© 1972 Genet Leaning ‘Al gh roe No prof Female nei om Manaactaed inthe Ute Sit of dence tary of Cong Catalog Card Nomi Spep98 GENERAL LEARNING PRESS Gl fetome ety roo Social Learning Theory AUBERT BANDURA ‘Stanford Uniersty Moss ties have boon advanced over the years to explsin why people behave as they do, Unt reestly the most common sicw, popularized by various personality doctrines, depicted. be havior at impaled by tne fores inthe form of need, drives, and impulses, afen operating below the level of conssousness Since the Brncpal eases of behavior resided sn forces within the individual. that is where oe looked for explanations of mans scons. Althowgh this view enjoyed widespread profesional and poplar acceptance, Sid not go unchallenged. ‘Theories ofthis sm were cited os both conceptual and en pirical grounds, The inner determinants were tpealy inferred frm the behavior they supporedy caused, resulting in peeudo explana tions. Ths for example. « hone tnpule was deduced om 4 person's uaicbe behavior, sthich we thn atibuted tothe action Of the underlying impulre. Diflerent personality theories proposed aiverse lists of mtivatos, sme conning few al punpote dives, ‘thers embracing varied assortment of specie dives ‘The conceptual structure of psveodyaumie theres wat forther ccted for duregrding the tremendous complenty of human Fesponsvenes. An internal rotator cannot posibly account for the marked varation in the incidence and Srengih of = given bbchavior sn diferent tuations toward diferent persons. at difer nt times, and in diferent socal roles When diverse social inf noes price corespondingly dverse behaviors. the inner cause limplioated in the relationship cant be ess comple than is ess, ‘Wale the conoeptual adequacy of prychodynamic formulations was debatable, their empirical liittons could not be ignored indefnitely. They provide insiguing interpretations of evens that had already happened, but they lacked power to predic how people‘Albert Bandura ould behave io given stuatins (Mishel 1965) Moreover it was df to demongtne at peo who had’ 1pychodynamiealyapeted treatment benetied ‘mare than nonreted cues (Bandura 1065, Bergin Ie]. Acquting insight nie {he anderying inputes though which tekecsed changes were supposely scheved toned ov te sepreest more of a toc conversion Gan sacle Alsovery proces. At Marc 1068) any st, ined ot each psychodamie approach tad fe ten eo st fea an ‘brand of night The prac of thee deters could be early canine though sugsee poe lng sad selective renoreent of ‘het vecel ‘eports in selbvaldating interviews. For ese ie, som advocates of diflring there oceaten repeatedly discovered tht fave prychatvonmie ‘a bt ly fn ee ee Sita causes emphasized by proponents of eortng views. The content of a parcur cen feign nd emergent “unconsclou” could therfore be bet ter predicted from lnowledge ofthe therapists beet ‘ten than rom the eens actual Sock legate eventually became apparent that progres in ndertanding human behavior war to eee ‘ate, mote singentrequvementy would have he applied 1a evaluating the adequacy of eras ‘Symons. “Theories must demmnstate Eechowe power, snd dhy must accurately Wently eat, fos a shown by the facta ving the posse ‘eteminants produces rested changes in babvon ‘The atbution of behavior to lane fore ton ethops be likened to ey explanatory sche Serine of ence oe cae tal reactions were supposedly caused by mosesrens of 4 sata substan cl phogiton phe kjects were internally propel by inane sence, end physiological funconing was seeped {he scion Of tum. Devapala (heary dafted the focu of ena! ‘analyse Iypothesizad inner determinants to detaod eager tation of ‘external. in enon on sespnaiveney Human behavior was extensively analyte tes of the simul evens that eshe Kandi tsi {ng comequeces that aher't Researchers epee eooatrated that response potters gens ae teibuted to underying forces ould e iadoced, but in environmental fore ‘The idea that man's actions are under external contol, though amply decanted, wat oot cathe Sastialy recived for a va‘ety of rao, TS ne ‘rope i uaforsmatelyimplid «oneway infuses rose tt elced tan ee hecs teases Yaris of extra] rewards at ponshments The ‘ew that bchavio: Is envtonmetlly dated slo appeared to contradia frm, but iNfowi belief that people poste generat posal tele leading them fo behave ns conden ane es, hosvever variable the sec isons ‘A more valid eitcism ofthe extreme bebavioristic osion (stat, ina vgoros efoto echo spe ous inner nse t meglel determinate of me Ihave aig thm hie copie ang. Ma 154 thinking organism ponesting capa ct [ovide him sith some power of cede, at fhe estet that taditonal bao thes sould be fate, was for providing x namics rt than an inacurte acount c human boss nthe soil learning view man Westy even by nner ferees nor uieted belles by eee rental infuenoes Rather, priinlgea! factor i best undarod tn tera c's eobcems ene G2 iteration between behavior aad contallgg ‘nitions. The socal learsing tery ted this paper plies special emptasis on te impatace ‘lt plaved by vicarious, symbolic und selteogele tory proceses which receive relive te Sees ten een in met contemporary tenes of snag, These difernces in goveming proce easy ok tun implctins forthe ay one wows the Patsy of human beter Traditional theories of leaming generally dept bebavior at the product of dell epeneed response coneyuence In sctaiy, self a leaming peomens resulting fo dict ape tvces can osur ona vcr tas thigh obec ‘atom of other peoples Behave ands cenequ. {es for them. Mans eapacty te lam by abeenttioy ceables him to acoute large intend it of Bebavior by ample without havge to bald se the pattems padully "by tedouy land cre? Simialy emotional responses, canbe developed scrvatinally by wining the ufone soon of thers undegsing punto pemuniie eons ences. Fearal and defensive chaver cea” be ftiguished veaously by obsersing ober engage In te fered acter whtout ay aden eee queres. And behavior! ishbiuons can be indeed by seeing othe nied forthe nou, Man's Supe copiive capacty is ante factor {hat determines, aot oly how he wl be aflaced bp Is experince, but the Future deca is setory my take, Pope an represent era nBocnees symbolically and later ie such representation teSoci Learning Theory uid their actions; they ca salve probleme symbol: feally wast ving f enact te varus era. tive, and they can forse the probe consequences of diferent sions and alter the bebaiortsord ingly. Thaw higher mental roeres pert both fosighal and foresight bear ‘Athi itinguising feature of man stat bei capable of creang.slereguatve nfucos By ‘managing the smulor deta of gen stv {Ser tnd. producing contequnces fer their own ction, perl are abt eel he ova bebo to some degre. Ae ilkstrated late, copaive and felézegltve inBvences often sere inportant fone Sons i cou sequences The emader of this paper is devoted to 4 detald scl Inning soalyie [Sf ow patems of bebavior ae soqured aad how ‘Be expsion Is continuo opted by the tmaplsy of selgenerted and ther sores ‘steer ‘Learning by Direct Experience In he soil learning system, new havior ean be aequied tg dite expenence or by observing the behavior a ther. The woe me entry form of iaming. ote in Gree per fee, lngely governed by the rwrding ond ppnishog consequences that fllw sty given son People are repeatedly confronted with son with ‘shh they must deal inne way ot another Some the ripnses That thoy ty prove unsuecesl While others produce more frvore cece. Though this procs of diferent) senforcement seco trode of bevior sre evetuly sleed tom fxportory actin, while nettles