJ,
d
fh
zij
Nlhndh.

nrhjid VgL khwfis
FJ bfhnlh.

1. k _yTWf Mahj
2. mnaho goff Mahj
3. cy gfo gjfkhj
(fhg ilMirL gfo tot)

bra 3.8

ehfns brnwh

ehnd brnw

gR
jiy Hhf
fJ
itfgl
d

fu goff

x
 U Kfit, rk ms cis,
nfhJik khit fyFnt.

fu M

m
 KfitD nghJ iu C,
fyitia eF fyFnt,

rhjhuzc fu fyit

c
 , kh uo fiu
wid cWnehFnt.

 J neu kh Kfit
moghf gotij fhng.
k

hit,
cig
bghUjkhd
Kiwia
njbjLf Ko.

F
vdh
fu, c gjfkhj

49

ma

ca btgiy, v MahF
k _yTWf xiwL xW
y brtj isthf k bghU
th iyF khw milwJ.

myF-3
myF 3

nta
nta

xUgojhd fyit gF bghUfis

j

nkY mJ bfhnth

gjfkhF
a i la
kf: fu, ehj, bgrh
my,
mnaho,
mnkha
FnshiuL.

1. thiy toj
v MahF k fiuJs,
v Mahfh jiks kij
bjLj.
2. d thiy toj

3.4.2. x
 Wl xW fythj kf
mla fyitia bjLj
xWl xW
fythj kfis
d cjah jjna fyh.
kbzbz
U
fyj
fyitia fUJnth. it uL
xWl
kbwhW fythj kf.
vdnt, d cjah kfis
f aY.
ml Fiwj k
nk mLY, ml mfkhd k
mLYkhf wJ.

uL myJ mjF nkgl fiu

jik bfhl kfis jjna
j MF. (10-12 ) ignfh uh
msyhd ff Ea Jff Kj,
cUts bga maf tiu Kiw
fgLwd.
mir, mirah
iyikfSilna, fiubghU Jff
gkhdFgL jagLwd.

xWl xW fyF aila

kf mla fyit UJ
mkfis jjna bjLf
bghUjkhd Kiw d thiy toj
MF. Kiw mogil jJt,
U kf bfhiyf FiwjJ
25 K
btgiyyhtJ ntWgoUf
ntL'' vgjhF.

milgh

cW neh mnth

k
 bzbzl

fyitia vLJbfhf.

3. tzif Kiw

3.4.3. 
xWl xW fyF aila
kf
mla
fyitia
bjLj

kbzbz

bra 3.10

bfhiyf mf ntWghL cila

uL myJ mjF nkgl kfis
jjna bjLj.

bg, blhY Ma U kf
mla fyitia fUJnth.

fyj

U kfS xWl
fyF ailait.

fyitia xU d CWf.
d thgFia _Lf.

xW

d thiytoj Kiw U
kfis jjna fyh.

FLitia 10 lf eF FYFf.

bg k bfhiy 353 K.


d, jh 15 lf
iyW khwfis cWnehFf.

blhY k bfhiy 384 K.

U kf bfhiy ntWghL
31 K MF.

 , nk mLFfis ftf.
khwFa jJt vd?

50

eik NJs
gUbghUf
ikahditah?
eik NJs
gUbghUf
ikahditah?
xUgojhd fyit gFbghUfis j

btgiykh

if mLF

Fgh

FLit
bg,
blhY
fyit

thiy to k

r
vFHh
FghUJ
btJbtJghd
btnaWj

Fgh cns
Fj brYj

iy
v

gUbghU

M
v

xU iy csjh?
gygojhd fyit

xUgojhdit
iy
v

M
v

khWgl iaig bgWsjh?

abghU
iy
v

M
v
va bghUshf f aYkh?

jk

nrk

51

xUgojhd fyit
(fiur)

ma

jk, nrk, fyitia flj

myF-3
myF 3

nta
nta
bra 3.11

cW neh mnth

thiytofy, MfAhYl fyj fyitia vLJbfhf.

fy thgFia xU Jis ug milghdh _o, btgiykhia
bghUJf.
gfFHhl xU Fghid izf.
fyitia bkJthf NnlWf. MfAh Kj Mah btna, Fghdh
FfgL kkhf nrfukhtij fhf.
W, fy kLnk vUgij fhf.

nkY mJ bfhnth

gntW Jiwf gagL tofl braKiwf.

1. f
 hg tofo: EJisfSila, eF shfgl fhg, tofoahf
gagLwJ. tYs EJisf tHna fhW <fgL, thfis,
ntbghUfis cfhk jLwJ. jifa fhg tofof,
uhQtdU, aiz ufS gagLJ th fh ftrf gagLwJ.
2. Frhjd tofo: F rhjd cgfuzYs f _y fhiw RHy
brJ, fhYs f fgLwd,
3. thfd vbghU tofo: thfdf vbghU FHhf gagL tofo,
a vbghUis mjDl fyJs khRfUJ wJ.
4. tofo: fyJs khRf, mjDl Fnsh, bghlhZ gofhu, eF
shfgl fhg Matiw nrgJl kzgu myJ EJis
ghl Cnl brYJtj_y fgLwd.

kL - kh dhf
- m
rahd ilia njbjLJ vGJf.
1. e
 h gagLJ bg vGj cj gF uhig vD bghUsh MdJ. uhig
________ nrj fyitahF.
(fhgD fkQ, fkQ ieu#D)
2.
 a vgJ xU nrk. iAu# 11.19% , M# __________ vw iw
j csJ. (88.81% , 31.81%)
3. e
 hza vgJ k k nrj fyit; if vgJ __________ nrj
fyitahF. (th k, k th)

52

eik NJs
gUbghUf
ikahditah?
eik NJs
gUbghUf
ikahditah?
4. fhgdtW bghUjhj izia vLJ vGJf.
m) fhW

th th

M) fl

k k.

) Fghd

k th

<) ur fyit

k k

5. g
 UbghUfYs gFbghUf gntW tifahd Kiwf ik
gLjgLwd. k fhiw __________ vw aa KiwF
cgL f Ko.
(d thiy toj, thiy toj, gjfkhj)
6. tUtdtF bgaLf:
m) tiuaWfgl totij bguhj, Fljf fd msila gUbghU.
M) Fljf iwila, Mdh Fl fdms yhj gUbghU.
) kfis btggLJ nghJ ilF gUbghU.
<) _yTWfSilna Fiwj ilbtia bgWs gUbghU.
7. tU TWf rah? jtwh? vd flf. jtwhd TWfis mil FF
bfhLfgl brhfis bfhL UJf.
m) btggLJ nghJ, kf thfis l mfs tilwd (Fiwjs)
M) js mGjjh thf v RUf ayh jikia bgWsd.
(kf)
) kf tiuaWfgl totij bgUgiy. (thf, kf)
<) kf ml, thfis l Fiw (kf)

8. gUbghU iaig bghWJ tUtdtF bgaLf.

m) ntid _ykhf nkY gFFglhj bghU __________
M) uL myJ _W jkf, Fl jhrhu ntiz _y
izJ cUthF bghU __________
) uL myJ mjF nkgl bghUf mt jjik khwhk xnwhL
xW fyJ cUthtJ __________
<) uL kf (cnyhff) fyit __________
9. nfhol lfis uf.
m) xU bghU a
flagLwJ.

jik

mj

__________

gfis

bfhL

M) xU __________, __________ kW __________ k. tkly mGj

mj bfhiy __________, ciwiy __________ kW ml__________ .
vdnt xU __________ bghU.

53

ma

c) kf f Fiwj mlia bgWsd (mf)

myF-3
myF 3

nta
nta
10. bghUJf.
jk fa myF
uL myJ _W mQf mla bjhF
iAu#
U rigL
bg cs vGJ gF

nrk
mQf
fyit
_yTWf
jk

11. tU fyit tiffis flf.

m) urfyit ( + ghjur) __________ k k.
M) fl __________ .
) nrhlh ghdf __________ .
<) fhW __________ .
c) fhYs fhg Jff (if) __________ .
C) jis (Cu + Zn cnyhffyit) __________ .
v) MfAh + __________ .
12. , m mls gF bghUfshd iAu#, M# gfUJ
ntWgLtjh mJ xU nrk. jid sF gfis jUf.
m) mls jkf gf. iy __________.
1. iAu#

th - v jik

2. M#

th - v jik

M) gf
1. iy

- k

2. v jik - (ia mizf ToaJ, vjYF JizahJ)

13. Uis, r~g Sl fyFnghJ fyit cUthwJ. mtiw eF NnlW
nghJ nrk cUthwJ. mit fyit, nrk vd vthW flagLwJ?
m) fhjjh ftugL jik
M) aa Kiw gFbghUfis bjLj.
14. vLJfhL xW jUf.
m) k xUgojhd fyit __________
M) k xUgojhd fyit __________
) th xU gojhd fyit __________
15. rah? jtwh? vd flJ jtwhd TWfis UJf.
m) fyit iyahd cUFiy, bfhiyia bgWsd.
M) nrkf gygojhd iy aig kL bgWsd.
) fhg ilMiro, fhg, iAu# Fl j nrJsd.

54

eik NJs
gUbghUf
ikahditah?
eik NJs
gUbghUf
ikahditah?
<) fyit xUgojhd iynyh, gygojhd iynyh Ufyh.
c) aa Kiw _y xU nrkYs jkfis jjna fyh.
16. rahd ilia njbjLJ vGJf.
1. xWl xW fythj kfis bjLF Kiw __________ .

m) tofLj

M) d

) thiy toj

2. MfAh, bg fyitia bjLF Kiw __________ .

m) thiy toj

M) MahFj

) d thiy toj

3. mnaho, kz fyj fyitia bjLF Kiw__________ .

m) tofLj

M) gjfkhj

) bja itJ Wj

4. tkly fhYs ieu# rjj __________ .

m) 23.20

M) 75.50

) f Fiw

5. fl vgJ __________ fyit.

m) k k M) k k

) th k.

t. v fyit tiff
vLJfhL
bjLF Kiw
U kf
fhjij
1
fyit
gagL
fiuah
aila bga
2
Jff mla
kfyit
3
fu, c
xnwhL xW
4
fyF U
kf
5
cyj iy
6
d
18. nfhol lfis uf.
m) nrkf gf mt mls gFbghUfshd__________UJ
khWgLwJ.
M) fyitf__________bghUf MfhJ.
) bg - blhY fyitia bjLF Kiw__________ .
<) uL myJ mjF nkgl fiu jik bfhl kfis bjLF
Kiw __________ . Kiw __________ kW __________ iyikfSF
ilna fiu bghU Jff gkhdJF cgL bjLfgLwd.
19. nH bfhLfgltUJ, fyitUJ gFbghUfis bjLF
rahd Kiwia njbjLJ vGJf.

55

ma

17. mltizia uf.

myF-3
myF 3

nta
nta

(thiy toj, d thiy toj, gjfkhj, tzif Kiw, d,

tofLj)
m) ik UJ __________ .
M) mnaho, kz fyj fyitUJ mnaho __________ .
) kbziz, bgnuh fyit UJ bgnuh __________ .
<) MfAh, fyitUJ __________ .
c) bg, blhY fyit UJ bg __________ .
C) kz, fyitUJ kz __________ .
v) c fiurUJ rhjhuz c__________ .

- M
1. a

bghU xnu khahd Jffis bgUF. fl vgJ a bghUsh?
iyah? fhuz TWf.
2. n
 rk vgJ uL myJ mjF nkgl jkf khwhj iw j
fyJs bghU MF. nrk gf ulid TWf.
3. x
 nu iyia bgw fyit xU gojhd fyitahF. xWF nkgl iyikia
bgWsJ gygojhd fyit MF. nkfl TWfis eF J tifF X
vLJfhL vGJf.
4.
 l iy cs fuij fhWgLgo itjh, mJ th iyF khLwJ.
J X aa khw. khw bgaiu TWf. cfSF bjj vLJfhL
xW TWf.
5. m) k
 bzbz
U
fyj
cjwJ. (thiy toj, d)

fyitia

M) 
rhjhuz
c
mnkha
FnshiuL
fyj
__________ Kiw cjwJ (gjfkhj, tzif).

_______
fyitia

Kiw
f

6. A
 vw k bfhiy 353K. B vw k bfhiy 384K. it uL
xWl xW fyF jik cilait. it uil d thiy toj''
Kiw fyh. kfis f Kiwia ifahs fhuz TWf.
7. tU TWfSF ma fhuz jUf.
kf:
m) fhW V fyitahf fUjgLwJ?
M) x, btg, fhjjik gUbghUshf fUjgLtiy. V?
) kf, ljikia, mf mGj iy RUf ayh jikia
bgWsd. V?
<) kf mf mlia bgWsd. V?
c) kf, btgjh jsnt til gig bgWsd. V?

56

eik NJs
gUbghUf
ikahditah?
eik NJs
gUbghUf
ikahditah?
kf:
m) kf tiuaWfgl totij bgUgiy. V?
M) kf tiuaWfgl totij, fd msit bgWsdth?
) kf, btggLJ nghJ kfis l mfs tiltJ V?
<) kf ml, kfisl Fiw. V?
(ml vgJ XuyF gUk iw)
c) kf, mit itfgLs fy totij bgWsd. V?
thf:
m) thf, mit UF KG lij u gig bgWsd. V?
M) thf, js mGjjhY, mfs RUf aY jik cilaJ. V?
) btggLJ bghGJ kfisl thf mf ms tiltJ V?
<) eh g fhiw unghJ, mJ tiltJ V?
8. gUbghUf, k, k, thfshf UgjF fhuzkhd mogil gf
ahit?


1. fyit jkf VnjD xU j mogil fyJsd.

m) fyit, nrkUJ vthW ntWgLwJ?
M) fyit tiff ahit?
) xbthU tifF X vLJfhL jUf.
2. ml cs midJ bghUfS _W iyf csd. mit k, k,
th MF.
M) k bghU gf ulid TWf.
) xU kbghUis Nnldh tilkh? V?
3. bjaitJ Wj _y gygojhd fyit TWf fgLwd. bja
itJ Wj vwh vd?
4. jk, nrkUJ vthW ntWgLwJ?
5. tzif g W F vGJf?
6. gygojhd fyit vwh vd? mj tiffis vLJfhLfSl sFf.
7. tUtdtiw fiur, gygojhd fyit, nrk myJ jk vd Lf.
i) nrhoa ii) FSnfh iii) vYr gHrhW iv) kzYl f fyj fyit
v) rhjhuz c
8. MfAh Ul nrfgLsJ. U gFbghUfis F Kiwia
RUfkhf vGJf.
9. bja itJ Wj, tofLjUJ vthW ntWgLwJ?
10. xWl xW fythj kfis vthW fyh?

57

ma

m) k bghU tiuaWfgl totij bgUf fhuz TWf.

myF-3
myF 3

nta
nta

11. nH bfhLfgLs glij cWnehFf. tiw gagLJ Kiw ahJ?

mFl ghffis Ff.
5

1
2
3
4

12. tUtdtF fhuz jUf:

m) xU nrk

M) fhW xU fyit

13. gjfkhj - F tiuf.

kL braghL
1. nrhjid : iu ikahf
aifahd braghL _y khRs
ikahfgLjiy bjJ bfhf
khRs iu, kz, THhff
Matiw gagL ikahfyh.
gl fhoago, xU Kfitia vLJ,
mj moghf M cjah
vL Jisf tiu VgL Rkh 8 br.
(3 inches) cauF THhffsh uf.
mj nkghf nj msF kziy
vLJbfhf.

khRs
CwgLwJ

Kfit

Kfit
jhf

kz
THhff

Fs myJ FilUJ Kfugl

khRs iu Kfit nkghf kz
tHahf KfitD Hbrf. nghJ
Kfit moghfYs Jisf
tHna bjj a btnaWtij
fhzyh.
2. fyJiuahl
nehf : mwhl th gagLj Toa fyitf cs gFbghUfis
g khztfis ma brj.
3. tifgLJj
nehf : fyit jikia mJ, mtiw xUgojhd fyit myJ gygojhd
fyit vd tifgL mj.

58

eik NJs
gUbghUf
ikahditah?
eik NJs
gUbghUf
ikahditah?
fyit

mls gFbghUf

1. fhW
2. frh vbz
3. gh
4. fhnwwgl ghdf
5. JUofhj v~F
fyit jah Kiw

fyit tif

Ul rfiuianrj
Ul rfiuia , cig nrj
fhYs ifkly
ml nfhJik fyj fyit
4. xL fw
nehf : fyit mls gFbghUfis bghUjkhd Kiw
bjLF braKiwia mj.
fyit tif

ikahF Kiw

cfiur
bgnuhYl kbzbz fyj fyit
rhjhuz cl fu fyj fyit
Ea kz fyj
5. fh mltizia vG m LgLs xbthU flFS xU
fyitF X vLJfhL vGJf.
v.fh. Fs vgJ l, utbghU fyit.

Fs

k
th

59

th

ma

Ul kbzbz fyj fyit

myF-3
myF 3

nta
nta
6. nHFLs bghUf aa iyia FLf
bghU

aa iy

gfo
fhW

m
M#
7. g
 bgUfl cs xU fg xW gGjilJ gjhf bfhnth.
UD, gaf wFfilf, bgo, y ghidfis bfhL tUwhf.
gaf fl UJ vthW Fo bgWwhf vgij gl cjl
sFf.
8. Rzh, c fyj fyit xF nkgl Kiwfis gagL
bjLfgLwJ. c, fiu. Mdh Rzh fiutiy.
bjLF gof nH bfhLfgLsd. mtiw rahf tirgLj.
1. fiuahj Rzhis tofLj _y iu btnaWf.
2. eF fyFnghJ c, fiuwJ.
3. c fiuriy MahFj _y iu btnaWf.
4. c, Rzh fyitia Ul nrf.
5. Rzhis Na x cyJf.

nkY ma

jf: General Chemistry (Second Edition) - Jean B.Umland & Jon M.Bellama
West publishing company
izajs: http://www.tutorvista.com
http://www.khanacademy.org

60

myF

Q mik

* cfU fLo
* %j nghL nrhjid
* %jnghL mQbfhif
* ngh mQbfhif
* uh fLo
* mogil Jff waf
* mQv, iw v
* Inrhnlhf
* mQf vyuh mik

myF-3
myF 4

nta
nta
mQ mik - mj mta

4.1. mQfU fLo

xU bghU mls ff a
Ea Jfisna mQ vW #h lhl
fUdh. k iy bghUf
cs Ea Jff ga Mit
#h lhl nkbfhsiy. khwhf,
thf Jff rhj Mfisna
bgUks nkbfhlh.
Fghf,
th mls Jff vthW
xnwhblhW fywd vgJ FJ,
mit izJ vjifa nrkfis
cUthFwd vgnjhL vthW
fiuwd vgJ nghw Mfisna
mfms
nkbfhlh.
jh
nkbfhl MfUJ, jkf
izJ, xWF nkgl nrkfis,
Fl iwj mogil iznj
cUthFwd
vd
fljh.
j isthf, bghUf iz
nghJ mt mls Ea
Jff Fl ms xnwhblhW
izwd vd vLJiujh.

%jngho braghL

ma
mPf
a
mQbfhiff,
ma
vthW
ts milJ tUwJ vgjF
wj rhwhf sFwJ. gy ma
mPf
a
fLofSF,
jj Ezit gagLsd.
Vfdnt, bjfgl bfhiff, a
Mf isthf gy khwfSF
cgLjgL,
a
bfhiffshf
tiuaWfgLwd.
mbfhiff
nkY a fLofSF mogilahf
mikwd.
J.J.jh[
mQbfhif,
mQf
eLiy
jikia
sanghJ, mbfhifah mQ
cs mQfU ga fUJfis
sf ayiy. mQfU ga a
bfhifia, 1909M ML vd
%jnghL mKfgLdh.

62

bka xU cnyhf jfoJ

M~ghffis
HbrnghJ
VgL khwfis %jnghL M
brjh.

vd %jnghL (1871-1937)
vd %jnghL vw oZ
aayh M~gh Jffis gagL
faf M _y mQfis ga
M <Lglh. %jnghL ``mQfU
aa jij vd miHfglh.
mQ mik Muhfhf 1908M ML
nehg gid bgwh.

4.2. %jngho nrhjid

4 x 10-5 br. jok cs bka
jfjfo Cnl, M~ghJf fiw
brYjglJ.
bgUghyhd
M~gh
Jff jfoD nenfhL ghij
CLU brwd. y M~ghJff
ruhrahf 900 nfhz yf miljd.
mjhf 20,000 Jff, xW kL cnyhf
mQfU J gL 1800 nfhz yf
miljJ.
nkY mJ bfhnth
M
 ~ghJff vgit a
maf (He2+).
M
 ~ghJf
iw,
vyuh iwiangh
klF mf.

X
8000

M
 ~ghJff
irntf
7
VwFiwa 2 x 10 /beho.

eik NJs gUbghUf ikahditah?

mQ mik
1
2

1. CLU brYj
2. Xus yf miljit
3. mf ms yf miljit
4. 1800 nfhz ms Ugglit

M~ghJf
fiw

xU jfmQ J M~ghJff nkhJtij FF tiugl. mQ

ikagF mQfU fhlgLsJ.
j
MUJ,
mQ
ikagF a cUt ms mf
ne Rikila cfU lbgWsJ
vd fljh.

bra 4.1
%jnghL M,

1) bgUghyhd M~ghff vj
gh

cnyhfjfil
CLU brwjF fhuz ahJ?

4.3. %jnghL mQbfhif

m
 Q ikagF ff a
cfU l bgWsJ.
c

fUit
Rs
btlkhf csJ.

bgUgF

m
Q iw, mj
iwia bghWJsJ.

cfU

c
 fUit Rs btl
vyuhf l bgWsd.
v
yuhf, cfUit tl tot
ghij R tUwd.

ehfns brnwh

2) y M~ghJff kL yf
miljjF fhuz ahJ?
3) 
mQ cUtsnthL xLif,
mQfU
ms
cUt
ajh, bgajh?

4.4. ngh -mQbfhif

%jnghL mQkh Ujf
nkbfhL, ngh a mQkh
bfhiffis cUthdh.

vyuhf

vyuh

4.3.1. tuf
fhj
bfhifgo,
ntfkhf
a
bfhoUF
vyuh
bjhlJ Mwiy Hf ntL.
thW Mwiy Hgjh, vyuh
mQfUit RtU ghij RU
W mQfUD H ntL.
thW fjh mQ mj iy
jikia Hf neL. Mdh, mQ
iy
jik
cilaJ.
jdh,
%jnghL bfhif mQ iy
jikia sf ayiy.

nkY mJ bfhnth

xU Kid fiy fo,

mfiw xU Wt jid R,
RWtjhf fUJnth. f ntfkhf
RwgLnghJ, mJ mf fdmsit
Mugij fhzyh. Jngh,
mQfUit
R
vyuhf
ntfkhf aFnghJ, mit mf
fdmsit Muwd.

63

ma

cfU
cfU

myF-3
myF 4

nta
nta
lbgaUnghJ
LwJ.

ngh (1885-1962)

Mwiy

bt

n = 1 (K M)

blkh cs nfhg nAf

ngh 1885 M ML mnlhg 7M
nj wjh. t wj fhgJ uU
Mth. khbrl gfiyfHf
%jnghLl
gahdh.
ngh
bfhif, ed aayhd Fthl
bfhifF mogilahf mikjJ.
1922 aaYfhd nehg gir
bgwh.

n = 2 (L M)

n = 3 (M M)

_whtJ
Mw kl
(M - M)
ulhtJ
Mw kl
(L - M)

 mQ vyuhf iyahd
X
tlghij mQfUit R
tUwd.
tl
ghijf
MLf myJ TLf myJ
Mwklf vd miHfgLwd.
 nu tlghij vyuhf R
x
tUif Mwiy Hgnjh myJ
Vgnjh iy.
 tl ghijf 1, 2, 3, 4 myJ K,

L, M, N TLf vd bgalgLwd.
j vf Kjik Fthl
vf (n) vdgL.
 cUts ajhf UF nghJ,
M
mj MwY Fiwthfnt UF.
cfUUJ
bjhiy
mfFnghJ, Mo MwY
izahf cawJ.
 Mw kl (n) lbfhS
X
vyuhf mfgr vif
2n2 MF.
v

yuh,
Mwiy
cRnghJ,
Fiwj Mw klUJ ca
Mw klF jhwJ.
 a Mw kl UJ Fiwj
c
Mw
klF
vyuh

64

Kj Mw
kl
(K - M)

 : M vgJ vyuhf
M
cfUit RtU tlghij.
nkY mJ bfhnth

%jngho
khztf
n#rhF xUt Mt.

4.5. uhf fLo

1932
n#
rh
vD
mayh
bga
cfUit,
jhdh.
M~ghfuh
nuhlhfSF izahd iw cs
Jff
btnad.
JffSF
Rik VJ iy. it uhf
vW miHfgld.
bga + M~gh f fhg
uh
nkY mJ bfhnth

uhf vif = iw
v - nuhlhf vif (m)
vyuhf vif (mQ v)

eik NJs gUbghUf ikahditah?

mQ mik
lhl,
jh[,
%jnghL,
ngh mQ mikf
jh[

ngh

X mQ mogil Jffshtd:
 nuhlhf: it neRik cila

Jff. it mQ cfUD
csd.
 yuhf:
it
vRik
v
cila Jff. Jff cfUit
tlghijf R tUwd.

lhl

 uhf:
it
eLiyahd,

Rikaw
Jff.
Jff
cfUD csd.

%jnghL

4.6.1. cfU mik

vyuhf iw ff Fiw.
vdnt mJ wffjfJ. Mfnt,
X mQ fu iw, mj cfU
iwiana rhJsJ. mQ cfU,
uL
TWfsh
Mdit.
mit
nuhlhfS, uhfS MF.

M~gh

uh
Rikaw iyia
fhL fU

uhf waf


uhf Rikaw Jff.
mjhtJ, eLiyahd Jff.
i
 Au# mQit ju, Vida
mQf cfU uhf
l bgWsd.
 U uh iw, VwFiwa xU
x
nuhlh iwF rk.

nuhlhf
neRikila
Jff. xj Rikia bgUgjh,
nuhlhf xiwbahW yF
jikia bgWwJ. fa cUts
bfhl iyahd cfU uhf
, xWF nkgl nuhlhf
lbfhs ayhJ.
uh Jf, cfU cs
nendw
bgw
nuhlh
JffSilna y yF iria
Fiwgj _y, cfU cs Jff
midij csla iyahd cfU
cUthf fhuzkhwJ.

 uhf vif ntWgL
xnu jk mQf, Inrhnlhf
vdgL.

nuhlh

 uhD mQ gF bghUshfnt

fUjgLwJ.

4.6. mogil Jff waf

xU jk, nrk aa,
nta gfis mt mls
mQ mogilJffis bghWJ
sf aY.

uh

cfU

65

ma

bga

myF-3
myF 4

nta
nta
mQ w mogilJff

vyuhf, nuhlhf, uhf fyhf, mQ w mogil Jffshtd,

1.bkrhf 2. ghuhf 3. ndhf 4. Fth 5.ahf 6.FSthf
mQ mogilJff gf
fLoj
mayhs

vyuh
J.J. jh[,

nuhlh

H.A. nyhu

uh

E. nfhLO

n#rh

iw

9.1x10-28

1.672x10-24

1.674x10-24

Rik myF

-1

+1

ahf

y jkf mQ v kf nH
jugLsd.

mQ
mogilJffshd
nuhlhfS. uhfS izJ
ahf vd miHfgLwd.
vdnt X mQ iw v vgJ
mtQ cfU lbgWs
ahf
vifia
FwJ.

iw v (A)
X mQ iw viz, mjk
mQ
cfUD
lbgWs
nuhlhf, uhf Mat
bkhj vif vd tiuaWfyh.
rhwhf, iw v k 23 cs nrhoa
mQ cfUD l bgWs
nuhlhf,
uhf
bkhj
vif 23 MF. X mQ iw v
kUJ mQ v kig fgj
_y uhf vifia
(nrhoa-12)fzlyh. y jkf
iw v kf tU mltiz
bfhLfgLsd.

4.7. mQ v, iw v
mQ v (Z): X mQ mQ v
vgJ, mjk mQ cfUD
fhzgL nuhlhf vif
myJ cfUit btghf R
tUw vyuhf vif vd
tiuaWfgLwJ.
iAu# mQ mQ v xW
MF. a mQ mQ v uL
MF.

mQ v, iw viz FLj
iw v (A)

mQv(Z)
vLJhlhf,
ieu# mQv 7.

mQ
v
z
vw
Fplh
FfgLwJ, uL jkf xnu
kyhd mQ viz bgUf
ayhJ. mQ v vgJ xbthU
mQF ca jJt gghF.

ieu# iwv 14.

FL: 14

jk

H He
Li Be
B C N O F Ne
Na

mQ v

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
11

jk

He

Li

Be

Ne

Na

Mg

mQ v

10

11

12

iw v

11

12

14

16

19

20

23

24

66

eik NJs gUbghUf ikahditah?

mQ mik
bra 4.2

nkY mJ bfhnth
vil Fiwthd mQf cfU
iyjikF, xU nuhlhDF
xU uh vw j nghJkhdJ.
vil mfkhd, fdkhd mQf
cfU
iyjikF,
nuhlhf vifia bghUJ
mf vif uh j
mikwJ.
vdnt
X
cfU
iyjikF uh-nuhlh
jnk mogil fhuzkhf mikwJ.

ehfns brnwh

A 11 nuhlhf, 11 vyuhf,
12 uhf csd.
B 15 nuhlhf, 15 vyuhf,
16 uhf csd.
C 4 nuhlhf, 4 vyuhf,
5 uhf csd.
 A,B,C Ma jkf bgafis eh
flnth.
bra 4.3

ehnd brnw
nkY mJ bfhnth
Fnsh
d
mQiw
kilaJ. Vbd, Fnsh-35
cs mQf 75% , Fnsh - 37
cs mQf 25% csd.

rahd
kig
fzL,
mltizia unt.
mQ
v

nghuh

nrhoa

11

ghgu

15

ah

10

nuhlhf
vif

vyuhf
vif

vdnt, Fnsh mQ
ruhr mQ iw =

{ }{ }

75 x35
25 x37
+
= 35.5
100
100

bra 4.4

ehnd brnw

tU jkf, vjkf
xnu vifyhd uhfis
bfhLsd vgij fzLnt.

xUj iyY, mt mQ
iw kf ntWgLwd vgJ
bjthwJ.

1. a 3Li

nuhlh

12

2. fhg 6C

7
3

14

3. ieu# 7N

uh

Li

4. bga 4Be
16

5. M# 8O

4.8. Inrhnlhf

6
3

mbkf mayhs T.W. r,

btntW lfUJ nrffgl
by (fha) khf mQ iw
btntwhf
Ugij
flJ
awh. xnu jk mQf
midJ xnu jkhf iy vgijna
bra vLJiuwJ. xnu jk
mQf midJ ntgf

Li

a Inrhnlhf

xj mQ v kig ntWgl
iw v kfis bfhl xnu
jk mQf, Inrhnlhf vW
miHfgLwd.

67

ma

jk

myF-3
myF 4

nta
nta
Inrhnlhf waf
x
 nu jk Inrhnlhf, mt
iw vf kL ntWgLwd.
uhf
vif
ntWgLtjh, mt iw vfS
ntWgLwd.
 U jk Inrhnlhf xj
x
nta gfis bgWsd.
v

D,
aa
gf
Inrhnlhf J khWgLwd.
I
nrhnlhfis bfhLs jk
mQf, d mQ iwfis
bgWsd.

bra 4.5

 ujnrhif nehfhd ir,
U-59 Inrhnlh gagLwJ.
K
 fGJfHiy
nehfhd
irF, mnaho-131 Inrhnlh
gagLjgLwJ.
 fhgh-60 Inrhnlh,
n
ir gagLwJ.
f

kUJt
Inrhnlh gagLwJ.

Wneh
ghgu-32

f

hg-11
Inrhnlh
_is
Ezh irF gagLwJ.
vyuh

ehnd brnw

(i) tU Inrhnlhf mls

uhf vif kig
flnt.
2
3
1
(m) 1H, 1H, 1H

(M)

nuhoa mQ
(rhjhuz iAu#)

nuhlh

37
35
17Cl, 17Cl

(ii) fzLf KoUJ eh

mJ bfhlij goaLnt.
jk

Inrhnlh
nuhoa
oOa

ooa
Fnsh - 35
Fnsh

fhg

nua

1
1H
2

Fnsh - 37

1H
3

17
37
17

ooa mQ
(faf iAu#)

cl
cl

12
6C

fhg - 14

14
6C

nua - 238

(myJ)

1T
35

fhg - 12

nua - 235

uh

1H (myJ)

2
1D
3

iAu#

ooa mQ
(fd iAu#)

FpL

iAu# Inrhnlhf

bra 4.6

ehnd brnw

nuh
jk
U
tif
Inrhnlhfis bgWsJ.
nuh - 79 (49.7%) ,
nuh- 81 (50.3%)
v, kfUJ nuh
mQ ruhr mQiw kig
fzLnt.

235
92U
238

92U

Inrhnlhf gaf
kUJt
Jiw
gy
jk
Inrhnlhf gagLjgLwd.

68

eik NJs gUbghUf ikahditah?

mQ mik
M

ehnd brnw

jkf
ruhr
mQiw
kfUJ, vjk Fiwj
vifYs Inrhnlhfis
bgWsJ vd flnt.
Fnsh

35.5

iAu#

1.008

M#

16.0

4.9. mQf vyuh mik

xnth
mQ
nuhlhfS,
uhfS
mla
neRik
cs cfUit bfhLsJ vgJ
eF bjjnj. v Rik cs
vyuhf Fl tlghijf
cfUit
R
tUwd.
it
MLf
vwiHfgLwd.
cfUF mUfhik cs tl
ghijUJ mit 1, 2, 3, 4 myJ
K, L, M, N vd ngh mQkhgo
bgalgLwd.
xU
tlghij
lbfhS
mfgr vyuhf vif
2n2 vw thghlh fzlgLwJ. n
vgJ tlghij vif.
Kj
tlghij
KGtJkhf
vyuhfsh uggl , ulhtJ
tlghij
vyuhf
ug
bjhlFwJ. JnghW ulhtJ
tlghij ua
_whtJ
tlghij
ug bjhlFwJ.
Mdh _whtJ tlghij KGikahf
u Kdnu ehfhtJ tlghij
vyuhf ug bjhlFwd.

1 ( K -M)

vyuhf
vif
2
2n = 2 x 12
=2

2 ( L-M)

2n2 = 2 x 22

3 ( M-M)

2n2 = 2 x 32 = 18

4 ( N-M)

2n2 = 2 x 42 = 32

=8

nrkf bgUghikahd gf
vyuh
mikigna
rhJsd.
jkf
vyuh
mikig
fla, mQ Kjik Fthl
v kig bjUj ntL.
KjikFthl v vgJ X
mQ lbgWs bkhj tlghij
myJ MLf vifia
FgjhF.
rhwhf,
nrhoa mQit fUJnth.
nrhoa jk mQv = 11
vdnt, nrhoa mQ cs bkhj
vyuhf = 11
Mf vyuhf gL (g)
M

vyuhf
vif
2
2n = 2 x 12
= 2 vyuhf
2n2 = 2 x 22
= 8 vyuhf
jKs vyuh
=1

1 ( K -M)
2 ( L-M)
3 ( M-M)

vdnt, nrhoa mQ vyuh

g 2, 8, 1 MF.

Fthl vf rhj bfhif

_y J sfgLwJ.

thW cfUit Rs xnth

MoY vyuhf uggLs
vifia FLtnj vyuh
mik vdgL. jkf, mt

nrhoa mQ

69

11P
12N

- -

ma

bra 4.7

myF-3
myF 4

nta
nta

iAu#

(H)

vyuh
mik

vyuh
g

jk

mQ v

vyuh
mik

vyuh
g

jk

mQ v

y jkfS mt vyuh mik

1
ieu#

2,5

(N)

(He)

M#

(O)

2,6

2,1

2,7

bga

2,2

ah

10

2,8

nghuh

2,3

nrhoa

11

2,8,1

bka

12

2,8,2

(Li)

(Be)

(B)

fhg

(F)

(Ne)

(Na)

2,4

(C)

(Mg)

70

eik NJs gUbghUf ikahditah?

mQ mik
nkY mJ bfhnth

mYa

(Al)

fh

(Si)

13

14

vyuh
mik

jkf vyuh mikF

rhwhf gagLtJ mQ wkhiy
M MF.

vyuh
g

jk

mQ v

y jkfS mt vyuh mik

bra 4.8

ehnd brnw

nH FlgLs jkf
vyuh gfis vGJnt.

2,8,3

jk

2,8,4

mQ
v

a
nghuh

3
5

bka
ghgu

12
15

vyuh
g
K
L
M

4.9.1. izw vyuhD, izwD

(P)

rg

(S)

Fnsh

(Cl)

15

16

17

2,8,5

X mQ cs bttlghij
myJ M, mtQ izw
tlghij myJ izw M
2,8,6 vdgL. izw Mo lbgWs
vyuhf izw vyuhf vW
miHfgLwd.
izw
vyuhf
vifia FL vk,
mjk izwid fzl
2,8,7 gagLwJ. X mQ, knwh mQl
iz w, mtQ izwdh
zfgLwJ.
sf :

Mfh

(Ar)

18

2,8,8

a mQ (mQ v = 3)
vyuh g
(n =1 ) K M = 2 vyuhf
(n =2) L M = 1 (jKs vyuh)
bttlghij L MF.