are diearded TT commonly believed that responses ate auto ‘matically and unconsciously seengtoened by thet {immediate consequences Simple peformaacts ean bbe altered to some degree though reinforcement without awareness ofthe relationup between ones factions and their outoomes, Honever, mans cog tive skill enable him to prot more extensively fon experince tan if he were an unnking organism Within the framework of social learning theory, reinforcement primary serves informative and fentive funions, although it alias response Strengthening epabilits. Informative Function of Reinforcement During the course of leaming, people not only psf rapnss, But they ai dere tile fntial consequences accompanying. thir various factions. On the basis of thi informative feedback, they develop thoughts or hypotheses about the types of behavior mort Ikely! to aucosed. ‘There Hypotheses then serve as guides for future actions {Dolany & O'Connell 1963]. Accurate hypotheses five nie suocesful performances, whereas er eour one Jed to IneBective courts of action. The opntive events are this selectively strengthened ot ‘scoured by the diferental consequences at cempmyng the mare distally occuring overt be- havck inthis analysis of learning by experience, seinorcing consequences partly rere az an uinytes lated way of informing performers what they mast do in order to gain bends outcomes or t9 avid unui one. Motiational Function of Reinforcement Because of man's anticipatory capacity, conditions of reaforcoment alo have rong ineensive otis onal eects. Most human behavior ie not controlled by immediate external reinforcement. Ax a result of Prior experiences, people come to expect that cota ‘ction wll gain them outcomes they value, others Wl have no appreciable eects, and esi othere wll produce underred reste Action are. therefore ‘egulated to «large extent by antcpatedconsequen es Homeowners, fr estance, donot wait wn they fxpeiene the misery of + burning house to uy Gre {evuranes, people who venture outdoors do. aot rdinanly wait unth dacomnforted bys torrential fain oF biting snowstonm to decide what to ween nor do motonats usualy watt ntl inconvenienced tyr aalled automobile to replenish gueline ‘Though the capacity to reperent actual oatoomes symbolially,foture consequeness can be converted {ato corent motivators tat inGuence behavior i ‘much the same way af actual consequences, Mant Copative sills thar provide him with the espaily for both insightful and foresighful behavoe CCopnitoe Mediation of Reinforcement Egects A reat deal of research has been conducted on whether bebavior i lerned though the automatic Action of consequences or whether the effects of enforcement are cogaitvey mediated, ‘Most of these studies have employed verbal conditions “tutions im which subjests converse freely or coo struct sentences and the experimenter rewatde Ce fain eases of words but igoorr all other. Changer tn the incidence of reinforced verbalizations ae then amined ar « funtion of whether the partepaats ‘were aware that thei verbal utterances Were Sloe tively renforced and whether they recognized the type of words that produced reinforcement.Albert Bondura Slee ad De Nike 156), proponent an fey cognitive vew of lear. mesnred Subjeasiwareness at perl itera Srenghont the verbal conditioning. sion. They found tat subjeds dplayed no Tse in the suber of rela forced respnser at lng they reed waaare of he eiforonment cortingeney, bu ey dey located dete ouput of apropratereppeaes apo alcoverng what per of words were reward Dalany [62 168) sia found tet cforcng consequence were inet io modining nbc behavior at ong a hey were unaware of wt ey hd too to produce rewarding cotcaey. The thor cocloded tht lexing ctnet tae pace without awareness of what is bang remlceel Dalany, who otlined this postion in sora wey ‘tended that the toque respons infomatos fre ti to intentions or wlfiovtuctons fice the required bebaviow, the strength sf he tendency depending on the icstive value of the onequence. Neither thse Endings no he gee Fans woot unconteed Eater studies by Portman and Saserath (1961, ‘vio sho examined the temporal rton between ergece of awareness and changer im reponse ‘ex found that relforcement produce’ sal bt Sigsicant improvements in peormance rer fe frees, bot subjects sharply ineeaed appope sat reponses after they bit pon he comet Sto, LLearsing, they concluded, can oscar witout aware te albeit slowly and. guite tneiciendy. "The re flat inerese i come responses male esr {0 dcer what ts wasted, once the decovery has ‘een mde, the appropriate Eebviow i aay per. formed given adequnte incentives A sucden fr correct responding th lecvery af the scarce. ‘eat contngenles is general regarded ay taht, felbehavor nn : ‘The durant Bodies concerning te elon stp between nrensr snd behar change gly seficed how adequate awareness wes teased, Spislerger and De Nike [198] tse! at ine gust tiers dicing We learnt (afr ‘ec tls) whether subject furs oat the coectrespontes, Subjects tay erfore have de cerned the renforcemest coningeoey item the ‘sigh blot of Wal afer sotceble ince In efomance was prodaced by rnfrcenet inthe Seren of waren. By eoearung antencs t Serr intervals Kennedy [17,1] demons ha hie precisely wt happens: When dt ae pte io twentylivetnal bina, aware eens f precede behavior change, but when tse sae ‘eho poted in feo etal Macks pears ance gine precede awareness for subjects who later ooghize the cnet types of respnse, ‘Whether emergence of swaeness i acconparied by increases, decreases, or no change in pose largely depends on the reward value of fe tespanse consequences People who are aware of appreprate sponses in given situation and ho Yak the ‘utkomes they produce change thei bebavie inthe ‘einfoosd dieeson. On the other hand, tee whe ‘sre equally aware ofthe reinforcement eotagenes bt who devalue either the required bebuvar or the reinforows net only remain asisfuened Do ay ‘even respond in sn opporitoaal manne, Reinforcing Eft of Response Consequences ‘Vea eonding poclores are adequate for dlmonstating tht swoon cn facts cages in behavior, at thay ar ned for sobng he Basic question of wither awareness Ina pease for learning or pevormance change: To leans tne toll: it verano mie fready exit io the subjects repre ott the ts doesnot involve pone essing Ses ine Seth the responses and ter outcome ave sbvens thle, expenmenters have to rely on subjects verbal ‘eponts af unizown rlabty Yo great whe 2 are of wat “The question of whether ltming mutt be cone ssiouly mente is niered mvs deci by “audi in hich either te enforced tsps thei eect are tot stsbuabe fo avaroes be fue the. action tome relaontip camot be hereed. Heferne and hit snort (efeiog {Keenan 1963, Hefline, Keenan, & Harford 199] tnd. Sesmor {i065 sucensflly modied the be havior of ada though ence! even tguth the lier were waste to observe her reward Feipnse: I thee sues the accrrence of vy impereepile scalar respsen dvesed ye Cxperienter through cece smglieton, 3 {elforced ether by etary veward aby tein. fon of uaplewantstinfation Unoen responses ewe substantially dang fortment ad de line abruptly aftr retreat witha, Ac ight be expected none of the pooped seat the response at produced te rilorcng cms sume Tn the preceding ievertiation, the appropriate responter were unobunie butte reaforen wes Experiments have been conducted with tml wich the comes eons are noticable ut thet Fenforcing comequoton se not [Chamber 105, Coppock te Chamber 1054, Coppock, Heads. &Social Learning Theory ‘Hood 1953). Rents of such studes ikewise show that