71

ma

ghgu

X mQ bttlghij
lbgWs vyuhf nt
izf gF twJ. j
vyuhf izw vyuhf
vdgL.

myF-3
myF 4

nta
nta
bra 4.9

i z w
vyuhfis,
izwid
fzLnt.

ehnd brnw

mQ
v

jk

izw
vyuhf

izw

1
5
6
12
13

iAu#
nghuh
fhg
bka
mYa

bttl vyuhf vif = 1

rhwhf,
q mQ (mQ v =
vyuh g

vdnt,
a mQ izw = 1 MF
X
mQ
bttlghij
cs vyuhf vif, m
KGikahf
lbgW
vyuhf
vifF mU U, (Fghf
L MLF 8 vyuhf) mQ
izw tU thghL _y
fzlgLwJ.

vyuhf g

9)

L-bttl ghij 7 vyuhf

csd. k KG vifahd
8-F mU csjh,

izw = 8 - izw vyuhf

izw = 8 - 7 = 1 MF.

kL - kh dhf
- m
rahd ilia njbjLJ vGJf.
1. X

Mw
kl
cs
vyuhf
mfgr
vifia
2
fzl cj thghL 2n (n = 1,2,3.....) v, Kj Mw kl cs
vyuhf vif __________ MF ( 8, 2, 18 )
2.

nuhlhid fljt nfhLO.
J mQ
J __________ jik cilaJ. ( v, ne, eLiy )

cfU

csJ.

3.
 J X mogilJf.
J mQ cfUit tlghij R
tUwJ. J v Rik cilaJ. jid fljt bga J.J. jhr.
j Jf bga __________ (vyuh, nuhlh, uh)
7

4. 3Li vw jk cs uhf vif 4 v

cs uhf vif __________ ( 8, 7, 6 )

16
8O

vw jk

5. X
 mQ cfU vgJ uL TWfis cilaJ. xW nuhlh kbwhW
__________ ( uh, vyuh, ghuh )
6. X
 mQ cfU cs nuhlhf, uhf vifna iw v
vdgL. tU jk nuhlhf vifia fzLf. ( 11, 23, 12 )

72

eik NJs gUbghUf ikahditah?

mQ mik
jk

iw v

nrhoa (Na)

23

nuhlhf
vif
?

uhf vif
12

35

7. 17
 Cl - vw jk mQ v 17. iw v 35 v, jk cs
nuhlhf vif __________ ( 17, 35, 18 )
8. K
 fGJfHiy
nehia
FzgLj
(mnaho - 131, ghgu - 32, U -59)

cj

Inrhnlh

__________

9. q jk vyuh g 2, 7 v, j izw k __________

( 7, 2, 1 )
10. nrhoa vyuh g 2, 8, 1 v, jDila izw k
( 2, 8, 1 )

__________

11. X
 mQ nuhlhfS vyuhfS vif rk. Mdh, it
vbu Rik cilait. uhf Rik mwit. jdh, mQ jik
__________ ( v, ne, eLiy )
12. rah? jtwh? vd flf. jtwhd Tiw UJf.
m) 
jkf, mt nrkf bgUghikahd gf mt iw
viz rhJsd.
35

M) 17Cl izw 7
) L - MoYs bkhj vyuhf vif 8.
<) xU jk Inrhnlhf xj ntgfis bgWsd.

C) X cfU iyjikF uh-nuhlh jnk mogil

fhuzkhf mikwJ.
v) ca Mw klUJ, Fiwj Mw klF vyuh lbgaUnghJ
Mwiy cRwJ.
V) M cUts ajhf UFnghJ, mj MwY Fiwthfnt UF.
I) ngh bfhif, mQ iy jikia sf ayiy.
x) ngh bfhif, ed aayhd Fthl bfhifF mogilahf mikJsJ.
- M
1. mQ cs vyuhf iyahd tlghij R tUwd.
m) nkfh Tiw Tat bgaiu vGJf.
M) j tlghij bgaiu TWf.
14

2.  7N - vw jk vyuh g K = 2 v, L - To Uf ntoa
vyuhf vifia TWf.
35

3. 17
 X vw jk xU th. j mQ v 17. iw v 35. cs vyuhf,

73

ma

c) vyuhf nendw bgw nuhlh JffSF ilna y yF

iria Fiwwd.

myF-3
myF 4

nta
nta
nuhlhf, uhf vifia TWf.
4. kUJtJiw gy Inrhnlhf gagLjgLwd.
m) ujnrhif nehia FzgLJ Inrhnlh vJ?
M) f kUJt gagL Inrhnlh vJ?
5. Gs jkf vyuh gfis TWf.
jk

vyuh g

mQ v

nghuh

5
12

bka

2
-

6. Gs mltizUJ, izw vyuhfis izwid vGJf.

jk

mQ v

fhg
mYa

6 (2, 4)
13 (2, 8, 3)

izw
vyuhf

izw

7. bfhLfgl jkf
i.
 iwv ii. mQv iii. nuhlhf vif
iv. vyuhf vif v. luhf vif


11

12

27

2He, 3Li, 5B, 6C, 13Al

8.
 nua Inrhnlh ga Lgl jftfis nrJ mltizia uf.

Inrhnlh

nua- 235

FpL
235

92U

nuhlhf
vif

luhf
vif

vyuhf
vif

92

143

92

92

nua- 238

9. mltizia uf.
gf

nuhlhf

iw
Rik
mQ l
fLojt

74

vyuhf

uhf

eik NJs gUbghUf ikahditah?

mQ mik
10. mltizia uf.
t. v
M v
1 (K -M)
1.
2 (L -M)
2.

3.

3 (M -M)

4 (N -M)

11. 
iAu# Inrhnlhf
nuhlhfSl)

mfgr vyuhf vif

glfis

tiuf

(vyuhf,

uhf,

12. tU InrhnlhfYs uhf vifia fzLf.

m) M) ) <) c)
238
81
14
7
37
C
3Li
92U
17Cl
35Br
6
13. tUtdt vyuh mikig tiuf.
35
16
27
m) M) )
Ai
O
17Cl
8
13

nuhlhf 6

uhf 6

mQ v

: ___ ___

iw v

: ___ ___

15.

23

11Na

vw FpoF tUtdtiw vGJf.

m) nrhoa iw v __________ .
M) nrhoa mQ v__________ .
) vyuh mik__________ .
<) nuhlhf vif __________ .
c) uhf vif __________ .

75

ma

14. X
 , Y vd U mQf cfU mikf nH bfhLfgLsJ. X , Y Mat
iw viz fzLf. U mQfSilna cs bjhl ahJ? mjkf
ahit?

myF-3
myF 4

nta
nta
-
1. KGikahf us tlghijfis bgaLf.
jk

mQ v

ieu#

ah

10

bka

12

rg

16

Mfh

18

vyuh mik

2. bghUJf.
(i)

ne ml mfKs gF

izw

(ii)

eLiyJf

mQv

(iii)

bttlghij

cfU

(iv)

bttlghij cs vyuhf

izw M

(v)

nuhlhf vif

uh
nuhlh

 , L, M Mw klf lbfhS vyuhf vifia fzLf.

3. K
4. X mQ mogilJff vwh vd? midJ Jiz Jff
bgafis vGJf.
5. Inrhnlhf vwh vd? iAu# Inrhnlhfis tiuf.
6.M~gh Jff vgit ahit? X mQ cfUit fLof mit vthW
gagLwd?
7. %jnghL mQnfhghLfis RUfkhf FLf.
8. %jnghL mQkh tuf ahit?
9. ngh mQ nfhghLfis FLf.
10. uh fLofgl Mit vGJf.
11. Mw kl mogil, vyuh mikig FLf
m) fhg (mQ v 6) M) q (mQ v 9)
) bka (mQ v 12)

<) ghgu (mQ v 15)

c) Mfh (mQ v 18)

12. mayhy bgaiu jUf.
m) xU bghU mls ff a Jfisna mQ vW fUat _________ .
M) xU jf mQ J M~gh Jff nkhJ MUJ mQ ikagF
a cUts mf ne Rikila cfU l bgWsJ vd fljt
__________ .

76

eik NJs gUbghUf ikahditah?

mQ mik
) nuhlhfis fljt __________ .
<) xU mQ uhfis fljt__________ .
c) X mQ vyuhf iyahd tlghij mQfUit R tUwd
vW mQ khia kh mikjt __________ .
13. tUtdtF bgaLf:
m) cfUYs nuhlhf vif __________ .
M) 
X mQ cfU l bgWs nuhlhf, uhf TLj
__________ .
) xj mQ viz, ntWgl iw viz bfhl xnu jk mQf
__________ .
<) 18 vyuhfis jD bfhoUF M __________ .
c) X mQ bt tlghij cs vyuhf __________ .
14. mltizia uf.
t.
iw v(A)
v
1.
7
2.
14

mQ
v(Z)
3
-

nuhlh vyuh uh

vyuh
mik
-

3.

4.

11

12

5.

19

15. tUtdt gagL Inrhnlhig FLf.

M) Wneh ir __________ .
) f kUJt__________ .
<) _is Ezh ir __________ .
c) K fGJ fHiy nehfhd ir __________ .
16. vyuh mikig tiuf.
7 12 16 14
3Li, 6C, 8O, 7N

17. %jnghL MF bghUjhj TWfis njbjLf.

m) bka jfjfo Cnl, M~ghJf fiw brYjglJ.
M) bgUghyhd M~ghJff jfoD nenfhL ghij CLU brwd.
) 
jf mQf bgUgF btlkhfnth myJ y nyrhd Jffsh
uggnlh csJ.
<) y M~ghJff ruhrahf 900nfhz yf miljd.
c) f y Jff mQfU J gL 1800 nfhz yf miljd.

77

ma

m) ujnrhif nehfhd ir __________ .

myF-3
myF 4

nta
nta
18. %jnghL mQ bfhif mogil tUtdtiw uf.

m) X mQ nuhOfS, uhfS mj __________ brJsd.

M) mQ__________gF __________ cfU lbgWsJ.
) mQ __________ mj cU iwia bghWJsJ.
<) _______ vifF rkkhd ______ cfUit tlghij R tUwd.
c) cfU ne RikF fhuz mYs ______ mit ______ Rik
cila Jff.

kL braghL
1. xgil :
nehf : m
 Q cfU l bgWs uhf gF FJ mj.
a mQf nuhlhfS, uhfS rk vif csd.
bga mQf t vif xWbfhW rkiy iy. jfhd
fhuzfis flf.
2. bral
nehf: ilF bghUfis bfhL xU mQ khia cUthFj.
rahd vif Mw klfS, xbthU Mw klY rahd
vif vyuhfS, cf kh Uf ntL. vyuhf,
nuhlhf, uhfis ntWgLj btntW tzFpLfis gagLj.
(cf Uggo VnjD xU mQit njbjLf.)
3. fyJiuahl
nehf : %
 jnghL mQkhF
ntWikfis FLf.

ngh mQkhF cs xWik,

xj gf

ntWgL gf

4. glbjhF
nehf: lhl, jhr, %jnghL, ngh Mnah mQkh glfis tiuf.
5. X mQ cUtik vj tot Ufyh vd fUJf? FLf.
n rJu tot. n rJu tot.

n tl tot.

n nfhstot. n tl tot.

nkY ma

jf: Atomic Structure Advanced Inorganic Chemistry - S

 atya prakash, GD Tuli S.Chand & Company Ltd.
izajs : http://www.shodor.org

http://www.chemguide.co.uk.

78

myF

sLfS msL fUfS

* a msLf ga fUJ
* sij msLj
* bta ms
* iw kW vilia msLj
* neuij msLj

aa

Nicolaus Copernicus
nfhy
nfhgf
(1473-1543)

myF 5

Galileo Galilei
fnah
f
(1564-1642)

Tycho
ilnfhBrahe
uhnA
(1546-1601)

Johannes
n#hAKepler
bfs
(1571-1630)

shoa lhy(90 AD - 168 AD) vgt nuf vGjhsf jiywjtuhf

sdh. ru, Na kW midJ nfhfS ia VwFiwa
tlghij R tUtjhf vGdh. fUJ Inuha kfilna 1400
MLfshf y tjJ. fUjhdJ vj mogil cUthdJ vW
MbrnghJ Na, f, ru H cJ nk kiwtjh
VgLwJ.
eh}W gdhwh who nfhy nfhgf(1473-1543), ilnfh
uhnA(1546-1601), fnah f(1564-1642), n#hA bfs(1571-1630) KGtJkhf
fUij uhfjd. Kndh Taij ijaJl nff nfL khwij
VgLd. mtf cWneh M brj Ja msLf _ykhf Naid
tlghij R tUtjhf bjthf sd.
nfhgf bt, j, r, ahH, brth cl nfhf Naid
ikakhf itJ RWtjhf ia ikakhf itJ RWtiy vgij
KjKjyhf Ro fhodh.
ilnfh uhnA, jiywj tha tYe. nfhfis cWnehFtjfhd
fUfis cUthdh. mtUila fhy nfhz msLf 1/4 nfhz msnt
Jakhdjhf fUjglJ. Mdh ilnfh fhy 1/30 nfhz ms Jakhf
msfglJ. mtjh nfhf, fis g mf fUJfis Jakhf
MuhJ Tdh.
fnah jh totikj bjhiynehah thdij cWnehdh. m
bjhiynehahdJ th K yhj ms eruf, nfhf mUfhik
UgJ nghW fh mjJ. mt ahH _W ruf, rnfh RW
tisa , kw th bghUfis cWneh Muh brjh. tUila cWnehf,
nfhgf Ta fUjhd Naid ikakhf itJ nfhf mj RWghijf
R tUwd vw fUF mogilahf UjJ.
ilnfh brth nfhid FJ Ta fUJfis gagL bfs jdJ
fzLfis bfhL rnjfF l nfhf ia tlghij R
tUtjhf
Tdh.
bfsnu,
KjKjyhf
fjKiw
fzLfis
mKfgLat Mth.
Wahf 1400 tUlfshf UJ tj giHa eifF xU Ko iljJ.
J vthW rhakhdJ v ma fUf gagL bragl cWnehf,
Jakhd msLf, sfkhd fzLfshjh MF.

80

msLfS msL fUfS

5.1 Ja msLf KaJt
Jg
ehtfis
f
goUfsh?
Jggt,
Fw
fj l
cs bghUf
iyid cWneh, vthW Ul
miwD
tUgh;
vbjj
bghUf
mtdh
UlgoUF;
vthW mt Fw fj lUJ
jUgh;
vgdtiw
Tw
Kogtuhf Ugh.
wj ma mPf brafS
Jg ehtf tU Jgthsf
braf Xus xUF. mtf
bghUfis TJ neh, njitahd
msLfis
bfhL
aif
ffis Cwd.

bgiy
gagL
cf
Ugnfg fis gy tf
izJ glf tiua vyh
fis
gagLj
ntoa
mtaiy.
bghGJ
tiuj
nfhLfis mJL, tir ukkhf
jugLs vfSF Vg fis
izJ, Xa vz vd
UjJ vgij ma.
xbthU , cik TWf
myJ ju TWf vd fUJf. mtiw
izF nfhLf, mTWf ekJ
bra 5.2

ehfns brnwh

tF cs khztfis U
FGfshf f. tU dhf
FJ fyjhnyhf.

tU
gl
jugLs
fis bfhL xU gl jugLsJ.


y
eik
NJs
bghUfis g mJbfhs
njitahd uL Ka TWf
ahit?
V
 ekJ cWnehf Tikahdjhf
Uf ntL?
V
 msLf Jakhdjhf Uf
ntL?

_W

m
 ogil msLf S.I myFf
ahit?

bra 5.1
ehnd brnw
Kgf jugLs gid
goJ, ahj brhfis monfhol.
ulhtJ Kiw L goJ, ahj
y
brhfSfhd
sf,
mgnyna csJ vgij ma.
nkY
cs
ahj
brhfis
goal. Kojh mfuhid
gagLj. cfsJ Maiu nfL
myJ, bra (5.2) FG mik
bragho _y, ahj brhf FJ
fyJiuahl.

e
 h Kng mj, s, iw, neu
a myFf, bga myFf ahit?
xbthU khztU vj mogil
msLf a, bga myFfis
id itJsd vgjid
rghf.

 f
vbghGJ
a
myFfis
vbghGJ
bga
myFfis gagLJf?
t
 F
fyjhnyhj
mifid Mal rkJ,
mt fUJfis Tw brhy.

cf kd njha nff
vd? mtiw cf Fngo
goaLf.

81

ma

K
 ija
tF
goj
mogil msLf ahit?

aa

myF 5

sf MF. y TWfSF, mtiw

gy KiwgLjtj _y KaJt
jugLwJ. y TWf Kakwitf
myJ Fiwj msnt cikjik
cilait
vd
eh
idjh,
mfis eh izfhk lyh.
flikng, ma fUJnfh
(Hypothesis)
vdgL.
vdnt,
gy
sff
myJ
fUJnfhf
xU TF sfkhf TwKo,
Mdh mt vJ rahdJ? mjF
fUJnfhfis gytKiwf myJ
bgwgl TLj fUJf bghUj
_ykhf khfyh.
gy MLfSF wF bgwToa
a fUJf _ykhf cik
vd fJ bfhLsJ vgij ma
aY. khtU bjhEg cjah,
ekh f Jakhd msLfis
KUjijl Jakhf ju Ko.

5.2 msL fUf _W Ka

gf
xbthUtU, msL fUf
_W Ka gfis g mUf
ntL. mit
ws
R (Range)
RiH
vj xU msL fUahY msl
Toa fFiwj ms mfU
ws vdgL. rhwhf f, l
msnfhiy gagLdh f Fiwj
s 1 .. MF. J l msnfh
wsit
vdgL.
bghahsf
tiutjF
gagLJ
y
msnfhf
miu

l
FpLfis
bfhoUF.
m
msnfhf ws 0.5 .. xU
msnfhid bfhL 1 .. msF
f rahf msf Ko vd Tdh
m l msnfh ws 1 ..
vd bghUgL.

82

gl cs RU
juh
wsitia
cfsh fla Kokh?
X msL fUdh
mslglToa
ca
kF Fiwj kF
cs ntWghL mj R
vdgL.
rhwhf
msnfh mslglToa
viy 0 br. UJ 30 br..
fFiwj ms Rahf
Ugjh
rhf
eh
vbghGJ
mf
msidna rhf vLJ
bfhnwh.
msnfh
R(Range) 100 br. vwh mJ 0 br.
UJ 100br. tiu vgijna FF.
a msLfUJ bga msLfis
msgjF
w
fUf
totikfgLsJ. rhwhf nth
l msLf 150 VUJ 250V tiu
v, mj R 150 VUJ 250V tiu
MF. bghJthf J khahd fUf
Fl
cgnahffhf,
Ja
msLfSfhf,
totikfgl
RF
Ugjhf
totikf
gLwJ.
bgUghY
msL
fUf
fFiwj mso R (zero)msL
msfgLtiy. rhwhf mlid
gagL
msLnghJ
R
izfhk csbghGnj ml
FK
0.02
Maiu
FwJ.
khahd iH,
RiH vd
gLwJ. Fiwj msL ms Ria
Ffhk csjh, J RiHahf
fUjgLwJ. khahd msL
fUfis gagLJnghJ, cikahd
kLfis bgw msL kfSl
Ujgl
kil
gagLj
ntL. msL fUdh bgwgL
msid RUj msl nrjh
ilgnj rahd msL ms MF.
eh bta msid g goF

msLfS msL fUfS

bghGJ RiH, RUj g thf
mayh.

a msLf
fhu
10-1
10-2
10-3
10-6
10-9

5.3. S.I KL (Knr)

f y mogil msLf S.I
myFfis g Kng mUf.
mt ytiw idF bfhL
tUnth.

iw

nyhuh

neu

dho

ndhl

Ma

l, uh, dho, Ma nghw

myFf mogil myFf. jifa _y
myFfis bfhL a kW bga
msfis Fl y tiuaWfgl
KLfis gagL bfhs vil
kW msLfSfhd gdhL FGk
mDkJsJ. Kojtiu, mynf _y
bra 5.3

ehnd brnw

cfsJ g cs aa
Mtf gagLjgL gntW
msL
fUf
ws
msL viy M brnj.
eh msnfh msfis
mj fis cWnehnd.
vjid f csd vgij
fnl.
xU brol 10 f csJ
vgij, 10 f 1 br.F rk
vgij mnj.
vdnt 1 = 1/10 br.
= 0.1 br. = 1 ..
l
msnfh
0.1 br.. myJ 1 ..

ws

nj nghy vdJ g Mtf

gagLjgL
kw
msL
fUf
wsfis
flnj.

d
c
m

bl
bro

iknuh
nendh

FpL
da
h
k
M
G

myfhf fUjgLwJ. iw myF

nyhuhF kL, xU yF
jugLsJ V?
vdnt xU l 10 xU gF myJ
0.1 l vgJ 1 bl l vgij
FF. nj ngh 10-6 dhof vgJ
iknuh dhofis FF. j
KLf
t
myFfSF
6
gagLjyh. 1,000,000 (10 ) #]f Mw
vgJ xU bkfh#] vgij FF.
f y KLfis g mUf.
nyhuh vw msF kL
yF. mjhtJ iw _ymyF,
uhkhf UjnghY
mogil
nyh vw Kodh nyhuh
vw cgnahfgLwJ. nyh vw
KL 1000 uh vgij FF
KL
nrfgl
_y
myF
vLJfhL uh, blfhuh.
1000 nyhuhik 1 bkfh uh Mf
l myJ bk l vd Flyh.

5.4 y gaDs fUJf

5.4.1 J
 a msLf brtjF
njitahd tf
1. b
 ghUf sij
l
msnfh

83

msLif
id

ma

FpL

bga msLf
fhu
KL
1
10
ilfh
2
10
bAlh
3
10
nyh
6
10
bkfh
9
10
fh

SI myF

gkhz

KL

aa

myF 5

cilj

A
0

gagLjTlhJ.
Vbd,
kGa myJ ijj Kidfis
gagLJnghJ, mso iH Vgl
th cL. vdnt, bghUid
msnfh VnjD xU br.. l
nkbghUj brJ, bghU lJw
Kid nkbghUJ msl Fj
ntL.
uL
msLfSF
ilgl ntWghL bghU sF
rkkhF.
jf
2. lkhW njhwiHid
msf
FFnghJ,
xU
f
_oa iy msf Ff ntL.
f, bghU kW msnfh
Matiw izF nenfhL
msnfhYF
Fjhf
mikj
ntL. gl,
f iy
1 rawJ. Vbd, FKshdJ
msL
12.2-I
fhL
tif
mikJsJ. f iy 3
rawJ. iyY FK fhL
msL 11.8 vd msL tif csJ.
f iy 2 rahdJ. Vbd,
F flagL k rahf csJ.

mikkhdh, vj FpL f beUfkhf

mikwnjh mjifa msid bghU
skhf
fUjntL.
mDkhd
mogil msoid khf
TlhJ.
bfhLfgLs gl bg A
MdJ f rahf 16 br.. sKilaJ.
Vbd, bg TKid 16 br..
FpLl frahf nkbghUJwJ.
Mdh, gl B tz bg
skhdJ
2.75
mFyF,
3
mFyF
il
mikwJ.
UD bg KidahdJ 3
mFy FpoF f mU miktjh
bg sij 3 mFykhf fUj
ntL. jifa mso VgLs
iHahdJ
msl
gagLjgl
msnfh tudh Vglnja
msL brgtuh VgljW. jid
msLf iyaw jik vdyh.
5.4.2 msLfis g brtjfhd
Ff
1. msLf
myFfSl
ntL.

mjF
iznj

bghUjkhd
g bra

2. Kojtiu msfis mltiz gLj

ntL.

3. msLf, ws KG klFfshf
mikj ntL. vLJfhlhf, xU
bg skhdJ msnfh U
mLjLj
fSF
il

84

3. kfis rahd jrk lUjkhf

(decimal) g bra ntL. rhwhf,
bghU s 40 . vd msL
bragL br. g brnghJ,
mij 4 br. Mf yhk 4.0 br. Mf
g bra ntL. F wF tU
RahdJ, msL . vLfglJ

msLfS msL fUfS

vgij FwJ. l g
brjh, 0.04 vW myhk, 0.040
vW g bra ntL. F 4F
wF mikJs 0 thdJ l
mslglJ vgij FF. 0.04
vW g bragoUjh, mJ
brol
mslgLsJ
vgij
FF.
fil
yf
0 ( R ) thdJ, mslgl mso
wsitia FF.

a bta uhR ehL muR

mfhahf Ujh. rl kW
bgha tYeuhd mtuJ jijah
mtUF
fjK
maY
fWjuglJ.
mtuJ jij mtUF ilbfh
uh ciHfis mKfgLdh.
mt gy fhyf ggy efufis
gygLJtjfhf
bghahsuhf
gahdh.

5.5 sij msLj

mfhy
fjnkijf,
Phfis ngh tiugl tiuj
(Cartograph ) y msL br ntiy
Ujh.mtuJ jijl izJ,
uhn[
fhnl
vD
gFia
tiuglkhFt <Lglh.

5.5.1 bta ms
bta
msahdJ
bghahsfshY, bghUf cg
br lfY gagLjgL xU
fUahF. bta mf wsit
bfhl uL msnfhf xnwhL
xW izJ fa sij
Jakhf msL xU f wj
fUahF. fLoghs bgaiu
bfhL
bta msnfh vW
miHfgL
Jiz
msnfhshdJ
Ja
msLfSF
njitgL
mGjkh, Enzh, Wnfhzfis
msL
fU
nghw
fUf
gagLjgLwJ.

mtUila
btplhd,
yh fu vd bjhlF
g, Jiz msnfh gaghil
ssh.
j
msnfhny
bghGJ
bta
msnfh
vdgLwJ.

5.5.2. bta jJt

bta ms jJt f
vjhdJ. 1.0 . ws (Kjik
msnfhY-MSD)
bfhl
xU
msnfhY,0.9 . ws bfhl
kbwhU (bta msnfhY - VSD)
msnfhY cilajhf X msnfh
Ujh 0.1 . s cs xU bghUis
mslyh. tU glij fhf.
Kjik msnfh 0it bghU
lJ KidlD, Jiz msnfh
Kidia
bghU
kWKidlD
bghUJ nghJ, Jiz msnfh Kj
FpL Kjik msnfh Kj
FpL rahf bghUJ.
bghU s 0.1 . + bta

Knfhz gf msfis itJ

Knfhz nfhzfis fl,
Knfhza
ir
kf
mltizia bjhFjh.
0.9 . = 1.0 . (Kjik nfh Kj
)
khwhf
bghU
ms
bjaiyba, bta Kjik
, Kjik msnfh Kj
xUgJ bjjh bghU msit
0.1 . vd flayh.
Vbd bghU s 0.1 .

= 1.0.

Kjiknfh Kj - bta
0.9 .

85

ma

y mso mtUF Uj Mt
mtiu
msoF
njitahd
fUfis bra oaJ. j
Mtnk, ma mPf id
TW tz fUia bra itjJ.

aa

myF 5
bghU s 0.9 . = 9x0.1.
xgjhtJ
Kjiknfh
bta f, 8.1 ..

-9x

0.9.=9* Kjiknfh f-9*

btanfh f
uL msnfhfis izF
bghGJ ilF ws 0.1 . vd
Twyh. J uL msnfhf
ws ntWghlhF. ijna,

0.1 . sKs xU bghUis msgjF,

mijl f mf ws bfhl
uL msnfhfis gagLJj
rhjd.

ws(fU) = 1 MSD 1 VSD

eh xU Kiwid, mKiwia
vthW thFtJ vgjid mJ
bfhnlh. ijna bghJthf FL
bghGJ, k bjahj khia (x)
gagL xU rkghlhf vGjyh.
rkghL, x vyh bkba kfSF
bghUJ.vdnt x MtJ bta
xU Kjiknfh l xUF
v,

khwhf, msfgl ntoa bghU

s 0.2 . Mf UJ bghUshdJ
JiznfhYl
xUjh,
bta
ulhtJ

Kjiknfh ulhtJ l
xUF.
(bghU s (0.2 .) + uL
bta f (1.8 .) = 2.0 .)

bghU s, 0. x . = x*
Kjiknfh - x* btanfh
f
bghU s, 0. x . = x*
(Kjiknfh - btanfh)

khwhf, msfgl ntoa bghU

s bjaiyba, bta
ulhtJ
,
Kjiknfh
ulhtJ xUgJ bjjh,
bghU msit 0.2 . vd flayh.
bghU s 0.2 . = 2.0 .
Kjiknfh ulh -2 x
bta (1.8 . )
nj jf Kiwid gagL, xU
bghU s 0.4 . v ehfhtJ
bta
l
ehfhtJ
Kjiknfh xUF. nkY
mJnt 0.9. s v, 9 MtJ bta
9 MtJ Kjiknfh l
xUF. eh ijna tUkhW
vGjyh.

86

bghU s,0. x .= x (ws)

[ws =1MSD-1VSD]
xU bghU ms 3.24 br. vd
fUJnth(32.4.).
bghU
Kid
Kjiknfh
3.2
br.
ilna
bghUUfntL. ijna,
32.+........ x .
32br.F mLJ tU 0.4. s
Kjiknfh egfkwjhf csJ.
Jiznfhiy, Kjiknfh J
efJ
bghGJ,
btanfh
ehfhtJ , Kjiknfh VnjD
xU l xUF. nkTa
rkghoid
gagL
bta
xiz
ehid,
wsl(0.1.) bgUF bghGJ
mfgoahd sij (0.4.) mayh.

msLfS msL fUfS

4tJ bta

xizwJ

bghU s, 3.2 x . = 32+ x* (ws)

Wahf rkgho f Kakhd
totij milnwh.
bghU s= Kjiknfh ms +
(bta x x ws)
5.5.3 bta ms mik
jbghGJ,
Mtff
eh
gagLJ bta ms giHa
totUJ
fgl
xW.
bta
ms
gl
nH
jugLsJ.
bta ms ghff:
b

r. kW .l msLf
Ffgl xU bka cnyhf gil.
J Kjik msnfh vdgL.
c
nyhfgil lgf Kid
nkneha kW neha jhilf
Kjik nfhYF brFjhf
bghUjgL csd. it iyahd
jhilf vdgL.
2a

1a
1) nehF jhilf

2b

n
k kW neha
aF
jhilf cila eG Kjiknfh
tyJw bghUjgLsJ.
b
ta msnfh cs UF
xid
gagL,
eGia
efj,
iyahf
Xl
bghUj Ko.
b
 ta msnfh (6) msLf,
eG FfgL, mJ eGlD,
aF jhillD efUwJ.


neha
jhilf
bghU
btw
msfis
msl,
nkneha jhilf cw msfis
msf gagLwd.
b
 ta msnfhYl tyJw
izfgl
bka gil(3)
clw
bghUf
MHij
msl gagLwJ.
5.5.4 bta msia gagLJj
bta ms wafshd
ws
msL
viyia
RiHia fltnj j Kjgo.

1b
2) nk nehF jhilf

3) MH fgh

6) bta msnfh

1 a) iyahd nehF jhil 2 a) iyahdnk nehF jhil 4) Kjik msnfh

7) UF kiu

1b) nehF af jhil

8) eG

2b) nk nehF af jhil

87

5) iy W

ma

Mifah,

aa

myF 5

ws

neiH

5.5.2 MtJ g goj rkgho

_y wsit flayh.

neiHia bgWtjF bta

nfh
vj
Kjiknfh
VnjD xU l xUwJ
vgij flJ mjid fU
wsl bgUFj ntL.

ws(fU) = 1 K.nfh. 1
bt.nfh.
Kjiknfh
id
(MSD)
Kjiknfh
UJ
mayh.
bgUghY Kjiknfh . kW
br.l FfgoUF. mjdh
Kjik nfh ws bghJthf
xU
l
MF.
bta
msnfh
id(VSD),
btanfhiy
KjiknfhYl
bghUJtj _y mayh. bta
ms xgJ Kjiknfh f,
rkkhf
gJ
rkkhd
fshf
fgLsJ. (9 ./10 = 0.9 .)
Mifah ws 1 MSD 1 VSD

=1 . 0.9 .

= 0.1 .
RiH
Uid be eGia lgf
ef, bta ms jhilf
xnwhL xW bghUJkhW itf
ntL.
bta
msnfh
R,
Kjik
msnfh Rl bghUsjh
vW nrhf. bta msnfh
R,
Kjik
msnfh
RF
tygfkhf
mikjh,
msj kUJ, efj bjhiyid
fj ntL vW id bfhf.
iHia neiH vd RUj
vFpoY Ff ntL.
khwhf bta msnfh R
Kjiknfh
RF
lgfkhf mikjh mij viH
vd, mj Ujij rbra efj
bjhiyit,
msj
bjhiyl
TlntL. bta ms Jakhd
fUahjyh, RiH 1 .F nk
miktJ mJ.

88

vLJfhlhf 5 MtJ bta

VjhtJ xU Kjiknfh l
xUjh,
5 I ws, (0.1 .)
cl bgU 0.5 . vd bfhs.
x

R neiH
R viH
RiHahdJ
viH v,
Kjiknfh
w
1

efUgjhf vbfhf. ijna

eh vF1 (-1.0 .) vd TWnth.
mjdh eh bta msil -1.0 .
cl Tl ntL.
vLJfhlhf 8 MtJ bta
VjhtJ xU Kjiknfh l
xUjh,
eh
Kng
mj
Nuij gagL,
fgid

R viH

Negative Zero Error

msLfS msL fUfS

bghU s = Kjiknfh msL + (btax * ws)
RUj = -1.0 + 8 *0.1

= -1.0 + 0.8 = -0.2 .
R:
eGia
cnyhfgil
(Kjiknfh)
tyJ
Kidtiu
efj.
Kjiknfh mslToa mfgoahd kig FJbfhf. j R,
bta msia gagL msfgL bghU mfgoahd msit Ko bra
aY.
bghJthf, bta msia gagL mj bghUf gntW gzhkfis
flayh. bghUf s, mfy, cau, fdms Matiw fLofyh.
xU Kfit clij(rahd jhilfis gagL)mjDila MHij
(MH fgh) flJ, mj _y Kfit c fd msit fLofyh.
kfis fl kh mltiz fhgJ ngh mltizgLj.
RiH = _______ br.
ws =_______ br. ;
RUj _______ br.

t.
v

Kjiknfh bta
ms (MSR)
x
(VC)
br.

fzlgl
ms
(OR ) =
MSR+(VC x LC)

Ujgl ms
OR
ZEC

br.

br.

1
2

5.5.5. vyf( DIGITAL) bta ms

vyf bta ms eG gF xU vfho mik dQ
fzL fU mikfgLsJ. J msoid fzL vfho _y
fhgLJ. jdh gagLJgt fU RiH, Uj nghw fzLf
brtij jfgLwJ.
vyf bta ms

89

ma

aa

myF 5

bra 5.4

ehnd brnw

xU cUis tos xU fzho Kfitia cf g MtfUJ vLJ

bfhnt. bta ms cjl mj Kfit brtjF njitahd
fzho fd msit fLof vf MaUl nrJ MnyhJ
lLnt.
F: U jhilfis, MH fghid gagLJf. nj braiy brtjF
ntW tKiw VnjD clh? f.

5.6. iwia msLj

UjL juhR

eh VnjD xU filF brW

bghU thdh, rhwhf 1.. m
v, mij vil mogil jh
thFnth. bghJthf iwia vil
vW jh miHghf. tf cy gy
bghUf iw vw mogil jh
mswhf. eh jf thFnghJ
uh kW uhfY, kUJf
thFnghJ 500 ., 250 . kfY,
RikJfis
lf
mogilY
msnwh. xnu fUia gagL
jfij,
kUJfis
th},
fgf VwgL gy lf mla
ruF bgoia msl Kokh?
khahd msfis msf vd
tifahd fUfis gagLJnwh?
gF iwia msf njitahd
fUfis g bjJ bfhnth.

tif
juhRf
filf
bghUf iwia msf gagLwJ.
juhR bghUf iwia l F
iwfSl xl gagLwJ. U
jLfS
iljs
gil
J
bghUjgLsd. juhir nkir
J itJ vjhf gagLjyh).
Fiwjgr 5
cs wsit
rhjhuz juhRfsh msl Ko.

rhjhuz juhR
rhjhuz
juhR
bghUf
iwia, l F iwfSl xL
msl gagLwJ. (100 , 200 nghw
l F iwf) Fiwjgr 5
cs wsit rhjhuz juhRfsh
msl Ko.

90

aa juhR
J Mtff gagLwJ. J
rhjhuz juhir xjJ. Mdh juhR
mf EQz bgwjh, bghUf
iwfis uh tiu Jakhf
msfyh.

msLfS msL fUfS

nkY mJ bfhnth

bra 5.5

braghL brtjF bgatf

Jizl fl lfSF
brW, iwia msf gagL
fUf ws, R, RiH
Matiw bjJ bfhf.