responses can be automatically strengthened through sleeve reinforcement operating below the level af awareness Evidence that elementary perfomances can be increased tough reinforcement without the me Siang elects of awareness dos not meaa that po ple can leam to respond in accordance with fe Lively complicated prinple io this tanner a well For an isratn af how rule govemed behavior is tunder cognitive contol, vsoalize a tak In which subjects are presented with worde varying in length, to which they must provide 4 comet number Let us select an arbitrary rule wheel the core ber is obtained by subtracting the maser of letters {a a given word from 9, diving the remaunder by 3, and then multiplying the reault y 5. In tis tas on, appropeate reponsee are deste from a high order rl, Rao-Nxs, SEES equiing a thecestep raafenmation of the eter Simoius; To scheve eon performances one ‘mst perform acrustey several natal operons i particular sequenon A unthinking eran tultely to show my. pvfonrance. ain however long it espns my be rforcd “The overall evidence revels that response con fequences can be informative, mating td sc forcing, Thertor, nary given intanees contingent reinforcement may produce changer i behavior through anyone of moe ofthe thee pocene Pe ple can lear somo patos of bchatior by exper coeing rewarding ant ponithing sonsquence bk IFoo tnow whe thy are spond odo Sens dls cuteomes, thy pat rah more fom sich experiences As shown ltr, wile refrcement 4 powertal method for reglating bebaviony thet have aleady bee eamed, ia retielyineiciest way ofceating them earning through Modeling Atthough behavior ca be shped into new pat tems to some extent by rewardog and pruing sonsequnen, luring would be eed abo ous abd hazardous ft proceeed solely oo ts bass Envionnens are onded with potstliy Jeti conseguenes tat befl those wi sve ure fortunate enough to paorm dangerous ear For {Ui retsn weld be lbedwed ecco ons Al renfrcement of tiahsodteror performances teaching children to sin, adler fo drive rte stoi and adults to develop comple occupa snd socal competencies Apart fom. questons ¢ sural, its est imagines vocation prc ess in which he language, tes, eatonal ache {is onal cotomn sede eOvatona ego and patel pasos of a culture ae taught toe ‘ew member by sslectvetenorcment af frts {oui behavior, without bosetof mals who exes fy the cla pater in hte om behavior Milt the bev hat pope a ae lear either deliberately or nadvcteny! doo) the infence of example. There are seve sexes why modeling ifluences Sve prominaty ts ha Zan Jang in everyday Lies When mistakes only or dangerous. new modes of txoage can veloped without needs eno by pring com Patent models who demorsate how te ees fetvter sould be peromed. Some comply bo bravo ofcourse, can be produced only Greogh th inne of modal If chien bad no pportante 1 her speech, for example it would be artonl imposible to teach them te ingustie skit he censtite «language: Ie doubt! that ove cou ver shape inieate indies words It sone {cxnmatnlspech, by diferent eforement Fandom voealtatons. Where nove oma ef besor can be conveyed only by sv ciey modeling a indispensable aspect of leming Even In tostanoe where is pole to establish new response pat ter though other means the proves of soquson can be comideably shortened by providing appre Drie modes. Under moit eivanctance a ood fample therefore amch bee eaher Ua he fonseqatoer of unguided scons ‘thine of diferent throes have been prox posed ove the yeas to explain how people leant by brig the behavior of ser Major tenes of thei alemative view, and thar enpcel satan, ae dscuted a length clewhere [Bandar 19710) The socal leasing analy of srevtona lean: ing dies from sontemporay leu. interprete ions principally im the Ivar of napoose integration, Inthe rl played by cogalvefatann, ann te ‘anne i Which reformat lnfoeces obser Sond ening [Nonmedioted Stimulus Response Theories ‘There was no research to speak of on modeling proceses uit the ease ptblestion Soci! Lear, ing ed Imitation by Miller and Dollard (1941), ‘hey advanced the view th: in onder fr imitativeAlbert Bondure Ieaing to occu observers rst be motivated to act, they must be provided wth an example of te de Sie bavi ty mat paionnfepone tht Ich the example, and thls sntatvebelair ‘must be positively teinforced. in experts can ced to test these ssumptiony, t'meda aleayt ‘hore one of two boner tet contined two fears and observers received neo he sear whoever they’ went to the tame bor. Observers not only lead to follow the model bat they general epying responses to naw stations, tone models Sto diferent motivational state “These expernente wer widely sccpte as denon stots of imitative Iearng ahegh they tpee sent only special form of dcaaton kee learning. The models ations simply informed ci ten where to go but dd nt fond tem ay tee behavior. Had s igh or sme other infomatve coe been used to indents the sovee box the models behavior would ave bos iclerant and perp ea hindrance to efit porbormance, Gasens ‘onal response lring on te ether and, i con seme ‘ith how people erganiee behavioral ce ets to form now Peponse tens ecepied by ‘ter. ‘Since the they proved Uy Mller and Dalla mguier ponte "odipay infave feeponer before be San lee them, it czas ‘ore adequately for the perfomance of presouly tablished matching responce an for Wet ese Son, 1¢1s perhaps forthe reason that publeadon ‘oF their research monographs, which contied many Provocative ideas, aroused nly 2 pusing ince Despite the provlence and powerfaltohuence of ‘example inthe development fad regulation ef aman bebavoe, radial account of learning, con ‘ain ite oro mention of modeling processes “The operant condoning sma ef mode (Gace & Sherman 1864, Slioer 1960. Gewite Single 185 relies enti upon the standard hee component paradigm SRS where oot the modeled sini, R opr an oven Imaching reponse, and deigntes hereforng, Stools eept for dalton ofthe motianal quirement, ‘Sinners explnation posts the same esonry conditions (it cut respon, ran freemen) for. ition org ed by Miler and Dold. Obert harsng, sor, ing tothe operant view, presumiy “schon ough derail renfroonen, When responses cerepoding to the mols acon are pte Feiforod and divergent repomst, elie nome warded er punished, the utivor of thers comes te function tr us for mathing spores, The scene above docs oo sppen to be appl ‘able to obierationa easing where ax observer ows not overtly perfor the models eponan the setting in which they are eahibte, Fenfore, ‘ments reno administered chert i tol or Se sere, hee opus aren thas sequel are not payed for day, mele ce fea mands Under hes dias, ac Fee fat one ofthe mest preva forms of oul ier ng twoot the factor (2S) nthe Ueeale met ridin are sbert dng scgution snd the Sirs aor (94 or made staan) tele ising from th station when the ebseracorally lta respene eft psoed Like the Mle td Bold theo. Shiner sabe dare haw ‘lar babar tha pro bs previ lame G20 be prompted by the stats of other and te Proper of wed, However, deer net cops See's ew mating reponse is seq observe sally in the St places show later, auch leming coc thigh symbsis proce ura txpoare toe modded ace bore any a ‘Sponses hve beam perfome! or reer Soci Learning Anas of Obserstinal Eocming Socal laming tharystrames that madeling i Auenees produce lnwing pemiplly through ther Informative fonetioar and that. observers acquit Ima symbole reprerenaticns of modeled acti father thin specie stimulu-responsesesosiations dur 1968s, 197) I i formulation, model Ing phenomena’ are goverace by For interrelated sibprocases ‘Attention! procersez A peeon cannot lean souch by abservation if he dber not attend toy ot ‘ecngnie, the casental fests of the modes bo. bavioe. One ofthe component futons tn learning by example therfore conroed with attentional roceses Simply exposing pss Yo mndels does ‘ot in itself ensue tat they wil tend closely to them, that they wall neon select from’ the ‘models mumerous characteris the most relevent ‘ones or that they wil even persive accurately the ‘Speats they happen fo nce, Among the numeocr factors that determine ob: secrational experienc, stotainal preferences sre ‘undouitedly of mae impor. "The pesple with whom one regularly assoates dein the pes of lave that one wl epeately observe se bene lear most thoroughly. Oppestuaties for leamio aggresive behavior obviously difer markedly fot ‘amber of delinquent gangs td of Quaker groupe ‘Within any soc group soar member ae UkSooat Learning Theory os ree erates iio eee = Sees om SaaS ee aoe SS Of all ages for ecended periods. Tals nowhere eee Soin aera Sete ee leh SS a Sahm peered Sep eels represented in memory in symbole fom By ths Seo Seen Ss Sa soanneacenca te =e operat pe rer Soar ne a right ane ars (or empl, RLRRL) than ‘elance upon vial nage of the ttnrary OF Serational leasing aod recto re faceted Sch codes bron they cay» pea del fe femmstoninancay sored ‘Aer modeled acts have been astrme: into Seager sd realy eae veal oo these mary sods ser gues far nseqece reprodetin of tng refer Th sets ‘coding cn hua obscene! amin ewe ty ser conde ot wth lien astors Grass Menove 18, Cotes 8 Harp 108 ae veh adie [Bandar ety 14s Cor) teers who cole led nc tee words cone ibis ord ingerylery mc resin te beaver ete thn ete whe as Store ot are mentally prevsapnd wih the tna wie wating pence af other Tn tion osntlc cody eben sees an important metry se. Pole who mental re iar or stl ptr modeled pater af be havior ae en ly to fog hem han ae ve tho nether tink about for pace what the) ave som Some ofthe bebv tnt age lace Chnerstovalycanook be ely wenghenel by over eracmen eter boss ty ne seal pr. Wied or bectoe te scr appa lang 10 thereto of coienble tre hat ment reheaial of modded sce ar incest ‘een (Bandar & Joey TOT Mil Mae Shy i) Some ricarhers (Cent & Sgl 1985] have been expel contend abou hens that [rode the tise spon onan {on tht ty help expan oneal eng 3 Inter tage of development Ther etme ree question whether inf snd nteriniatnhve Scuivlet determinant. Ty ny Jes inane reponse red trey a edaay by Imola i inter pri, nite repens fe soul primed inte sb of the dl ieng ater tir Sonvior hs beer see. Tee alate ntaton dove notre mot inte way oF cognie uncon teen he bebo repo ‘ction exer uded bythe ade ates By conta inv maton te sent odd vents mst be sntmaly opted and ocr Such st mba tansanmatn a oat oan teaton of mndeing sal and cove nbeca, swish tte een of acued ae see 1 determinants of obra eng“ ne fe beweco pyc prompied and lye i tition ange to dwg a pete of oe ‘ctomobie when fe es Bad anf fom memory.Albert Bande 15 the ter situation, the band doesnot atomat cally shetch the car; rahe one mrt ely en memay ‘ides, mainly in the form of ntl imeger, Motone reproduction process ‘The tod com ponent of ‘modeling ts conned wih nroctey ‘herey' symbolic epresiatons guide Overt 2 Sens To achieve behavioral reproditn,« eaaer ‘it pt together a given st of respon soning to the modeled pattems, The amrunt of sbcre nal Imig tata pron con exit beharaly apenas on whether" ort Be hat seqused the component sks. Ife posses the consvent ements bo can eatly Stepte them to produce ‘eW patieras of behave, sot lf the remponte come Bonet are aking, hebavon sepoduchen wi be iy. Given etentve det te abl ogee) {or complex performances mut fst be developed by modeling end practe, Even tough symbole reresettons of modeled tives are ecqured and aoe, ted the ube le ex, an individual may be unable to coos ‘ate vanous acon In there pater snd se sqoene because of pysial lations A yousg Shild can lar observatcaly the’ bebe ee {ving so automobile and be adept at eeecstng {he component responses, bit esto short e ‘parte the controls he canne! maneuver the we ll seeestlly ‘Teresa thid impediment athe bekair lve} fp shal repreduction af modeled activity et ave been lered observatonly” In mort cach nated tor skis, sucha golf and swimming, oer cant seo the respons that They making, eee, Wey mst rayon dscbnel pee _elocepive cuss or verbal resorts of oneness ‘xceedngly dificult Yo. Uide acts Uat ave not sly observed orto identify ihe core si sent neded to achieve a clove match of symais snodal snd ovetpesformance. In most cvenyday Teaming people wally achewe rough sppreeoc, tins of new patterns of ebavor by made aed ‘elo than through elcome adjusts os ‘he basis informative feediack rm perfomance. ‘elsforcenent ond motioation proceacs Aree ‘on can seus retain, and poses the apie or skill ection of modeled Beha, Ur the eae ing may rary be setioatd into ove. performance it We oeguvly sanctioned or ederwe unfarss ably ccd. When pone laste sn ed, obverational Tearing, which prevouhye- imalned unexpresed, is promptly tala so ction [Bandar 1065). Relforcoment inesces not ‘only segulte the overt expression af atdung be ‘vor but they can asthe level of obscevainal Jexning by controling wiat people atend to and ow actively they code and rehearse what they ove we, For tetions given above, the provision of models, ven prominent ones, will to Setomalially crete Sica putters of behave fo otters, Love terested merely in produing initalive Tochavion ie of the subprocess Inted ia the aca Jesning analysis of modeltg can be disregarded ‘model wh repeatedly demnsates dested respon instructs ther to repodace them, physi [mp the basvior whet tas to eee aad ey ‘miners powerful remiis wil twetually cet ‘matching responses in mot pepe, may rogue 110,000 demonstratin tal nt If one pers the dese behavior il evataly be evoked Toy the other band, one wishes © espn why modeling ses of dos not occur, a vary of dterinan ‘oust be considered. In any gen instance Tack of natching behavior following e=porure to modeling fnunoss may real fom ether fare to eens the relevant atvtng,taderunte coding of edie) ents for memory represeato, retention Secee ‘ment, notre deciencey,inadaguate comity of veinecenent. ocatof Response Integration in Obserational New atirs of bohstor are erated by organi. ‘ng conser response ina cera peers aod sequences. Theories of modslag die on whether the response tntegetion ecu manly at cute ‘Fat prsipert levels. Operant sncitioningforana Inst [Baer & Sherman 1964, Cowie i Stngle 1968) astume that response elements ave selected ut of over performaneer by providing appropriate stesedentstimull"and by rewarding. actors Wat tesemble the modeled behavior and ignoring those {hat do ot. The response components present thus extrictd are sequently chained! by the if {nce of reinforcement to form more complex ute of ‘bhasor. Since, m this ew, behavior fe oypenes) {sto new pattems in the sour of pesfornane learning requires overt responding tnd) immedi renforeent, According to social Leming theory, behavior is leemed, at least in rough form, Bere it pee famed. By observing a moda of the deed “be anor an individual forme an dea of how respoee components must be combined tnd tempor ne que to produce new behavioral conbguratonsSocil Learning Theory The representation serves as uid for behavior reproduction. Obseratial kaming wut po formance is sbandsotly Sosancted in mec, studies using « roorespose aequston procure {Bandara 1008, "Flanders 1068). afer ‘etching rmodes perform novel moles