Kfhy
kj
fis
cWneh, gUt khwf, gf, u
khwfis
bfhL
fhyij
msL va Kiwfis bjJ
bfhlh. ehnlhof lbgaj,
ntshik,
j
tghLf
Matiw
ll
fhyij
msLj mtakhwJ. Kfhy
gagLa fhyij msL fUahf
Nafofhu, kz fofhu,

fofhu Mait gagLjglJ.

.K.3500 M tUl vaf f
caukhd f Hfis bfhL
fhyij mjd. fhyngh f
nkgLjgl
fUfshd
Na
fofhuij gagLdhY tiw
u neu, nkf_lkhd gUtiy, gUt
fhyF Vg gf neu khWghLfis
msf KoahJ.

kif fil- rhjhuz juhR

kif fil- UjL juhR
eif fil
unt ghr mYtyf.

5.7 fhyij msLj

fnah 1602 ML totikj j
Crny fhyij msL fUf
egfjikia
bfhoUjJ.
mfhy TiufUJ rusFf
bjhfL tHf UjJ. md xU
njthya
TiuUJ
bjhflgl rusbfhW fh
KD D mirjhLtij fL
fhyij msL fUahd j Criy
mt totikjh.
5.7.1 j Cr
jCr vgJ fdkhd cnyhf
FL xid bka id
bfhL
fo
bjhflgl
mikghF. Cr fo bjhflgl
UJ, Cr Fo <
ika tiu cs snk Cr s(L)
vd FfgLwJ. Cr Foid
mj ika UJ gftho
GJ LnghJ Cr FL KD
D aF xU KG afnk Cr
xU miy MF. ikaUJ
Cr FL VnjD xU ir mil
bgUk lbgana Cr miy
R vd miHfgLwJ.
xU KG miyfhd fhy (xU
KGikahd K, af) Cr
miy fhy(T) vd miHfgLwJ.
Cr miy fhykhdJ,
m
 j ir rhUgiy vd
nrhjid _y %fglJ.

C
 r
_yF
[ TL].

s
nejf

Uko
UF

 <
_yF
(T1/g)

KLf
vjf

Uko
UF.

it
2-l
bgWtJ,

midij
jkh
nrJ
bjhFjh
eh

T=2(L/g)
nkfl rkghil gagL
nrhjid rhiy f j Cr
miy neuij fLofyh. j
Cr
s(l),
miy
neu(T)
Matiw bfhL < KLf
g-I fhzyh.

91

ma

nuff fofhuij kz
fofhuij fLojd. it
uL
Na
fofhuij
l
nkglitahf
Ujd.
Vbd
gfY,
uY
f
wj
wsitl fhy fhLgitahf
Ujd.

aa

myF 5

5.7.2 fofhuf
Na fofhu
Na fofhu cs nfh (m)
bghU ilkl gu Hiy VgLJ
tz mikf gLsJ. thd
Na bjhlahd khwnfg,
Na fofhugL H khw
VgL. khwij bfhL neukhdJ
fzlgLwJ. Na fofhudh
msf Koj fa msthd 1 kJ
vgJ, 15 lf vw f a msthf
UF tz Na fofhuf
Ja jik thjjhf fhy
totikfgld.

fofhu
jit kW FK mikl Toa
uhd msf Ffgl fy x
uhdJ xU Fl j brhL
tz itfgLsJ. fy
brhl brhl fy kl
cawJ. fy gf Rt Ffgl
msLfUJ fhyij mayh.

fofhuid bfhL msfgL

fhy
khw
cs
nghY, xU kJ fhgF vw
Ja jik fhuzkhf kf k
fofhufSF
Fj
tunt
UJsJ.
kz fofhu

J uL tl tot fzho
Ffsh MdJ. fzho Ff
f
FWa
wdh
izf
gLsd.
kz
fofhukhdJ
jiyHhf fJ itfgL bghGJ,
nknys
fzho
FUJ
Ea kzyhdJ eL cs w
tna nHs fzho Fia
tjil. kz KGtJ nH tjila
vLJ bfhS fhy xU kneu
vgjh fofhu k fofhu
vd
miHfgL.
y
w
gaghLfSfhf f FWa fhy
msfis
msF
tifY
fofhuf totikf gLwd.
5.7.3. fhyij msF
fUf
kWbkhU g- Jajik

brhL jkhdJ, nkiy

bjho cs msit rhJsJ.
gl fhoa tz nkiy
fydhdJ mikfgL bghGJ brhL
j uhf csJ.

92

y fofhuf fhyij rahf

fhL. Mdh y mfkhfnth myJ
Fiwthfnth fhL vgJ eh mjnj.
y fofhuf xU ehisF 5 lf
khWghL
(mfkhfnth
myJ
Fiwthfnth) fhlyh. y fofhuf
xU khjF 5 lf khWghL
(mfkhfnth
myJ
Fiwthfnth)
fhlyh.

msLfS msL fUfS

wsitia,
Ja
jikia FH bfhs ntlh.
uL
fofhuf
vLJ
bfhsgLwd. uL fofhufS
rkkhd wsitia bfhLsd.
(ws 1 dho). xU fofhu xU
ehisF 5 lf vw jY, xU
fofhu xU khjF 5 lf vw
jY brwd v 2-tJ
fofhunk Jajik cilaJ vd
bfhnwh. Vbd ulhtJ fofhu
fhL neunk rahd neuF f mU
csJ.
uL fofhuf Kj Twgl
fofhuij
l
ulhtjhf
Flgl fofhunk Ja jik
cilaJ.

5.7.4 mQ fofhu
a
mQ
VgL
uhd
mfmogil
fofhuf
bragLwd. f mf Jajik
bfhl fofhufshf jnghJ mQ
fofhuf
gagLjgLwd.
109
ehfSF (njhuhakhf 2739726 tUlf)
1 dho vw ms Knah (m) nah
fhy fhLgit f wjitahf
fUjgld. xU Kiw totikfgl
gy jiyKiwfSF eh mfofhu
khw
VJ
bra
ntoaiy.
gdhL
fhy
fhL
fUf
mQfofhunk
Kjik
fofhukhf
csJ.
xU dho ws cila fofhu
nghnwh (m) xU dho ws
bfhl
ma
fhuzfSfhf
totikfgl
fofhu
nghnwh
mQfofhuf totikfgLwd.
v fh mik
v fh mik

miy V
a
mQfiw

}l
fhjf

a fy fhjf iknuh miy F

bra 5.6

gFgh

ehnd brnw

o
cfSila
brhj
Nafofhu
(m)
fofhuij
totikf.
cf
braghLfis
cfsJ Mal fyjhnyhJ
lLf. tF f brjij
khztfSF fhf.

nkY mJ bfhnth

ah
l
neukhdJ,
J cs nja aa
Mtf itfgLs mQ
fofhu _y fzlgLwJ.

93

ma

mbt
gFgh

aa

myF 5

kL - kh dhf

-m
1. 5x107 s -F rkkhd k
(i) 0.5s (ii) 5s (iii). 50s

(iv) 500s

2. 
bta msia bfhL cUis tot FHh x cw lid
msLtjF gagL bta ms ghfid cstUJ bj
brf.
(MH fgh, iyW, jhilf, nk jhilf)
3. 
gl cs bta msnfh
RiH = _________________

cs

RiHia

4. 
cf iffofhu wsit vd? midJ
tifahd fofhufSF J xnu msthf UFkh?

fL

vGJf.

Coincident

5. FWa neu ilbtfis Jakhf msl gagL

fofhu bgaiu FLf ?
0
6. xiw w x miys 6000 A . kig nm (ehndh
l) vGJf.

-M
1. bghUJf.
t.v.

fU

gagL l

1.

rhjhuz juhR

eiffil

2.

kUJt vil ms

Mtf

3.

aa juhR

kUJtkidf

4.

vyf juhR

mfho

2. x
 U bta ms, xU Kjiknfh F, xU bta nfh F
cs ntWghL 0.1 . J vjid FLwJ?
3. bta msia bfhL 250 jhf bfhl xU ma jf cs xU
jh jokid fla fjh iHwh. mt jid vthW jf Kiw
brUgh vgjid sFf.
4. 
khzt xUt vyf bta msia bfhL FL x lij
msLif ms msL 4.27br. vd fhLwJ. Koid RiHaw
rhjhuz bta msia bfhL msf KgLwh v,
(i) bta R, Kjik msnfh vF mik?
bta nfh ms v, Kjik msnfh VnjD xU l
(ii) 
xUF?

94

msLfS msL fUfS

5. bfhLfgl mltiz bta msLfis bfhL ca msil

fzLf.
ws = 0.01 br.
t. v

RUj = iy

MSR

VC

3
3

4
7

1.
2.

ca ms
OR ZC br.

fzlgl
ms
= MSR + (VC x LC)
br.

6. milFF jugLs goaUJ bghUjkhdtiw njbjLJ

mltizia uf [109, d, iknuh, 10-9, , m, M]
fhu
10-1
10-6

K
bl

FpL

fh
bkfh

106

7. msLj mta ahJ ? sFf.

8. mltiz Lglitfis uf.
msit
s

myF

FpL

nyhuh
9. fh bta msia cWnehFf.
B

m) gl A,B,C,D,E,F vdFLs ghff bgafis vGJf.

M) A,B,C,F ghff braghil TWf.
10. fh bta ms cs Kjik msnfh, bta msnfhiy
bfhL fUdh fzlgL s vd?
0

10

95

ma

aa

myF 5

11. xU bta msnfh RiH + 0.06 br. v, jfhd msFpL

bragl bjthd gl tiuf.
12. xU khzt, l msnfhiy gagL xU bghU sij 4.20 br vd
msLwh v, mt j s k JakhdJ vd ahagLj Kokh vd
sFf ?
13. mf Ja bfhlJ vJ?
xU WJ if fofhu ( myJ ) xU WJ fofhu
cfsJ ilfhd fhuz jUf.
14.
 sij msL myFf liu fhoY bga myFf uL jUf ? mit
lUl vthW bjhl bfhLsJ vd vGJf ?

-
1. i) fU ws- tiuaWf.
ii) bta ms RiH tiffis sFf.
iii) bta msid bfhL bghU vj xU gkhzij msL
tKiwfis sFf.

ilnjlyhkh?
1. Na fofhuid u gagLj Koahj fhuz ahJ?

2. tUtdtiw bghUJf:
ah
l neu
ms

Fth fofhu vyf juhR RU juhR

vil

ut gof fh

ruhr neu

3. xU bf gJ myJ mnj mss Ugh bragl gJ t

vj gUbghU ms mfkhf UF. V?
4. uf.
2
M

1
m

96

msLfS msL fUfS

nkUJ
1. sij msf gagL myF
2. tFgiw khzt gagLJ msL fU
tyUJ l
m. xU fUah msl Toa f Fiwj ms
M. 2.54 br..F rkkhd ms
. g tot

ma

 U fU a mQ VgL uhd mf mogil

5. x
bragLwJ. fU wgr vd?

nkY ma

jff: 1. Fundamentals of Physics - David Halliday & Robert Resnick JohnWiley

2. Complete Physics for IGCSE Oxford publications
izajs: h
 ttp://www.nist.gov/pml/

http://www.teach-nology.com
http://www.splung.com
http://www.khanacademy.org

97

myF

af
*
*
*
*
*
*

af tiff
bjhiy lbga
ntf, ir ntf, KLf
af tiu nfhL sf
afa rkghLf
tlaf

af
bghf UHhid bfhlhL
tjfhf fh j bgnwhfSl
brhj
CUF
bjhlto
gaJ bfhoUjh. fh
rd tahf ntoif ghj nghJ,
kuf ndh brY fhia
fLaJ,
j
mkhl
kufbsyh
ciknyna
ndh
efwdth?
vd
ddh.
kufbsyh
Xiy
Uwd, bjhlto Kndh
brtjhjh
kufbsyh
ndh
brtJngh
njhWwd
vgij
mkh
sdh. Xiy, afiyf
g fhF kwtfSF j
my sFnth.
6.1 X afK

kbwhU bjhlto e toia

KbrYnghJ e to ndh
brtJ ngh njhWwJ myth? eh
iu MHkhf nehFnth. lD
IOD J g eF MHkhf Muhj
Muhahsf Mt.

iy vgij cWahf Tw KoahJ.

iy bjhlUkhdh Xth myJ
afkh vgij cW brtJ eh
vghjijl f fod. vdnt
X, af vgij vgo Jbfhs
ntL?
X
vgJ,
af
vgJ
rhilait vd fU bfhsntL.
bra 6.1

ehfns brnw

tF khztf gy FGfshf
J fh dhfis FJ
thf.

braghL 6.1 mogil fhyij

rhj bghU iy khwhk Ujh
mJ af iy iy vd eh
mnwh.

b
 ghU X iy Ugjhf
vgo f mf ?
b
 ghU af Ugjhf vgo
f mf ?

Mdh xU bghU iyia kbwhU

bghUis
rhJjh
msLnwh.
vdnt, xU bghU af csjh /
iyah? vgij fla ulhtJ
bghUbshW
njitgLwJ.
j
ulhtJ bghUS af csjh?
iyah? vgij fhz _whtJ
bghU njitgLwJ. J af

x

U
bghU
kbwhiwl
ntfkhf aFwJ vgij eh
vgo mJ bfhnwh?
k
 hztf thj ilj
fUJ
bjhFig
Mal
tH Mnyhrid bgw.

99

ma

bghUbshW X csjh myJ

af csjh vgij eh vthW
mJ bfhnwh?
bjhlto
mkJ
gaFnghJ
kuf
ndh brtJngh fhnwh .

aa

myF 6

ygu
xU
ia
vLJbfhL
eh
midJ
bjhiyfis
mia
rhJ
msLnwh.
vdnt
mia
M vW miHnwh.
Naid RtUtJ, Na
mlbt a tUtJ eh
mjnj. UD eh maffis
fU bfhsntoa mta iy.
Vbd eh gu cs bghUf
affis kLnk thf cnsh.
gu VnjD xU ia f
nj
brJ
mij
cfSila
Mahf fUJj ntL. f
br
vyh
msLfS
j
Mia bghWJ kLnk mik.
M
tna
fgidahf
lifnfhL, FJnfhL tiujh mJ,
xmrhf y - mrhf mikwJ
_whtjhf
MUJ
brFjhf tiuw nfhL Z- mrhf
mikwJ. j xWbfhW Fjhf
mikj
_W
fgidnfhLfS,
M nrj mikig Fgha
vW miHnwh.
Kjyhtjhf,
Mahf
f
Kakhd lij myJ bghUis
fUJj ntL.
Z
Y

ulhtjhf nehf ntoa bghU

iyia
Mia
rhJ
fzlntL. bghU iyia X
mR, Y mR, Z mR bjhiy bfhL
tiugljh FLj f vJ.
Mdh J KgkhzkhF. _whtjhf
bghUis f Fl fhy mjhtJ
xU k neu myJ mjF nkyhf neh
ma
ntL.
msl
fhy
bghU iy khw Vglho,
bghUshdJ
Mia
bghWJ
iyahf csJ vd khfyh.
msl fhy bghU iy
khw Vglh, mjhtJ M
myJ Fghaij bghWJ iy
khw Vglh bghUshdJ af
csJ vd khfyh. vdnt
Fl fhy Mia rhJ
bghU iy khwhk mikkhdh,
mbghU X iy csJ vdyh.
mijnghy
Fl
fhy
Mia rhJ bghU iy
khw Vglh mbghU af iy
csJ vdyh.
RUfkhf, bghUbsh X, af
iyfis Matiw ma
_W
ggsf njitgLwJ. mit,
M, FghaK
Mia bghWJ bghU
iy myJ Fghaij bghUJ
bghU iy
fhy
6.2 af tiff
e trfhf afid
jiyf tifgLjyh.

n
 enfhL
af:
bghUf
irkhwhk bjhlJ xnu ir
nenfho aFj.
tlaf : bghUf tl ghij
aFj.
miyaf : bghU L L
K af bjhlf ghijia
vir nkbfhSj.

bghU
X

M
bghU iy
gl 6.1

_W

X = 500 l
Y = 10 l
Z = 0 l

100

af
x
 Gfw af : nkTa tiffis
rhJ mikahj af.

Market

rij

j1
.
.
1.5

ghi

2.5

bjhiy:
bjhiy
vgJ
xU
UJ kWF bghU efj
ghij skhF. mU fhos
gl, lgf ghij bjhiy 1.5
..
nkY
ghij
gaz
nkbfhlh U fSF (Lrij) ilnaahd bjhiy 1.5 .. MF.
Mdh tygfghij bjhiy 2.5.
MF.

gh
i

6.3. bjhiy lbga

gl 6.2

ehnd brnw

bra 6.2

bjhiy, nfyh ms vgjh, ir

njitawJ.

tFgiw xU _iy UJ
gff tna elJ eh v
_iyia milnw. eh bra
vdh nkbfhsgl lbga
bjhiy msLnw.
nghJ _iylghij elJ
v_iyia
milnw
nkY
lbga bjhiyit msLnw.
uL brafY cs ntWghil
mnw.

________________________
________________________

nkY mnth

th ahj f xwhf
UgJ vdbtwh, ciknyna
jj X iy cs bghUis
fLojny
MF.
Vbd
gu cs bghUf iyahdJ
nghy
fh
mjhY,
na
af Ugij eh mnth.
Na FLg X mf
MF. Tl xU gFahd
Na FLgnk R bfhL UwJ.
ekJ TlK w
TlnjhL
nrJ
R
bfhoUwJ.
mlbt
gus th bghUf jj X
iy csJ vJ vd Tw Kokh?

ehnd brnw

bra 6.3
B

10br

10br

eh 10 br MuKs miu tlid

tiuJ bjhiy,
lbga vw
ghijia msLnw.
bjhiy 31.4 br vd lbga
20 br vd mJ bfhs KowJ.

101

ma

lbga: U fSF ilna

cs fa bjhiynt lbga vd
tiuaWfgLwJ. nkY J xU btl
ms vgjh ir Kakhd xwhF.
vdnt lbga vgJ UfSF
ilna cs fa bjhiy vW
tiuaWjh kL nghjhJ. mJl
iria nrJ tiuaWf ntL.
gl bjhlf UJ Ko
tiu lbgaahdJ 1 tlH
vd FlntL.

aa

myF 6

bjhiy, lbga vw msfis J bfhs eh mitf xWik,

ntWikfis xL brJ ghngh.

bjhiy

lbga

U
fSilna
bghUbshW
efJ
brYnghJ
nkbfhS
cikahd ghij bjhiy

U fSF ilna cs fa
bjhiy

J xU nfyh ms (vk kL
bgwJ)

J xU btl ms (vk ir)

SI msL Kiw j myF l

SI msL Kiw Fl ir
j myF l.

jj k bgwjW. efU ghijia

rhjJ.

bfhLfgl U fSilna
jj kbgwJ. efU ghijia
rhJ iy. bjhlf, Ko ia
rhjJ.

lbga kF rkkhfnth
myJ mfkhfnth mik.

bjhiyF
rkkhfnth
Fiwthfnth mik.

virY bjhiy vgJ neF

kig bgWwJ. Vbd ir rhJ
iy.

lbga vF k bgW xU
ir neF kghf bfhlh,
mj vir vF kid
bgW.

myJ

6.4 ntf , irntf kW KLf

ntf : ntf vgJ bjhiy khWghL jkhF myJ XuyF neu flF bjhiy
vdyh SI msL Kiw ntf myF l/ dho MF. J xU nfyhmsthF.
irntf : irntf vgJ lbga khWghL jkhF myJ XuyF neufhd
lbga
vdyh.
SI
Kiw
irntffhd
myF
l / dho MF. J xU btlmsthF.
ntf kW irntffhd xWikia ntWikia xL brnth,
ntf

irntf

bjhiy khWghL j

lbga khWghL j

nfyh ms

btl ms

SI
Kiw
msLnwh

vw

myfh

ntf vgJ v irY ne

kid
bgW.
Vbd
bjhiythdJ vj irY nek
bgWwJ.