of sponse, cbse 2 ater dover the entire pattern of bbavion with fensidenble accuracy, and given te appropriate conditions, they often aioe enol Cetaor ‘produc othe ft test al 1s commonly baleved tht conhovenies about tho loca of leamingcantot be selon roll because lnning mast be infeed fm perfomance ‘his my very well be the casein erpenmentatin wth animals "To deteine whether tat ar mur fered s maze one sas rn hi though se With many, there euste a rnsnuy ccs Index of lssming that i independent of aor - ‘Tomeatur whether a humn bas leaned a ace by sbserving the succstal perfomance of del cave need only atk him ta deere the cones pat tern of nght and Tet tus, Such an expent ‘woul undoubtedly reveal that people can lear {ugh modeling Belov they psoas ole of Reinforcement in Oberetional Leaning Another ive in contention concerns the role of teinforement in observational leaming. AS pre viously noted, rinforcementorented theories [Baer 4 Sherman 1964, Miller & Dollard 1941, Gewist & Single 1968) arsume that imitative response ust be reinforced in order tobe lame. Sora learning, theory, on the eter hand, dktingashes betwee learning and performance af matching behavior. Observations) learning, ip tht view, can ‘occur though observation of modeled bebavioe and ac. companying cognitive ecuvties without extinie reinforcement This is otto say tht mere exposure o modeled activities isn tel sulisint to produce ‘observational learning” Nota simulation tat pinges on individuals te necesarily observed by ‘hem, and even if attended to, the uence of model Reinforcement Theories cde Ssutee Social Learning Theory Anticipated $ "™—+Attention +5 {ng simul alone doesnot earure thst they wil be ‘eaind for any length of ine Antepaton of reinforcement l on of several fac. tor that can influence what is observed and what goes unnoticed. Knowing that » given models be- for is efeeive in prodacing valued rewards or sega cme tas en Teering by inersaing observes altentiveais to the model's acions. Moreover, anticipated een forcement can stengthes retention of what has beeo learned observatioally by rotvating people to code sod (0 rehearse modeled sponser that have high ‘ale, Theories of modelo primarily dle inthe ‘manner in which renforentinflsences observa- ‘onal laring rather thar in whether reinforcement may pty 2 role inthe acqusiion process As shown In the schematization below, the true in dispute is ‘whether ceinforeement act backward to stengthen receding imitative respon and thelr aeociation ‘imal oF whether i faiitatesIeming Urough is ‘Hects on attentional, organisational, sd reensal roceises It would foo rm sal lerning they fat higher level of observational Teaming would bbeacheved by informing obrerers in advance about the pave value for adopting modeled patter: of bhdaor than by wating unt! observer happen to fate « model and thes rewarding them for, Te soail learning theory reinforcement icon sides faciitaive rather than a necessary ond ‘ion because there are faclors other than response consequences that can snfvence what people wil attend to. One does nt have t be ritforeed, for example, to hear compelling sounds or to look at Prominent visual diuplaye. Hence, when peoples ‘tenon to modeled aches ean be gained thrvgh Biysieal means, the addition of postive incentives ou ot increase abseratonal learning (Bandi, Grice, & Menlove 1965], Children who testy Watched modeled cetions ona television ereen in 8 ‘oom darkened to eliminte ditractions Tater di played the same amount of imitative Teaming re fadless of whether they ware informed in advance that corer imitations would be rewarded or given [Symbotc coding eten — [Cognitive organication| + mis” Rehearsal }Albert Bandura 10 prio incentives to lear the modeled péfom: tots Anticipated raaforeement would be expected {o exert greatest infuence on observational leaning wader sefselecton conditions where people cat ‘ons whom they wil tend to and ow itesiely they observe thee Leavion Both operant condoning and social leaming Loeries sume that whether or not people chore ts vforn what they have Ine serine Srongy Iluenced by the comeequenees of tech “sions. In social leasing theory, however, bei [sreglated, not only by o Sequences ffom extemal sources, bot by ietoes nforcoment and velereinforcement, The Modeling Procen ond Tronsmision of erponse Information A major function of odsing imal sto ranae Inornation to obtenat on Row to eran coy Fmt respnser nt now pattems cf bear {TGs respone information can't conveyed vogh pytksl demonstration, Deeugh poeta epee {stor trough weal desc ‘Mc toatl leamig ets on the bas of casual or sated obsertion of exaplary model, As ln. futic silly are deeoped, verte” modeling {Endl subsite fr behavioral maelng a te Frered mode of ponte guidance By perforning ‘Soqraces of astons a2 dSerbed in rato, tana, people can lew howto ance sod Spent complicated mechanical equipment how t feline In a varie of nfo sea siystons, ad hw to perorm vce and reset ts 121 sll manner. Verbal modcling wed exe. fly bsause one cam convey hugh word al ‘Boot inte sary of conplen bahar Wat ‘wold be exceedingly est sd tne consuming to porey beaters ‘ther net source of soil leaning i the stuodant ue varied smbole modeling proved teen, Sr, and oie pol daglays There 16 le body of revert dence sowing tat ‘oi cidren and aden sole alee ems, {onl responses, and new pate ef eho a 4 tau of observing’ Boel or elevaed modes ar 10600, Flnler ot use oy Consdenng the Inege snout te that pple ‘pend watching tle dey, muss mel nay ‘hy an'intentalsle in hoping behavior ad Sal atades With farther developments come ‘ein techlogy. wl be pose fo aves fay acy portrayed on squat any tne oo snot televiion cose [Peer 1070), As such fry 10 of symbolic modeling are incesagy used, pases, teach sl ar foal ml ee Say aS ‘sume sis prominct role in soil lennig “The basic modeling pros the ome eres of whee he dared bebe conveyed rh ‘words, pictur, or Ive acon. Direct forms St trong, however ae no sivye eqully elective Wis frequently ical to ovey trough wre the fame aout of informatio cotained a perl live demstatone Some lors of modding nay also be more powecol than others in commending Sttenton, Cl. ral for at ate eel have tbe compte fo wath torsion. wheter ‘verbal characteratons ef te same nebie weed fal to hold the atenton for long. One might ako ‘expect absenes who ack emcepta sls © bene ities fom vt modeag a how bees demonstrations Seope of Modeling Influencer In mazy nan the bavi displayed by exe play modems be eared eta te se komm. For eae, dang sonable oF poms ing surgical opesons pet ite, fant Spar tute trom ead pnt In aden tre rniting fed repeater of Bebaer,meselng in. iene: ca, coteay fo common tale cet be tre apd tonne ebovit ws wen in staying mare complet omms f model er sons chserve ode eapnd dierent sina ince terdance witha proce loo pine bere fs are stzequnly teed der conten whee ‘hey can bebe Ins way tt ttl sr tothe models dips, tt they ant is Bis specie rexemet To take an tampa ode Sst trom of hou ens tan the passive voce. ‘Chidoe ve ter ute 6 Asenerae sentences fom « eet et foe th the model abet andthe idence of pce cow ‘ractions ered fh ihe on of ode Ing, observers mar aha comoo fenturs cen pital fn vee modeled reponse td forts 2 rule for generating sndar ptr of behavior iespenses petal hy abe tat embody the aservatinaly deed ee Ulely We reve {he behavior tht fhe mode would bein to cetibit under salar cocumtnees, even ough Shrervers had never wines the ade beaver in thse new stone ‘A suber of es bave been conducted denon sorting how reponse generative rls an be Wane Inted though modeling, Young chdsen wo a 10. forma! roma loowedge altered theeSocal Learning Theory syntactic style im accord with the residing the Modeled verbal conmmuctons (Bandar & Harris 1009, Lieber, Odom, Hil, Hu 196, Rosenthal 4 Viniteock 1070. in adition, modeling infor ces hve en soccer in modnogmna jul- smental onentations [Handwra te McDamld 168, Cowan, Langer, Hoavensic, & Nethasrn 1500], ely of grticaion patterns (Bandssa € Mishel 1565, Stumphauser 105], and sje of tfomation seoking [Rosetial, Zmmeman, & Daring 1070] escarchrs have al beta sy ow modeling inlencer alter sogntive Fantonng of the Ope dlserbed By Piaget and hs followers [Reeth “immeman 1670 Sula 16) ‘The broader fects of modeling ae futher re vealed in ston employing several modes who splay diferent patter of behawer Observers ony Sele‘ or mere of the tole athe prary Source af behavior, but ay rary reste they fnitaton to ingle sure, nor Go tey adopt allot the characteris of the prefered del Rather, ‘observes gery exhib Fltvely novel sespnses fepresenting amalgams of elements fon dierent Imodet [Bandura Hs, & Rose iota, Fandoceal {may sv, inovative pater ean age sly through modeling Thus within» given amy sme- Sex sblnge may develop stint pooaly care terse a sent of adopting diferent combinations of paretal and sibling stnbutes A sacesion of tmoleingiafsence, in which beers ter bee ‘ene ures of bebavior for new member, would ‘not ely produce » gradual imitative elton of ‘ove patterns that might bes ite sesoane fo the fated by the trips medal In homoge. neous ‘calves, wheve lf models doplay slr trodes of response, inatatve buhavor tay undergo ldo or no shange across auecenive eel Tes diversty is modsing that fvters bebevionl ino “The dscuion ths far bas been concemad solely withthe proers of learning throug mesg A Second major Tunstion af modeling nvnces& to Strengthen oto weaken inion of responses that hss have preoaty letra [Bee 1110) “The eet that models have on bebe retains ae largely determined by sbrervation of rewarding nd punishing consequence sccompanyog mdele Fesponses Ars rent of seeing model nto utised, observers tnd Ge nit Weaving in 2 Similar way. Conversely, observing mile eng in threatening or probed ster witout oe Dpevencig sty sdvete consequent can reduce Inniitons in observe. Such disnibty efece are mom stkingly revealed to seeat theapeatc a ications of modehog princi (Bandura 1971] [Bice sien pope win dread and std certain cee ae sb to perfor then a wayingdogress attr olnenng eters perfor th fared chavo ‘epestely without any harmful eect "The acon of others can aio serve as social cue that Indisesce ow other wil bebave stay given tine: Repose facttaton by modeling can be tinguished from observational earings db {on bythe fet hat the modes scons iter tach new behavior: nor redoee inhibitions, Besse the EShedorinqunton, whith ary nish cai Sanctioned and threlore is osncumbered by re Strat nhistory and datshbory ees of mode! tng ate examined interim the comet of vices bforement while rol facitaten fess re {iven.cetiled consdertion in the dissssion of ‘ims conta of behav, Modeing infaencer can have sitions] effets though thee may be of leer imprance. "The be- Inver of mode’ drs abrewer anton tothe parle objets red by the pore, At ult, obrovers may subsequetly ire Ue. sane Ajeet o's pester exten hough not necessary {nm ontave way In one emprinen, for example children who bad observed s de pone» ge dallwihrallt not ony iad ths speck sagrenive acon but spent more tine Pounding ‘her things witha male tan id thove who di ‘ot ste peroo handle thie parte satrument {Bandara 1082)" Research findings, considered to ether, dacos that modelng iktencer cat sere Steacher anton, av tion as sponte slcitom, a2 iimulas echancery anda smedon Regulatory Processes, ‘A comprehensive theory of behavior must explain ‘ot oaly how response pattems se required but how ‘hee expression fe repulsed snd maintained. In 20 fal learning theory, human funeioning relies on {hee tepulstory proces “They icade stimulus, cognitive and reinforcement contol For explanatory Drpoter, these contol functions are dacussed eps: ely, although in realty they are clorely inter. elated. ‘Stimulas Contr ‘To function eflectively 2 peron mutt be she to antcipste the probable’ comequences of diferent ‘event and coutves of action and regulate his be:Alber Bandura avr accordingly. Witost «apt for anteipn- tory or freight behav an ocd be fred {2 ac blindly in way at ght cently prove W be highly apenacve, Woot peruse {on about probable cnssuenea conveyed by vroamenta ram i's tae eel eal ‘onminietons pial nesages” dotocte Pas, pasos Bingo the soon of ees Ia Oe cae youn’ of doopment enon neil sil neg hse ae ine Prine, ex ite of o ence on nants 2 Jung silden, Ass eu o pred experienc, Shr cect or seriou omy eal Hal eg fo eg otal ope EU's cauptuned tbo sence Ueough ae ‘Sho, but they dir i what paced ‘Stimulus Contot of Phyroloicl end Enutional Responsvenes Physiological espones canbe mst realy bought se the toute woven aly ag ‘Se simats events ovr canary I» formerly cal tin lore snd wi one tt itcapeble of elicting shen phyla! response, the omnes see pathy seq ie power to eve the piyllogal sponse or fee final component af Although sone types of at atc sponses are more dil fo codon than ‘ther almost every fon of mate faction that to organism capable of aogneoing changes in respration, hear rate, mca onion, gue Intnl secretions, vasomotor reactions, aod hee indies of emotional epontwenss hasbeen eas aly conditioned to Sanoune ra [inble 180] Envionmental events can ilewse acquire the capaciy to contol coral adiny though aes tim wth either external eect stall o der brain stimulation (Jaks 1087). Conditioning is by 0 means confined to ews in th exer! xy Foumert.In recent yea” rere [Race 108 Shek, Adan, Porter 1985 hve been se to com dion'physolgicl rectins ay well ar defenses ‘havior to saratons in hele of vcr] imulaon fom interna eras The conditioning proces denied above bas in portant implications or the understanding of sng her tags, paychosomatc drder, dense Be havior, and evant restos having afte comment, Tn the poctormatc ld) Dar, Feler and Groen [Gs7) esublshed asthmatic sc intro patient by pain fomery incl a stioul with alrgens that evoked sepitory dys fueton A aru sons of the Sts i ‘hich ether pints eps sper shat ‘ack revealed hat vied tay of stil had Aequed sntoling vale, thetetnluded mone ‘tee things rad seeches by inet pitas Shien ain, the atonal anthem, levator ges, caged bid, the undo perome, water Fas ye sen pln vas, and Bea Gace te conditioned smal ud born idened es partes Ue eae, Dether and Groen [1956] were Able to nde atch of atina by preventing the evestve ‘imal stale pcr 1h grea del of ras bebavior i nde aversive sc aol tn ths ff coin eaming Pervone, pace and events become ended wilh Siety-acusig vale theigh arvcaton th pin {el experiaces: A pine faction of mo stipe tory behav to fovde poston spt poter tal threats Once esublaha, defensive Bevin fx Cxcecdngh cal to eliminate because t denver Selfreinariog power fom its capacity to react dhstest, Any protective activites that repove er void dicot aroused by condoned, tres tre thereby strengthened even tung the ers may mre say tn ee raphy drat! by the apocryphal cae of 2 ompulae who, when asked by 2 pela hy he ncesodly upped i Sager, eepled that i apt fersous one away. When, lomed tat viol there wee noon fe the wey, the Compulsive lent rope, “See, R work” Tobe lon and woidane responses commonly repurded & neurte (lor exp phoblas and