SI
Kiw
msLnwh

vw

myfh

irntf vF k bgW. xU
ir irntfij ne Fahf
bfhlh,
vir
vF
kig bgW.

102

af
fhyij X mY bjhiyit
YmY vLJ bfhL tiuagL
tiuglnk bjhiyfhy tiugl MF.

xU Fl ir kG
irntf 10 dhof 10 / UJ
50 / Mf ntf mfwJ v mj
KLfij fzLf. (mltiz
tygfij fW f)
KLf 4 /2 vgj bghU
vdbt
kG
irntf
xbthU dho 4 l mfwJ
vgjhF. Mdh mnjrka to
irntf 50 / UJ 10/ vd
Fiwtjhf bfhlh, KLfkhdJ v
kig
bgWwJ.
j
vF,
irntf Fiwtij fhLwJ.
ij fshfnt KaW f.
Mal nfL rghf.
KLf = irntf khw / fhy
=
 W irntf - bjhlf
irntf / vLJ bfhl
fhy
= 50 / 10 / / 10
= 40 / / 10
= 4 / 2
6.5 ne nfhL af tiugl sf
6.5.1 bjhiy, lbga fhy rhj
tiuglK irntf fhy rhj
tiuglK
bjhiy, lbga fhy rhj
tiuglij, irntf fhy rhj
tiuglij tiutUJ af,
fhy ga y fUJfis eh J
bfhs KowJ.
tU mltizahdJ, KUf
elJ brw bjhiyit fhyij
fhLwJ.

fhy (l)

bjhiy (l)

0
5
10
15
20
25

0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500

KUf eilgaz bjhiy - fhy

tiuglij
ftjh
y
fUJfis J bfhsyh.
Kjyhtjhf, tiugl nenfhlhf
mikJsij fhzKowJ. nkY
KUf
rkfhy
ilbtf
rk
bjhiyfis flJ brwJ ma
KowJ.
UJ KUf khwhj
ntf elJ brwij khf
KowJ.
KUf elJ brw ntfij f
fzL TwKokh vd f?
gl 6.3 _y KUf ntfij
fzl Ko. tiugl a AB vw
gFia fUJnth. A vw
UJ X mRF brFJ nfhL tiuf.
nkY A UJ X mRF iznfhL
xW tiuf. U nfhLfS C vw
xiwbahW bto bfhS.
ABC vw Knfhz cUthwJ.
nghJ tiugl BC vgJ flj
bjhiyit (s2-s1), AC vgJ fhy
FwJ.
ilbtia
(t2-t1),
UJ KUf eilntf tUkhW
fzlgLwJ.
KUf eilntf = tiugl
rh
BC
(S2 - S1)
v=
=
AC
(t2 - t1)

103

ma

KLf : KLf vgJ irntf

khWghL j myJ XuyF neu
VgL irntf khWghL vdyh. J xU
btl msthF. SI Kiw KLf
myF /( X ) vW /2 vW myJ
-2 vd vGjyh.

aa
Y

myF 6
msl
X-m 1 br = 5 l

bjhiy (l)

2500

2000 s2
1500 s1

lbga (.)

Y-m 1 br = 500

3000

1000
500
0

fhy (k)

t1

5 10 15
fhy ( l )

gl 6.4

t2
20

25

ir
Flhkh
Ujh
lbga xnu ir mikJsJ
vd fU bfhsntL.

30

gl 6.3
tiunfho
rh
vgJ
xU
ggsit MF. rh mff ntfK
mfwJ.
KUf
eilgaz,
fjh
to
gaz,
rhfQ
kGJ gaz ga
bjhiy-fhy
tiuglid ghngh.
eilntfij fhoY to
ntf mfkhf uil l
kG ntf mfkhf UF
vgJ ekF bj.
_W gazf bjhiyfhy
tiuglf Kija tiugl 6.4I ngh
UF.
bjhiyfhy
tiugl rh
mff mff ntfK mfwJ.
eh tiuj bjhiy fhy tiugl
bjhiyF gyhf lbgaia
bfhL, lbgaia fhy tiugl
tiuJ mUJ irntf fzlyh.
tiugl ir Flgliy
vgij eh J bfhs ntL.
irntfij FLnghJ iria
thijah
FL
fhf
ntL.

104

6.5.2 uhd, uw ntf, irntf

Kija ghl gF bghUf
uhd ntf uhd irntfij g
fnwh.
uhd ntf myJ irntf vgJ
fhyij rhJ khwhk csJ
eh, eik Rs cyfij neh
m nghJ, bghUf ntfkhdJ
neuF
neu
khw
miltij
mnwh. thwhd f, bjhiy
fhy tiuglnkh myJ lbga fhy
tiuglnkh nenfhlhf miktJ iy.
6.5.3 irntf-fhy tiugl
nenfhL
ghij
aF
bghUbsh irntf vkig
fhy rhJ FF nghJ, bgWw
tiuglnk irntf fhy tiuglkhF.
irntf fhy
mtJ vd?

tiugl

eh

tU mltizahdJ, nrhjid
Xl nghJ kGJ x irntf
kf,
uhd
fhy
ilbt
fhlgLsJ.
nkY
kG
irntf fhytiugl
gl 6.6

af
Y

tF khztf W FGfshf
J, brid-bgfq ngUJ gaz
tiuglij
MuhJ
tU
dhfisg thf.

7.5
D

brid-bgfq

2.5

10

15

20

X
25

30

fhy (dho)
gl 6.5

fhlgLsJ. kG irntf fhy

tiuglij MuhnghJ, y fUJfis
ma KowJ.

fhy (k)

b
rid - bgfq ilnaahd
bjhiy vd?

bjhlf tiunfhL nenfhlhf

mikwJ. nkY iy kG
irntf
uhd
ilbt
uhf
cawJ vd ma KowJ. nkY
iy kG uhd KLfij
fzlKokh?
bjhiyfhy tiugl ntfij
fzl tKiwia
gWtj
_y, F KLfij irntf fhy
tiugl fzl Ko tiu nfho
rh
kghdJ
DE/AD
MF.
irntffhy
tiugl
rh
mff mff KLf k
mfwJ.
xU y neuf fhyrhJ KLf
uwjhf mik.
kGJ
x
irntf
fhy tiuglij gl 6.5 fhLwJ.
6.5.4 irntf
fhy
tiugl
lbga fzLj
myJ
ntf fhy tiugl bjhiyit
fzLj
bfhLfgLs
irntf
fhy
tiugl kGjhdJ 40 /k vw
uhd irntf brwJ.

gl 6.6

ngU KG gaz neu vts ?

ngU ntf khah?
g
 azF ilna ngUJ J
neu wjh?

 wJ v, w neu vts?
ngU bgUk ntf vnghJ
vgij
tiugl
rhit
ftJ, TWf?
bgUk ntf k vd ?
bra 6.5

eh brnw

gl 6.5 fhlgLs kG
irntf-fhy tiuglij fW
fh dhfSF ilaf.
gaz bgUk irntf vd ?
g
 az
irntf
vnghJ?

vgFyhtJ
Ujjh? M

uhd
v

bgU KLf vnghJ fjJ?

k
 G
vnghJ ?

ntf

FiwjJ

g
az W ntf FiwjnghJ
KLf kbgd?
c

f
Kofis
Mal
fhJ rbrJ bgWf.

105

ma

lbga (.)

irntf ( -1 )

10

eh brnwh

bra 6.4

12.5

aa

myF 6
irntf fhy

irntf ( k-1 )

bra 6.6

kGJ x nrhjid Xl
bgw
irntffhy
tiuglij
MuhJ
tU
dhfSF
ilaf: t1 = 10 dho, t2 = 20 dho vw fhy
ilbt
irntf
khw
vd?
fhy (k)

gl 6.7

x-m
fhyij,
y-m
irntfij bfhL tiuagl
irntf fhy tiugl tiunfhL
ilifahf
(x-mF
izahf)
mikwJ. UJ irntf khwhk
Ugij ma KowJ.
t1=1 k Kj t2=3 k vw fhy
ilbtia
vLJ
bfhlh
(tiugl y w fhlgLsJ)
AC vw gF myJ BD vw gF
irntfij, nkY ABmyJ CD vw
gFf fhy ilbtia Fwd.
irntf
uhf
Ugjdh,
irntfij fhy ilbtia
bgUf ilF kghdJ, uL
kneu ilbt nkbfhsgl
bjhiyF rk. mjhtJ, tiunfho
ilF brtf guF rk
(brtf gu = mfy X s)
UJ irntf fhy tiunfho
ilF
brtf
gughdJ
lbgaF rkkhf Flyh.
Y
40

irntf ( k-1 )

eh brnw

K
 Lf
fzL
thghil
idgL ghUf. ayhj
iy
jfij
ghJ
f.
braiy
fyjhnyhfhk
Kabra.

ahlK
fshfnt

K
 Lf
k
(rkghil
KLfij fhf)

vd?
gagL

KLf myFf vd?

c

f
fzL
Kofis
Mal fhJ rghf.
uw
irntfF
bghUJ.

Tl

t1=4k Kj t2=8k tiu cs fhy

ilbt lbgaia fzl
ntLbk
guig
gy
brtffshf,
Knfhzkhf
JbfhsntL.
gu =(5 X 40 +(1/2 x 2 x 40))

= 200+40

= 240 .

6.6 af rkghLf

30
20
10
0

t2- t1 vw fhy ilbt k

vd?

C t1
1

fhy (k)

t2 D
3

gl 6.8

lbga, KLf Matiw ma

tiugl
tiuJ
rh,
gu
fLogjF g y rkghLfis
gagL j kfis mayh.
_W af rkghLf MdJ,

106

af
v = u + at

irntf fhy

s = ut + at2

v2 u2 = 2as

u vgJ bjhlf irntf, v

vgJ W irntf, a vgJ KLf,
s vgJ lbga.
j rkghLfis tiuglUJ
jUfyh. gl 6.9 cs irntf fhy tiugl, A vw
irntf u MdJ, B vw
irntf v F khWwJ. A UJ uL
brFJnfhLf XmRF xW
(AC), Y mF (AD) kbwhW tiuf.

UJ
brFJnfhLf
tiuf(BE & BF)
AG vgJ AUJ BEF tiuagl
brFJnfhL irntf fhy tiugl.
Fl
rkghL

neu

irntffhd

tiuaiw go,
KLf = rh = BG/AG
= irntf khWghL/fhy
= W irntf - bjhlf
irntf / vLJbfhl fhy

rkghil

bgw,

irntf

irntf

lbga = rtf CABE gu

< KLf :
bghUbshW
nkneh
vagLnghJ eh neh mtJ vd?
bghU irntf gogoahf FiwJ,
bgU cauij milj iy R
kig bgWwJ. L neha

bkhj gu
ABEC = gu ACEG+
gu AGB
1
1
s = ut + x t x at = ut + at2
Fl
iy
rkghL tiugl,

lbgafhd rkghL

lbga s fhz ntL. s MdJ AB

nfhoF cs guF rk.
gugsit bgWtjF brtf ACEG

guig
Knfhz
AGB guig Tl ntL. brtf
ACEG
gughdJ,
AC
(bjhlf
irntfU), AG (vLJ bfhl fhy t)
Mat bgUf bjhif. J ut F
rk. jDl Knfhz gugsthdJ,
mogf ghia, cauJl bgUf
ilgJ MF. mogf AG-vgJ
vLJ
bfhl
fhy
t
MF.
Knfhz cau BG vgJ irntf
khWghL v-u MF. J at F rk vdnt,

a = (v-u)/t (myJ) v = u + at
ulh

fhy (k)
gl 6.10

1
s = x(u+ v) x t
2
(v-u) (v = u+ at) t
2s = (u+v) x _____
a
kig ul)
2
2
2as = v - u
O

fhy

v2 - u2 = 2as

gl 6.9

107

ma

irntf ( k-1 )

aa

myF 6

gaz jiuia miltiu irntf

gogoahf mfJbfhnl tUwJ
nkneha gaz irntf uhf
FiwtJ neha gaz irntf
uhf mfgjfhd fhuz vdbt,
<dh clhF khwh KLfnk
MF. neha khwh KLfij
< KLf vW FLnwh
nkY jid g vw vGjh Fnwh.
ruhrk 9.8 / vw ms FiwwJ.
neha gaz xbthU dho
irntf k 9.8 /2 vw ms
mfwJ.
< KLf kh vgjh
afa
rkghLf
midJ
bghUf neha gazF,
nkneha gazF bghUJ.
6.7 tl af
6.7.1 uhd tl af
tlghij
aF
bghU
af tl af vdgL. tl
af y vLJfhLf:
F
 il uhod mkJs xUt
tl ghij RWwh.
t
isj gja ghijnyh myJ
tl ghij brY kGJ tl
afij nkbfhwJ.
vyuhf
mQfUit
tlghij RWwd.

rhwhf, vyuhfnsh Naid RW

nfhfnsh tlghij brtJ iy.
KGikahd tlghij uhd ntf
brY bghUf uhd tl afij
nkbfhwJ. j uhd tl
af g fhngh .
6.7.2 ikanehF KLf
uhd tl af vgJ bghU
ntf khwhJ, irahdJ bjhlJ kh
bfhnl Uf ToaJ Md xU w
tif
afkhF.
af
irahdJ bjhlJ khWtjh af
khWgL irntfij bgW UF
vdyh.
fhynfg
irntf
khajh, irntf khWghL KLfij
VgLJ vdyh. uhd ntf brY
xU bghU ir uhf khWglh, mj
KLf uhdJ vdyh.
uhd KLfnk ikanehF KLf
vdgL. ikanehF KLf vnghJ
irntfF brFjhf, Mu
tna ikaij neh bragL,
jF fhuz vd bjkh? xU fz
J
cfsJ
ilid
nH
jugLs
fhuzfSl
xL
ghf.
6.7.3 ikanehF ir
fW x xU Kid f xiw
fo
tlkhf
RHw,
fiy

 dh flgLs f tlghij
aFwJ.
jlfs
ngho
UFL vj tlghijF
vLJfhL.
mwhl thif tlghij
aF bghUf ah, frahd
tlghij brY vd brhyKoahJ.

gl 6.11

uL fhuzf

1. KLf irntf ir braglh irntf (ntf)v k

khW. irntf khwhJ UfntL v, KLf irntfF brFjhf
braglntL.
2. irntfij FF mF tl bjhLnfho mik. jF
brFjhf tiuagl nfhL Mu (tl ika tna bryToaJ) tl
gfgo, Mu bjhLnfhoF brFjhf mik.

108

af
tlghij af, f tna tlikaij neh xU ir brYjgLwJ
vd mayh. fiw Llh fyhdJ bjhLnfho tna nenfho
aFtij fhzyh bghUis tlghij bjhlJ brYJ irna
ikanehFir vdgL.
ir vnghJ irntfF brFjhf, Mu tna ikaij
neh bragL.
vLJfhLf:
1. 
dh flgLs f tlghij
aF nghJ ikanehF irahdJ,
Girah bgwgLwJ.
2. kGJ xW tis U nghJ, laUF
jiuF
ilgl
cuh
ir
njitahd ikanehF iria jUwJ.
3. 
nfhf Naid R aF nghJ
nfhfSF NaDF ilgl <a
ir ikanehF irahf bragLwJ.

kL - kh dhf
- m
1. tU ntffis VWtir vGj.
2. bghU

xW X iyUJ af bjhlFwJ. uL dhofSF d,
bghU mil KLfkhdJ, mj lbgaia nghy _________ klF MF.
(miu, uL, ehF, fhgF)
3. b
 jhiy - fhy tiugl vY r myJ rhUJ bgwgLtJ
_________ ( KLf, lbga, ntf, fhy )
4.
 irntf-fhy tiugl tistiuah milgL gu FgJ, xU aF
bghU _________ ( irntf, flj lbga, KLf, ntf )
5. x
 U 100 Xlgja uij btahs 10dho flwh v, mtuJ ruhr
ntf _________ ( 5 /dho, 10 /dho, 20 /dho, 40 /dho )
6. lbga Rahf, flj bjhiy Rawjhf cs bghU afF
xU vLJfhL jUf.
7. KLf xU nfyh mslh myJ btl mslh?
8. xU bghU af iria zgJ mj irntfkh? myJ KLfkh?
9. khwhj KLf aF xU bghU lbga - fhy tiugl jik vd?

109

ma

( 7 /, 15 /k, 2 ./, 0.1 /dho )

aa

myF 6

- M
1. mltizia uf.
t.v.

aa ms

irntf

2.

KLf

3.

nfhz lbga

4.

nfhz irntf

myF

2. i) jugLs tiuglfis, mit FL afJl bghUJf.

m) KLfkw
af

M) uw Kiw
KLfgl
af

irntf

irntf

(C)

(B)

(A)

tiugl

) uhd Kiw
KLfgl
af

irntf

af

fhy

fhy

fhy

ii) tiugl B- bghU KLf vd?

3. 20 m/s irntf aF Urfu nkhlh to 4ms-2 KLfkilwJ. UJ

nkhlh to irntfij g mtJ ahJ?
4. n
gUJ xW brid bruUJ 20 . bjhiyYs dghf khd
iyaij 45 lf brwilwJ. v,
i) ngU ruhr ntf vd?
ii) ngU ruhr ntf V mj cikahd ntfUJ khWgLwJ?
5. TW :
 uhd tl af, irntf vk, s ir btntW
f khwhUF.
nkfl TW rah, jtwh? fhuz TWf.
6. nenfhL ghij aF X kGJ 100 dhof 1 . bjhiyit HF
ir flwJ.v, tUtdtiw fzLf

m) kG ntf

M) kG irntf

7. xU khzt mtdJ oUJ 5 ./k vw uhz ntf 15 l

gawh. v, mtdJ gF oF ilna cs bjhiy ahJ?
8. 
Jf ntf khahf csJ v JfshdJ KLf bgw Kokh vgij
vLJfhL jJ sFf.