ceive Compulsive tae) are lay srngteaed by thei expe to as subjectively dotesing but bjectelynonestet threats To the eaten that fomerly aviv situations are sucosfuly voided, individuals prevattemacves from acorn that curreot como of rsfrcoment ay die sb Stanly fom ore the pos, when hat) Ina only sy Mller (1948) showed tow sb Jectve tines ean motte, and fear nda Inirce a arty of delenive behaviors incu ‘eat beni erent Aninis were oe {ite compartment of a shutde bor whee they ‘ui Teamed to ezae the painful tialaton by ‘ening though an open dor into a lack sepa ‘meat. The forme nel white ews the aque Svensve prepertie 10 atthe anal continued fo fun when plac inthe white bow eve aftr ie ‘hocks hed Ben completly discontinued To ermineSocal Learning Theory farther acquisition and self perpetuation of new de- feasive reactions in the abrenoe of any piysoal ‘lange, Miler placed the animals inthe white con partmect with the door dred to prevent ecape The oor could be released. however, by roentng. ‘hea Whe! unig a pil eae nd bi Ie by far recs When enrnmep tos were fre iad so tnt wheal aon te hbger eed eS bt he ant al pein cpa peng bar a ‘epic we qu dae whe fstab, Gane ong eben tal pe rv tnd ttn a ee Somparnents umng wie and grey ta std ones hoe os ais ops them 2 lenge pyc ass ‘Thee bnvor ns rho 2 uel ee Synbaccondeong” Craton pay wl eine pity power ae ‘oni cold be cise! sy gh ae niin ipenenes to connor fp fede ong emt acs Tort Eke i stro pepo ar ae 1 Pesta coac de Su Tope Eequetydoveloped ena thigh cs & Sea vale gh det tose ee in ciperenes stats the ban shay "Enoco-siotng words ten fneon ate ve al fon smote conn Wendt tes sp eng felon sn tent sa eee to eet aw fo at hea oan sors scoting pecan eo eee a ioc wil pau esa hie Esvetaton of smbale atoning nese “hive ren found ake on Son sugh Tepe guage nech he negite ‘rmottote (ram apy, ‘ret tse sme tom eed ‘her they have ben aad wth pate Sond words sch ar bal anda a hess,‘ eStats anne exthate recta od at ame igo annen aw ss bn guy ee hugh condoning mtn wink means prone stind {Susou Sau oy ae Gale and ten (17 poe eae ee Sat cay charge! wl an See sonic pone: ot wel lua rcs ‘etal el Evalue spss oa ea ‘eva bt singed or conan Eh thy ho tend wo pena sng eae ase ry lative networks, tus resin in widespread eflects Dar‘ Nand (199), af span nea syllables withthe nares of to sberigual ties ration pesive and wpe ee syllables by pring them with afecive words, te tres took oo postive snd negate value ia ee corclance with ue evaluative sepoaes developed fo the sylbles with which ty ha been ssocated Symbolic conditioning may be shioed to some nest though. pictorial stul ‘having coos properties. Geer [1868], for sample: Spaltione) futomie respontes to tenes wah phoopage e tins of vilet death, "the Yle Of costecing sess pthaps nowher= ore ramsey ies Ethan nents cance the py attbuts ad adomments at become sexual arouse: What ir invest with sroual pene erties in one society—corpdene or inioet we "gh hentopbecl brent one pte a, shiny white teh or black pointed one, dened ars, noes, of Is, road pes and wae bs oe "stow pis and sm height or drt lek “tay be news or repute mater cf sect social group. A bold expert! by fecha [100] on how fs might Be sete tows sn ay o symbaic conditioning of eal rol Neg photograph of wemen's boot was repeatedly apse tod with lds of sexvlly stimulating nde farce, ‘ales exited servalarusl (at nasil ty penile vole change) tothe boot alone and {eneralized the conditioned sera eaponse a other {Ypes of blak shoe. Newdles to say Ses ones Sexual tection were though eininaed atthe {piel of the study Conteat wth te Itt ndings, MeGue, Carll, and Young 1869} 6 ance the view tat devin’ senuaty often deveagy through marutatry conditioning in which aboot serual faaies ae endowed with rng eae vaee through repeated aocation wth plese epee ces fom masturbation Vicarious condtioning. Whe many emotions responses are lnred om the bass of eet oape 2ce, mich human lesming undoubtedly ass Lirough viewous conditioning, The emotonel ve sponses of another. person, si conveyed rough ‘cal fai and postural manesatny, can ssoee strong emotional reactions in chars Allcdos social ces most hey segue aul alee as ‘ult ‘of comeated.experenes,twecs people That is individuals who ae high ste ead to leet others in amiable ways, whith oie to hem, Silla pleasurable fet, tonveney, when inl ‘iva ie dejected, ling, detese, or ange,Alber Borde ther are 130 key to ae none way or anther. ‘This speculition ecnves some supper ia = sd) by Ghar [1855 wh Fund that expression of pit ‘by an aniral evoked stong emotional aout in animals hat had sufered pat together, bad mich Ter emotional eect on anal at had undergone cqually pul experiences bet unseated Wath Sulfering of anther member of ther speci, and t {ef umovel animal tat were never subjeted to sy doress. ‘Tn vicarious condoning, events take on evocative properties though asoction with moto aroed fn abrerers by aective expenencer of others. In Iaboratry rules of ths phenomenon an sberver ‘hear «tne and shortly thereafter he sees aeoet ‘enon exhibit pain reactions (acally Flgnd) ab tiough he were severely socked (Berger, 12), Ctserver who ropatedy witness this sequence of vets begin to thow eetira! respons othe {toe alent even though no pain i ver illted on thom. tn everyday fe, of cous, pain may bet resed from a variety of sourur Observation of {nue expences std the sight of teed people threatened by menacing annals have, for iar Served ss arners for emotional lnring [Bandurs Blanchard, 8 Biter 108) Craig & Weinstein 1965) Dept ts importance of vious lean, there has been suprisingly ite stay of the Frets termining ow stengly people can be atecvely condoned rough the experiences of others The tatute of the relatonsip between the observer and the suferer is undoubtedly an inSsertial actor People are general ess aftedcoionaly by he adverse of strangers han by the sulfering and joy thre close to thers and an whow they depend Observes? senatvty to sof ferns, erved frm their past soil experiences, may be nother contrbator Bandra and Roent [150], for example, found tht the degree to which obser fr were emmtonally arsed acted thir level of ‘carious eating. Those who were ander mod ‘fate emotion arial played the ighet ate Sad most enduring condoned autonome responses, whereas tone who were either quite cain or highly troused showed the weakest vctrour condoning ‘Apparently, anguished reactor proved 1 upeting to obervers who themaever were beset by high srousal Gat they diverted their section fom te futleing pero’ and sought rfage in dct Samp oe cningoaraes oe" Sencing Tes eviest frm the preceding discussion that cmtioallering i mth more compler than i scoamoaly assumed Emotion! repontes can be “brought der the contol ofiatcate combinations foto and external snl that may be ether ‘ln elated too temporl remot es hye ‘Speen The fact that ses eet ot bo e- ted with emotin-roung poten wetrons ‘ese tes adds tothe canpesy of oeditonng rosie Adon itl be showelater that fot ‘ty tral sil can segue eaten properties omughssecaon with Dooghtpredaed trowel Once condoned ima ave Sepered cetng rc, this expat teasers ole as of ste {Breporsn star physical cuter, to seman thay etd exer, thd- eve to bh asda Sl that happen to be nowcite fo people’ erences By stotating the term bshaviorom with aioor images of slletng dogs aod anina® driven by Garou: and sucha, ener of behavior approaches Silly employ Pavlovian condoning procedures, thle recepive audiences to endow the pint of ‘sew with degrading propertiee The fac that valu ‘Son of plies