110

af
A

50 m

9. gl fhosthW ABCD vw ghij xU khzt

brwh. mj khztdh flj bkhj bjhiy vd?
mtdJ fu lbga vd?

D
20 m

40 m

10. tU TWf rah?jtwh?

m) 
< irdh nkUJ jhdhf nHG xU bghU irntf - fhy
tiugl nenfhlhf, mF izahf csJ.
M) xU bghU irntf - fhy tiugl nenfhlhdJ, fhy mF rhthf
Ujh, mj lbga - fhy tiugl nenfhlhf UFkh?
11. irntf - fhy tiugl y gafis FLf.
12.  cldo WjF vf kG Wjjilna (brake) fwjJ vd XU
fh cgahs sgu brwh. Tfhd cf sfij jUf.
13. xU bghU ntf vF bgWkh?
14.  nkgu midJ lfY g k khahf mikwJ. TW
rah?
15. X iyUJ wgL kGJ xW 0.05 k 180 / itntfij
bgWwJ v mj KLfij fhf.

a) AB, DE kW C- mj irntf vd?

b) AC kW CE ir ehza KLf vd?
c)  A kW E fSF il ehza flj bjhiy
kW brFJ lbga ahJ?

2. r
 hjsJ cUL brY g iyfis tiugl FwJ. gJ xU
iyUJ kbwhU iyF bry 0.5 dho vLJbfhwJ.
A

E
F

111

ma

1. ehza xW 3m/s irntfJl A vw UJ RlgLwJ.

aa

myF 6

a) g
 af uhdjh myJ uw afkh? vd TWf.
b) 2.5 dho neu gJ flj bjhiy ahJ?
c) A UJ F iytiu g ruhr irntfij fzLf.
3. tU nef affis fUJf.
i) aF kGJ

ii) nkjsF V, nH wa kj

iii) xU KGRid nkbfhS gJ

a) n
 kfl vj nef, bghU lbga
mik?

Rahf

b) cfsJ ilfhd fhuz jUf.

4. tU tiugl kGJ x afid FwJ vf.
i) t
 iugl OA kW AB gFfUJ
mtJ ahJ?

ntf

ii) OA kW AB gFf kG ntf ahJ?

fhy

5. tiugl Kiw _W af rkghLfis jUf.

6. fh tiugl xU bghU irntf - fhyij FwJ.
m) vj fhy ilbt bghU af KLfkilwJ?

40

M) gF (a)- cs fhy ilbt KLfij fhf.

30

) gF (a)- cs fhy

bjhiy ahJ?

20

ilbt bghU flj

a
10
A
0

D
10

7. nH jugLs thafis uf.

m) 1000 / irntf xU bghUshdJ nkneh vagLwJ.mbghU
nkUJ nHtU bghGJ,vj mj irntfkhdJ_________ .
M) uhd irntf aF xU bghU KLf _________ .

112

af
) xU bjhlto A vw u iyaUJ B vw u iyaF 100 ./k
vw irntf gaJ,L B u iyaUJ A u iyaF
80 ./k vw irntf UwJ v mj gaz KGikFkhd
ruhr irntfid, ruhr ntfid fzLf.

ilnjlyhkh?
1. xU khzt ika xU nuoa nfhzij cUthF tl nfhz gF
Rwsit _W klF Mu kF rk vW msJ vGJwh. mtuJ il
rah? jtwh? sFf.
2. eL x afij khz xUt cWnehFnghJ, mJ xbthU Kiw
2 br. Knd brY nghJ 1 br. ndh efJ L Kndh efwJ.
1 br. efu fhy ilbt 1 beho v 5 br. bjhiyit vl vjid behof MF
vgij tiugl _y tiuJ fhf.
3. Jf xW tlghij khwhj ntf aFwJ. mJf KLfkilwjh?
cfsJ ilF fhuz jUf.
4. tU mltizUJ af tiugl vthW mikwJ?
v (m/s)
t (s)

0
0

20
2

40
4

40
6

40
8

20
10

0
12

5. khz xUt 70 MuKila tlfh x tl eilghij Xl bjhl

elJ L mnj lij tjilwh. mtuJ lbga flj bjhiy xnu
msthFkh? ahagLJf.

 hgjhl u af, af, vW af, efungU

f
af, y af, fiyaufUJ btnaW ghitahsf af,
fofhuK af.
7. kGJ xW jdJ ntfij 20 / UJ 80 / F 12 dhof mfF
nghJ mil lbgaia fzLf.

nkY ma

jff:1. General Physics - Morton M. Sternhein - Joseph W. Kane - John Wiley

2. Fundamentals of Physics David Halliday, Robert Resnick & John Wiley

izajs : http://www.futuresouth.com
http://www.splung.com

113

ma

6. tU affis cWneh mtiw uhd af, uw af, tl af

vw jiyf tifgLJf.

myF

utf
* utf
* nk neha cJ ir, j ir
* Mo
* Mo jJtK gaghL
* xgl
* KGtJ myJ gFas ut
_UF bghUSfhd sf

utf

Mo(.K.287-.K.212) vgt nuf jJtayhs. t fjayhsuhf,

aayhsuhf, bghahsuhf, fLoghsuhf, thdayhsuhf fjh.
iya (iyahd bghUfis ga aa) kW k iya (X iyYs
utfis ga ma) t fLoj Ka jJtf eilKiwgLjgLsd.
t jij xU thdayhs, iruh ehL kd bAuh tuJ egU,
cwdU Mth. jDila g, fia mfhy fgjF ikakhf fj v
cs mby[hoah t bgwh.
Mo vJ eho cs tafSF ghrdfhd klUJ nk
klF iu iwgjfhd Uid fLjh. benfh jJtij
fLojtU tnu. benfhiy fLoj kdiu ghJ kdh vdF xU
l joid Wj xU lij jhUf. eh yfijna efJnw vd
Tdh. t gy vua fUfis fLojh.
k iya xU Kakhd jJtkha Mo jJt tUila f bga

nuf

ehL

kd

mehL

bghbfhyl

jfij

mJ

flSF

mgjfhf jfl brgo flislh. lij nrhj kdDF

l bghbfhy k Fiwj bt fyUgh vw rnjf vGjJ. lij
ijfhk nrhFgo Mol Tdh.
kduJ Iaij F t FJ ukhf jh. xU eh Mo jdJ
Fayiw bjho Ff brwnghJ,

iwj bjhoF _al

btnaWtij fL, cil mtij kwJ nufh! nufh! (fLoJnl!

fLoJnl! ) vd rjL bfhnl mukidF Xodh.
muR fUyUJ lid brtjF bfhLfgl jf msF
rkkhd ms jf bgW bfhlh. bjho x tiu ug brjh . wF
lij, jfij, jjahf m _fbrjh. l lbga br
ms, jugl ajf lbga br msitl Fiwthf Ujjh,
l ajfjh braglJ my vgJ %gzkhL.

thW Mo

gaDs mj fLo mij flj fij bjhWbjhL tH tUwJ.

Moi[ f kaila brj jJt jh vd ? fhnghkh?

115

ma

fLoghF.

aa

myF 7

7.1 ut mGj

7.1.4 mGjK p KLfK

utij g eh Jtiu mj
fUJfis id Tnth.

xU ut rk MH mikj
,
mGjkhdJ
<
KLfF
nejf
mik
ijna
Pg
vd Ffyh.

7.1.1 mGjK MHK

MH
mff,
mff,
ut
cns vj xU Y
mGj
mfF.
ut
nkgu
UJ
mikJs
brFJ bjhiyit
bghWnj mGj khWgL. mago
mGj MHF nejf mik.
ijna fjago,
P d

P
vgJ
d vgJ MH vd Ffyh.

mGj,

7.1.2 ut cns vj xU Y

cs mGj ir
ut cns vj xU Y
cs mGjkhdJ, midJ irfY
bragL
vgJ
nrhjidf
_y
ydhwJ. bfhfy
tot, ms, gugsit
bghWJ
mGj
khWglhJ.
7.1.3 ut mGjK ml
U ntWgl utf rk MH
mikJs vj xU Y cs
mGj
mutf
mlia
bghWJ
khWgL.
mago,
mGjkhdJ
ut
mlia
bghWJ
khWgL.
ijna,
P vd Ffyh.
P vgJ mGj
ut ml.

vgJ

116

xU Kfit cs ut mGj
10 N/m2 v y nkgu mGj,
1/6 gfhf (2 N/m2) UF. Vbd
y < KLf 1/6 gfhf
UF.
7.1.5 ut xU cs mGj
nkbrhd
_go,
ut
mGjfhd rkghil bgwyh.
P = dg
7.2 xgl
xU bghU ml vgJ XuyF
gUkDfhd iw vgij Kdnu
gonjh.
ml = iw / gUk
bghU xgl vgJ bghU
mlF mlF cs jf
MF.
xgl = bghU ml/ ml
7.3 jir myJ nknehF ir
7.3.1 utD _UF bghU
J bragL j ir
Fs myJ r Fs F
xUt cns UF nghJ btna
Ugij l nyrhf czth.
cns Efh gJ vJ Mdh
btna mthW gJ f fod.
bghU vilia vF irna
j ir myJ nknehFir
vdyh. xU bghU ghk (ut
myJ th) cns _UFnghJ
ir bragL.

utf
ml cs ut cUis tot
bghU xW _Ugjhf fUJnth
(gl
fhosgo).
cUis
nkgu F1 vw ir brFjhf
bragLwJ mnj rka cUis
gu F2 vD ir gl
fhosgo bragLwJ. F1 kW F2
irf vbu ir bragLwJ.
vdnt, ghkdh cUis J
bragL
bkhj
ir
(F1 F2 ) MF. vnghJ ir F2 MdJ F1
IfhoY mfkhf UF vgij
id
bfhf.
fUij
y
lfSF kd W, V? vd
f.

= Mg
Vbd
lbgaj
ut
iwahdJ cUis fdms kW
ut
ml
Mat
bgUFbjhifF rk.
=
cUisdh l
ut vil

bgaj

nkY bjJ bfhs

e cikahd vilia
msl Kokh? tklyij
xU bga th rKukhf fUJnth.
e clf fhW rKu _
csJ vdnt vir bragL
j iria cznwh. j
ir e clyh l bgaj fh
vilF rk. vdnt e cikahd
vilia msl Kokh?

gl 7.1

cUis nkgu bragL ir

F1 vgJ cUis nkgu bragL
mGj P1, gugs A Mat
bgUFbjhifF
rk.
mGj
MHF nejf UF vgij
id bfhf.
h2 MdJ h1 Il mf MH
Ugjh mGj P2 MdJ mGj P1
Il mf. vdnt ir F2 ir
F1 I l mf, mJl cUis J
bragL bkhj ir uL
irf ntWghoF rk (F2 - F1 )
F2 -F1 = h2 gA h1 gA

jif, mYa, fhajh Md rk

mss nfhsfis fUJf.mt
xglf Kiwna 0.2, 2.7, 11.3
xbth gUkds 10fdbrol
v mt iwf Kiwna 2g, 27g,
113g MF. tiw KGtJkhf Kf
brjh xbthW 10cc iu lbgau
brJ 10gf vilia HwJ.
mYa nfhs vil 17gf
(27gf-10gf), fha nfhs vil 103gf
(113gf-10gf). fh jif vil 2 gf
kLnk. vdnt 10 gfF rkkhd nknehF
ir braghlh jif vil
-8 gf (2gf-10gf) 8 gf F rkkhd bjhF
ir
nkneha
ir
jif,
nfhsid guig neh KLFwJ
(xU bghU J bragL <a

= Ag (h2- h1), h vgJ

cUis cau
= Vg
Vbd cUis gUk vgJ
cUis mogf gugs, cau
Mat bgUF bjhifF rk.

jif

mYa

gl 7.2

117

fha

ma

7.3.2 rk ms gUkf rk j irfis

czU

aa

myF 7

irna vil vdgL. 8g iwF rkkhd

vilia 8uh ir vW FLnwh.
mj FpL 8gf )

juhR

7.4 Mo jJt
7.4.1 jJt tiuaiw

tnjhL
#ho

Mo jJt go, xU bghU

ghk (ut myJ th) _UF
nghJ, mJ Hgjhf njhW vil,
btnawgL
ghk
vilF
rkkhf UF. njhw vil HF
fhuz eh mj j irna MF.
7.4.2 Mo jJtij rghF
nrhjid
RU juhR x bfhUJ
a f xid fo bjhfLf.
fh f vilia W1 vd FJ
bfhs.
gl fhosthW, KGtJ
us #ho x fiy bkJthf
UF _FkhW bra, f vil
W2 vd FJ bfhs.
Kfit vilia W3 vd FJ
bfhs.
nghJ, f UF _Ftjh t
iu Kfit nrJ mj vilia
Ul nrJ Kfit vil W4 vf.
btnawgL

(W4 W3)I fLof.

vil

UF _F f HF vil=(W1 W2)
UJ (W1 W2) = (W4 W3 ) vd
Ugij
fhzyh.
UJ
Mo jJt rghfglJ.

btnawgl Ul
Toa Kfit
gl 7.3

 ut
xglia
gagLwJ.

fhz

 utf
gagLwJ.

fhz

mlia

7.5.1 x
 Gfw totKila lbghU
gUk fhz
xGfw totKila lbghU
(v.fh: f) gUk fhz, fid RU
juh nkfl nrhjid fo
bjhflJ ngh fobjhfL
fh mj vilia (W1) fhf. nghJ
fid _fitJ mj vilia
L
fhf.
Mo
(W2)
jJtgo, f Hj vil (W1uhW2uh) lbga bragl
vilF rkkhf UF. 1cc vil 1
uh v, lbga bragl
gUk (W1 W2) cc ia fzlyh.
Jnt f gUk MF. bghU
_snghJ Hj vil W uh v,
mjDila gUk W cc MF. Mo
jJtgo,
Hj vil = btnawgl vil

7.5 Mo jJt-y gaghLf

mlia bfhL
xGfw totKila lbghU

fh bghU vil- bghU

vil = ml x lbghU gUk.

gUkid fhz gagLwJ.

x
Gfw totKila lbghU
mlia fhz gagLwJ.

118

lbghU gUk

fh bghU vil- bghU vil

ml

utf
7.5.3 ut xglia fhz
Kj
fh
vilia (W1) fhf.

mnj
lbghU
vilia (W2) fhf. bfhLfgl
ut mnj lbghU vilia(W3)
fhf. ut xglia ma,
bghU Hj vil (W2 - W1), bghU
ut Hj vil(W3 - W1) Matiw
fzLf.

lbghU ml (iw/ gUk)

XuyFgUk vilF rkkhf UF
(<a mygo).
v-fh: 1000 cc mss vilahdJ
1000 gf F rk.
1000 cc mss iwahdJ 1000 g
F rk.
Mjyh, vif
1000 cc mss vil=1000 cc
mss iw.
F: nrhjid xGfw bghU
gUkidfhz, msL #ho njit
iy. RU juhid bfhL
gUk fhzntoa fid eUs
ghunyh, Fsnyh myJ ntW
VnjD iyfnyh _f brJ
gUk fhzyh. (c my).
7.5.2. xGfw totKila lbghU
mlfhz
nkfh
nrhjidgo
fh
f vilia(w1) bfhL mj
gUkid Kj flf.
_f brJ mj vilia ( w2) fhf.
nkfh
braKiwia
bfhL
lbghU mlia tUkhW
fLofyh.
lbghU ml

W1
_______
W1 - W2

X ml

Mo jJtgo,
bghU Hj vil= lbga
bragl vil
W1- W2= lbga bragl vil
= iw x < KLf
= lbghU gUk x
ml x < KLf
vdnt W1- W2=V x ml x g.(1)
Mo jJtgo,
bghU ut = lbga bragl
Hj vil
ut vil
W1 - W3 = lbgabraglut
vil
= ut iw x < KLf
= bghU gUk x ut
ml x < KLf
vdnt,
W1 - W2 = V x ml x g.(2)
rkghL (2) ia (1) M tFf

W1 - W3
ut xgl = _______
W1 - W2
7.5.4 ut mlia fhz
jF Kija ut
xglia fhgij g gonjh.
ut xglia mll
bgUdh ilgJ ut ml
MF.

119

ma

gl 7.4

lbghU

aa

myF 7

xgl =

bghU ml

gJ : lbga bragl vil

g vilial Fiw
glF tot bghU : vilF rkkhd iu
lbga brwJ

ml

bghU ml

= xgl x ml
7.6 jjY j ir

B
gl 7.6

lbghUf
k
_f
itFnghJ
y
bghUf
_Fwd myJ y jwd. j
fid Mo jJtid
bfhL sfyh.
vjbthU lbghUS ut
_UFnghJ Hgjhf njhW
vilahdJ, mbghU J jir
bragLtjh VgLtjhF.
j j irahdJ ut
brFjhf
nkneh
bragL
irahF. irahdJ, lbga
bragl ut vilF rkkhf
UF. (gF 7.3 j ir=Vg
gUk x ml x < KLf vd
fzlgLsJ ).

W
W

efU. U irfS rkkhf UF

bghGJ bghU rkiyia mil.
gl
fhos
glF
tot
bghUshdJ _fhJ. Vbd mJ
vilF
rkkhd
iu
lbga
brwJ. jid tU rkghodh
Ffyh.
Vg = mg
V = m
bghU iw, mJ lbga
br ut iw rkkhF nghJ
bghUshdJ jF.

j ir

gl 7.5

U FL _LwJ.
Mdh mijl gy klF l vils
fg jwJ.

< ir

lbga bragl ut
vilahdJ, fg vilF rkkhFgo
U totkhdJ khaikfgL
nghJ f rhakhwJ.

ml
Ks gF

lbghU
J
bragL
ulhtJ ir mjDila vil MF
(brFjhf neh, bragL <
ir). Mjyh _F bghUshdJ, uL
vbuuhd
irfSF
cgLwJ.
uL irf xW, kbwhiw
l mfkhdh bjhFga ir
ir bghU efU.
mjhtJ j
ir mfkhdh bghU nkneh,
vil mfkhdh bghU neh

120

p
ir
j
ir

utf

7.7 utkh
bghJutkhahdJ
Mo
jJt
go
bragLwJ.
J
ut xglia (ml v)
fhz gagLwJ.
ut
xglia
fhz
utkhia ut jf bra
ntL. utkh utkl msit
jLgF cs msLf _y
fhzyh.
tsthdJ
ut
xglia
FF.
utkh
fzhoah bragl FWfyhd, uhd
jL
csJ.
jo
nkKid
milfgL, mj gF xU
fzho FD ghjur myJ a
<a FLf uggoUF. j vil
fhuzkhf utkhahdJ utf
brFjhf jF.
bghJthf,

mlia
l
mfkhd ml bfhl utfSF

xW, mlial Fiwthd

ml bfhl utfSF xW vd
Utifahd utkhf gagLjgL
tUwd.
utkhahdJ xU Fl vilid
cilaJ. utkhahdJ, mj vil
mjdh lbga bragl ut
vil rkkhdh ut
jF. ml Fiwj
ut, utkhahdJ
mj vilF rkkhd
utid
lbga
br bghUL mf MH
tiu _F.
ml Fj ut,
utkhahdJ
mj
vilF
rkkhd
utid
lbga
br bghUL Fiwj
MH tiu _F.

0.80
0.85
0.90
0.95
1.00
1.05
1.10

jL

1.15
1.20

gh
ik
jikia
nrhjidl
FHh
gagL utkh ghkh
ghjurJl
(Lactometer) vd miHf
Toa F
gLwJ. mnjngh, kGJ
fy cs my
mlia nrhjidl gl 7.7 
jtif
utkhf
bghJ
utkh
gagLwJ.

braghL 7.1

ehnd brnw

_ fgf jf brwJ. mnj ngh

guF nH _f brwJ. fg cs
u bjhoahdJ, fl uh uggL nghJ _
fgyhdJ _F. bjhoYs uhdJ, mGjgl
fhiw brYJtj _y btnawgL nghJ,
fgyhdJ guF tUwJ.
_ fg vthW guF tUwJ (m)
guF mo _FwJ vgjid Mo
jJtid bfhL sf Kokh?

121

ma

fh
mlahdJ
iAu#
th mlia fhoY 14 klF
mfkhdJ. iAu# uggl g
vilahdJ,
mjdh
lbga
bragl fh vilia l Fiw.
j uoF ilna cs vil
khWghnl
gid
caJtjF
fhuzkhf mikwJ. mjdh iAu#
uggl g fh cau gwwJ.

aa

myF 7
ehfns brnw

braghL 7.2

xU rth: xU Fs bghik glF xW

jwJ. Fs cs klij FJ
bfhf. gl xU fha gij itf. (_fhjgo)
klij FJ bfhf. nghJ gij
Lf. bghik glif nghLf. L
klij FJ bfhf.

 uL kl msLfS ntWglitah?
v vJ caukhdJ?
j ntWghoF fhuz vdthf UF?

kL - kh dhf
m
rahd ilia njbjLf:
1. ut gf mogil tUtdtW bghUjhj xiw njbjLf.
m. utf xU Fl gUkid bgWsd.
M. utf mKf ayhjit.
. utf jdbfW xU totij bgWsd.
<. utf Fl iwia bgUF.
2. xU bghUshdJ ut _F nghJ mbghU J bragL nknehF ir
_______ vdgL.
m. < ir

M. j ir

. au ir

<. fhja ir

3. nknehF mKF ir _______F rk.

m. hg M. mg

. g

<. h

4. utf ml mfF nghJ nknehF ir _______

m. mfF

M. Fiw

. mfF myJ Fiw

<. k khwhJ.

5. bghU J bragL j irahdJ _______ F rk.

m. lbghU iw
M. lbghU vil
. lbghUsh btnawgL ut vil.
<. lbghUsh btnawgL ut iw.

M
1. Mo jJtij TWf.
2. fh xU bghU vil 20 uh. mbghU KGikahf _FnghJ, mj vil
18 uh v mj xglia fhf.

122

utf
3. bghUf ut _FbghGJ mj vil Fiwtjhf njhWtj fhuzij
tf.
4. ut _s bghU xgl vgJ vd?
5. Mo jJtij rghF nrhjidia tf.
6. MW Jtij l fl JtJ vJ. V?
7. tU fzLfSF fhf.
m. 
fh lbghU vil 80N. mbghU _FnghJ, mj vil
60 N. v tUtdtiw fzLf:
m. nknehF cJ ir

M. lbghU gUk

. lbghU xgl

<. lbghU ml

M. fh xU bghU vil 40 N ut mbghU vil 36.4 N. mbghU

vil36 N v tUtdtiw fzLf:
m. bghU xgl

M. ut xgl

. lbghU gUk.
8. xU Kfit cs ut ml cau ( h ) vd PA vgJ tkly
mGj kW g vgJ < KLf v tU dhfSF ilaf.
m. ut nkgu mGj vd ?
M. Kfit mogu mGj vd ?
. Kfit moghf cw Rt J gfthL mGj vd ?
9. cUis tot bfhfy mogu 300 br2 . m 6 br cauF unghJ
mogu mGjij fzLf.
( g = 10 / 2, ml = 1000 . / 3)
11. 
lbghU xW A- vw ut jwJ. mnj bghU B vw utY
jflgLwJ. glij cWneh fl dhfSF ilaf.

m) A ml F utkh? B ml F utkh ?
M) vut lbghU mf nknehF mKFiria bgWwJ ? ilfhd
fhuz jUf.
) UiyfY lbghU vilahdJ vthW nknehF, mKF irl
bjhl bfhLsJ ?
12. 
Udh bragl bga fg jwJ; Mdh a U M
_LwJ. jfhd fhuz vd?

123

ma

10. njf bjhoahdJ fol nk js nk mikfgoUgJ V ?

aa

myF 7

13. fiy fh caJtij l Ufo UJ caJtJ vjhf UgJ V?

sFf.
14. b
 ghU xgl, ml vthW bjhlgLjgLwJ? xgl
myF vd ?
15. m iws bghUbshW d mls ut jwJ.

m. bghU njhw vil vd ?

M. bghU Hj vil vd ?

16. bghJthf jfij RU juhir fhoY rhjhuz juh msLtJ V?

sFf.
17. 1 . U, 1. gR fol c UJ xnu rka jhdhf Hbr
nghJ jiuia Kj bjhLtJ vJ ? ilfhd fhuz jUf.
18. 3000 .-3 ml bfhl fbyhW 1000 .-3 ml bfhl
_FwJ. fh f iw 150 . v, fiy caj njitahd iria
fzLf. ( g = 10 br-2 ).
19. miw btgiy cs bghUbshW jwJ. tU braf cf
cWnehffis sf.
m) iu btggLJ bghGJ.
M) 40 C btgiyF iu FFnghJ.
20. fl cs oglF mj bgUk bfhssF uggl iy mgona
MWUF lbgaU nghJ vd fG ? sFf.
21. btg fhW g fh nkbyG. Mdh Ffh g nk vGghjJ V?
22.
 iu l ml Fiwthd ut xglia fhQ fU vj khwf
brjh iu l ml mfkhd ut xglia msl gagLj
Ko?
23. xGfw cUtKila bghU fd ms va fzo fzl ayhJ.
m) mj fd ms fhQ Kiwia TWf.
M) nkfh braYfhd jJtid T vGJf.

-
1.
 tU glid M brJ jF bghUf xglid fzL
rahd my vGJf.
(m) ku

(M) gfo
9/10 gF
_s gfo

() M (<) jif
3/5 gF
_s M

5/10 gF
_s ku

(c) bkGF
1/4 gF
_s jif

7/10 gF _s
bkGF

124

utf
2. 
xU bghbfhy jh brj mfyf a

jfdh braglJ (xgl 19.3) vd cW
mwh. mt jdJ thoifahsUF fh 34.75
uh vils mfyid wh. that mjid
D KGtJ _f br nghJ mj vil 31.890
uh vd flwh. rahd nrhjidf, fzLf
bfhL bghbfhy w mfy a jf
bragljh? iyah? vd flf.

1.5 kg
3 kg

3. tU glij MuhJ dhfSF ilaf.

i) k bghU UF Hgjhf njhW njhw vil vd?
ii) glUj f mJ bfhtJ ahJ?
4.  xglid fhQ fU mogil tU nffSF gyf.
m. fU jL skhf FWfyhf UgJ V?
M. nHs FHhdJ fha fyj ghjurjh ugLsJ V?
. msLf nkUJ Hhf jugLsJ V?
5. 15 3 gUkDs thiy K m gdhdJ 0.09 . -3 mls iAu#dh
uggLsJ. g gUkDl xLnghJ m cs fU gUk
wffjfJ. fhahd g iw 7.15 .. J 1.3 . -3 mls fh
jwJ.
m. g cs iAu# iwia fzLf.
M. gdh lbgaj fh iwia fzLf.
. fU iwia fzLf.
6. xU k bghU vil fh 50 gf kW 30 gf.
M. k bghU gUk, mlia fhf.
. UF gyhf xgl 2.5 cila utid gagLJnghJ
njhw vilia fhf. nkY mlbghU mut
_Fkh? myJ jFkh? cfsJ ilF fhuz jUf.
7. 
cUis tot bfhfy uhdJ uggLsJ. m gl
fhoathW A,B,C vw Jisf mikJsJ.
m) 
glij tiuJ xbthU
nuhlij Ff.

Jis

UJ

btnaW

M) v Jis nuhl mf uF brwJ V ?

A
B
C

nkY ma

jff:1. General Physics - Morton M. Sternhein - Joseph W. Kane - John Wiley

2. Fundamentals of Physics David Halliday, Robert Resnick & John Wiley

izajs: http://www.futuresouth.com
http://www.splung.com

125

ma

m. k bghU J bragL nknehF mKF iria fhf.

brKiwf

brKiwf

brKiwf goa
nrhjid
bga

nrhjid nehf

njitahd bghUf

fhy

btfha FH,
fzho wf,
fzho iy,
fzho eGt,
bk y
myJ rh~u,
r, cRjh,
Enzh

40
lf

jhtubr

btfha njh
jfhf bghU
(jfhf eGt) xiw
jahJ, jhtu brfis
mj

ghua

jahfgl ghua
fzhoiyia
dfhz

TL Enzh,
ghua fzho
iy

40
lf

EQf

FsJ fhzgL
3 EQfis
dfhz

FsJ, TL
Enzh, fzho
Y

40
lf

ut
fdmsit
msl

fiurf fdmsit
bgil gagL
msl

bg (20 )
Kfit (250 )

40
lf

jkw, j, jkw, jkW j

j f
f brs btntW
fiurf
fiurfis jahj
jahj

Kfit (100 )
a
nrhoa FnshiuL

40
lf

nfhs tot
bghU
x l
flj.

bta msia
bfhL nfhs
totbghU l
flj.

bta ms, nfhs

tot bghU (j
Cr FL)

40
lf

lbghU
xgl
flj.

mlia l
mfkhd ml
bfhl lbghU
xglia Mo
jJtij bfhL
flj

RU juhR,
jis FL, Ul
Toa Kfit

40
lf

127

ma

t.
v

brKiwf
1. jhtu briy mj
nehf
btfhanjh jfhf eGt (jfhf bghU) xiw jahJ, jhtu
brfis mJ bfhSj.
njitahd bghUf
btfha FH, fzho wf, fzho iy, fzho eGt, bk
y myJ rh~u, r, cRjh, Enzh.
brKiw
1. btfha xU JL gFia bto, mj cw mLFfUJ njhiy
bjLf.
2. fzho eGt x xU J iu L m btfha njhid itf.
3. btfha njh nk xU J bk y myJ rh~u rhaij l.
4. mf rhaij F bghUL ij fGt.
5. xU J rid itJ fzho iy bfhL _l.
6. fzho iy Xuf cs mfgoahd rid cRjh cjbfhL
f.
7. fzho eGtij Enzh _y Kj Fiwj cUbgUf MwY d
mf cUbgUf MwY ghf.
fhgJ
l, brtf tot brf brffis mL itfglJ nghw mik
fhzgLwd. xbthU brY shkhrid R fhzgL brRt kW
Jffsh Md irnlhshrjh NHgl, mlj tzKila cfU(a)
tiw bgWsJ. br ikagFia thFnth usJ.
fzho eGt bghUJtjfhd goiyf
(1 ) btfhaFH JL

(4 ) fzho eGt xU
J iu Lj

(2 ) briy ndh
Gj

(5 ) bjLj btfha
njhid eGt
itj

(6 ) rhankWj
(3 ) bka btfha njhiy
GJ bjLj

Enzh bj brf gl tiuJ, a, thFnth,

tiw Ff.

128

brRt

brKiwf
2. ghuaij flj
nehf
ghua fzho eGt xW jah brJ mjid TL Enzhdh
cW nehFj. mjid gl tiuJ ghffis Fj.

ghua fzho jahj

x
 U y itnfh JQFfis f nghL 3 ehf ewhf Cw
itfntL.
f

cs j xU brhL iu fzho eGt itJ TL
Enzh cWnehf ntL.
dfhz
fzho eGt fhzgLtJ xU br yfhd ghua MF.
cWnehf
1. ghua mik 2. ghua af.

129

ma

itnfh JQFf mGFnghJ mt ghua cUthwd.

brKiwf
3. FsJ iu gagL y EQfis fhz
nehf
_W EQfis FsJ fhz. mt gl tiuj.
njitahd bghUf
xU f ms FsJ , fzho eGt, TLEnzh.
brKiw
 U brhL FsJ
x
iu fzho
Enzhdh cWnehFj.

eGt

itJ,

mij

cWnehf
fhzgl EQf _iw milahs fL, mt gl tiuj.
Ko
fhzgl EQf.
bga
gl 1

bga
gl 2

bga
gl 3

130

TL

brKiwf
4. bgil gagL fiur fdmsit msl
nehf
bfhLfgLs wkw kW wKila fiurf fd msit bgil
gagL msl.
njitahd bghUf
bg (20), f (250 )
brKiw
Fl fd mss bgil vLJ bfhs ntL. bgil dh fGa
, vLfgl ntoa fiurdh fGt ntL. bgo mogFia fiur
gF itJ, bgo ms FpLFnk, fiur tUtiu c
Mfho uyh eF mGj ntL. f ghitF vuhf, ilkl nenfho
bgo msFpL UFkhW itf ntL. bgoYs Mfhou
E mGjij FiwJ fiur bkJthf btnaWkhW brJ, fiur iwjs
ms Fia bjhLkhW bra ntL. (wKila fiurYF nk iwjsij fU
bfhs ntL) bgo gFia nrffy itJ, u Eia
bgoUJ vLJ l ntL. bghGJ bgoUJ fiur btna fy
nrffgLwJ. mslgl fd msit mltizgLj ntL.
mltiz
fiur
bga

fiur w

iwjs

fiur
fdms

ma

tir
v

Ko
bgil gagL mslgl fiur fd ms = __________ .
Kbdrif
tikf myfis myJ fhufis bgo _y cRjiy jf.

131

brKiwf
5. fyitfis tifgLJj
nehf:
bfhLfgLs ntbghUfis bfhL fyitf
xUgojhdit myJ gygojhdit vd tifgLJj.

jahJ,

mit

njitahd bghUf:
fzho wf, fzho Kfit (100ml), rfiu, FSnfh, nrhoa FnshiuL,
lh, fhg rng, thiyto, f njfuo.
bfhif:
xnu aa iyia bfhLs fyit xUgojhd fyit MF. it xnu
tifahd gfis bgWsd. gygojhd fyitf xWF nkgl iyfis
bgWsd. it xnu tifahd gid bgUgiy.
brKiw:
xU fzho wf rfiu, nrhoa FnshiuL Matiw 2 j vLJ
mtiw f njfuo cjah xnwhblhW eF fyJ l , mfyit
jikia ftf. mt njhw VnjD ntWghL bjgLwjh? fyit
jikia flf.
xU 100 . fzho Kfit 50 .. iu vLJ bfhL, mjDl nrhoa
FnshiuL, fhg rng cfis 2 j nrJ, fyitia eF fyFf. fyit
jikia flf. FLs gFbghUf mla fyitfis jahJ,
mtiw xUgojhd fyit myJ gygojhd fyit vd flJ mltizgLJf.
t. v
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

fyit gFbghUf
rfiu + lh
rfiu + FSnfh
rfiu + nrhoa FnshiuL
+
lh + fhg rng +
lh +
Ko :

ilfbgw fyit ______ tifia rhjJ.

132

fyit tif

brKiwf
6. nfhs tot bghU x l flj
nehf
bta msia bfhL nfhs totbghU l flj.
njitahd bghUf
bta ms, nfhs tot bghU (j Cr FL).
Nu
nfhs totbghU l = OR ZC x 10-2 m
OR = MSR + (VC x LC ) x 10 -2
F, OR = fl ms,

MSR = Kjiknfh ms x 10 -2m

LC = wsit x 10 -2 m, VC = bta x, ZC = RUj x 10 -2 m

brKiw

bta ms wsitia flf.

nkY bta ms RiHia flf.

fhLfgl bghUid U jhilfSF ilna cWahf gUFgo

b
of.

Kjiknfh msid, bta xid FJ bfhf.

bghUid btntW iyf itJ, nrhjidia L bra ntL.

nfhstot bghU l OR ZC x 10-2 m

OR = MSR + (VC x LC ) x 10 -2

thghoid gagL, nfhs lij fzLf.

fhgf
bta nfh f vif N =

RUj ZC =

RiH ZE =
t.
v

Kjiknfh
ms
(MSR) cm

bta
x
VC

flagL ms
= MSR+(VC x LC)
cm

1.
2.
3.
4.

ruhr

nfhs l =
Ko

bfhLfgl nfhs l = ___________

133

x 10 -2 m.

Ujgl
rahd ms
OR ZC cm

ma

1 Kjiknfh k 1 MSD
1
x 1 MSD
wsit =
N

brKiwf
7. lbghU xglia flj
nehf
mlia l mfkhd ml bfhl lbghU xglia Mo
jJtij bfhL flj.
cgfuzf/ njitahd fUf
RU juhR, btntW vils _W jis FLf, Ul Toa Kfit.
Nu
R.D =

w1
w1-w2

(myF iy)

R.D = lbghU xgl

w 1 = fh lbghU vil ( kg), w 2 = UF lbghU vil (kg)
brKiw

RU juh bfhUJ bfhLfgl lbghUis bjhfLf.

fh lbghU vil w 1 flf.
Us KfitD lbghUis _f brf.
UF lbghU vil w 2 flf.
thnw jKs U lbghUf vilfis fhY, Y fhf.
kfis mltizgLJf.
mltiz fil u ruhr k flf. J bfhLfgl

lbghU xglahF.
fhgf

t.
v

fh
lbghU vil
w1

UF
lbghU vil
w2

10-3 Kg

10-3 Kg

lbghU
xgl
w1
R.D =
w1-w2

(myF iy)

1.
2.
3.
Ko

ruhr

bfhLfgl lbghU xgl = ____________ (myF iy)

F
i) bghUshdJ UF KYkhf _Uj ntL.
ii) bghUshdJ Kfit moguignah myJ gfRtfisnah
bfhoUfTlhJ.
iii) lbghU J Ff xoUj TlhJ.

134

bjhL

vdh Ko, eh brnj

( I can, I did )
khzt fw braghLf gntL
ghl :
t. v

eh

ghl
v

ghljiy

135

braghLf

Fiu