porsons, end things fs fected. by oes emotional experience, whether they be fear fl humiliating, mournful, or pleasurble, does nat ‘ea tnt ooh condoning ome els se Smal proces. To expect people to reals unafet fd by pated experencer fr t roge that they be test than human Moreover fo be serve fo the crsequences of one's actions indicts snteligence ‘atber than sobhman functioning Cogitice Control of Conditioning Phenomene Both popular accounts ad paebogeal descrip tun of cnditoning phenomena some the impr son that emotional rsposivenes is conditioned Sstomatealy through pated simon occuring ina conan temporal eaten. Ti, view ‘pally enforced by dagrmmate portrayal ofthe poses a1 nonmedlated one in which condoned Fimo are directly connected wo rerpnses evoked by Sreondtoned stl Res of aera’ nes of ferarch inte tit. inhuman conditontg Penmen cannot br fll wndontond without omparsng the influence of copntve «onto Stef the relist wer arene ied events and degre of lamang reel that com ining tvaves more than spl Unking stil to new responce through contpiour asocation, Fiver and’ Baer (1066) report an eperiment a llc coe tone was alas flowed By shock but 8 ‘fern tone war praia sone People who esoguited that oe Ath tones ged oak {pened emotionally whenever it spparo, wheres thor who remained nmware of tans so.Social Learning Theory Atngences did not. Other researchers ave keto shown that repetitive asocation of neuinl and verve smal dot not prodace sonnel ao: tonal sponses in people wh fail to remgue tat the enon of eves ae relatd [Dawron 8 Gage 305, Denson &Saterld 1960), “That swareneer ie 8 determinant of cooing rather tan vice vera i convincingly demousated by Catered Erion (1962), People who were sslrmed tht shock would fll x pias word {ns hin of avciatios quely Aevloped cond tioned bearer seponte In costs abject who were led to bleve thatthe oosrrencs of shock was {et relted in any consent way to thar verbal tions evidenced no stonomie’ condoning even Shoah ty repeat expnenced the une ped stimulton es thei ware coteparts. “The mot srking evidence of cogetv cont of ‘eonditoned respons is povided by sto com Tarng etnction of emotonal rations to cand Ene stn nubs who te informed tat he stimuli ae no longer followed by pinful even and In thor ao are never ald that he est has ced to et Induced awareness promptly alco con Aooed autonomic responses [Gongs Lact 1965, Natenan, Schoen & eh 182, Wickens, ‘Ale, Hi 1983) and avotdanoe boar [Linley {Moye 1961, Moyer & Lindley 1952) wren wr informed sujet lose thei fearon grade Sclfarual imtorretaton cf conditioning. Ac coring to social letning theory, condoned eno tina rponser se Npilly mediated hough Shoughe produced eeu rahe than being ee evoked by endtionad sinh The power to srouse fmotional responses is by 10 means cone) fo xtra event. People can ensly make themslve ‘used by imaging seeking experince. Ty fan became sexually sowed Gy ponerang cre fantasies They ca faghten thenseves Uy for rovekng thought And they can work themselves Up into state of anger by ruminating sbout mis {eeaeat fom ofesveprotecteur Idee ater 2a Hah [1964] found tat agin pins Jkten poficed subjective. comfort and py Joga responses sim to thove Sheed by the actual pf stimulation. The incomparable Sete Prgs, ‘whose extended baseball eucer_ provided many opportunities for anou self arousal. {aly dsebed the power that thoughts can ext {et ace fationig when he aed your stoner dsputer you he down a pocy it wth ‘cole ‘The ndings reported inthe proceding section are oostent with he selfrosal epee sing en et he Scere ree te aie eaters eect de cstemtta, we Ecuti ootaea ee spice ara el oe ma Les See Shae nee oo Sh eat faints on silly aca kes ee es (pose cow 8 Tae a Sagres cy oa Seles cos oes ie ovine a ear eces Scien Sponmi eat os Shai faeh bois ae Sp Siren ed Se Seacrest Seem ca sears nates eres Seal tS uty eee rs tae ome are attesce fe on cn So cya eigen ars Ses Ss a te Soa Spo hee ral cong ae caitet erwin SRnera ia see Soinneain cement Sse ek eee Soi te en irre Se men tetlegn cone Patan a es Fee a Cin el ea ect ‘one Sipe al inet y eats.Albert Bands really modal by bv « pn er ‘thoughts The second component my be» nou rlisted 20¢ tat is detly evoked by extemal ‘imal anéheoce reqs conning experiences for is extcion. Sake phobic, for eam, wil ‘nseantanly respeed with far atthe ph of « ‘called nae before Chey have tne to eogtate about ‘the potential dangen of reptiles. ‘AS aerate iterpeation Ss that i iestenes where people ether Inve undergone desing ex Desens there a remot chaser tat they eight = lu seul otal bene such power ea for of ferprovoking thoughts tat they are not uly subj to voluntary contol To tl pobiee trio dread eights tht they ean gaze dows safely From the eftop ofall bung Because of rte {Se rags dots nat mean that they wil be tle to tum off Unighs about We horrendous things that ‘ould cooarably happen. Here fearless ill ‘opaiively mediated but the india! wable to onl hit thoughts, however safe the ting stone fons may te Nonmedstional theores of condoning sume hat atocited nul events mast be eter tn the merous stem of the organism. Sher exam ining the InBoence of awareness co conatontog Should therfore obtain evcence atthe ipa fee the mils to be condoned har a fact been re exived t's not tnconcivable that in expewents where, € reuse awarenes, subject stein, Aliveed to ielevant features of the station, the ‘onltioned simul ay ot be regteed iat Suliiety consent manner to prod sate oo. ‘lionel responses, Neutl response to sre! input an be subsanily reduced by foci senton ‘0 trlevant event, In neophytes studies By Hrades am Sneed Jun 85) for instance, auditory newal responce toa nod sound were vetwly climiated tp cts when ey gazed SC mice atenively ied sh odor or Teead hocks thal rupted that ltentvenes. Hom {1900} aoe «sma weakeing of ner! responses toa light Ssh during active attention fo ther sights snd sounds People vbo direct thelr attention to extraneous features may neither expeience not recapuve ie ‘oulioned simul Absence of conitengy, under Such cxcumstanes, ay be eronsony tote to Tack af consis recpition wa fact dros ‘rom delet sensory regetation of tic stimale, ‘Proof that rvatenss neeay for larg would equi cvceae at despite adequate neal regi ‘ralon of te paired eavtocmenal events dss 6 conditioning does not oocur wales the relaonship Sao cir ‘Developmental thease eal Function sng fe dw hp ditty Ytresn ti tive and cognitive processes as though they repre sented independent functions Ar noted above, Corie uence: can markedly afectperforn Shes rearded ar asclatve in ature. Extent ef opie contol ean n tm be anced By aso- lite factors Mandel and Badger (1967, for ance, denonstated at avarees hastened fear Ancona the speed wit whieh aware fuec lowe thr apprehensions depended on bow closely snd in wha order neutral and svete stl wert sociated when the fear wat Ant Iarned Most ange in behavi undoubtedly rest fom the Interactive efets of svsocative and cogitive info. Disorders Arising from Inappropriate Seiulus Contra The development of stimulus functions has con siderable adaptive valve, but unfortunately, a5 alluded to fe some of the liltraive tera con 2s crate needlesr dieters and consestng defer ‘vents, Dysfunctions of tus srt an are several Sifereat ways: Events that happen Yo occur in the Contest of taumatieexpeienoer bot are nnd ay ‘away related to them sometimes take on aversive Dropertes and produce inapproprise generalization {Sf anuety cautions. The following leter taken from the advice column of = newspaper illustrates such inapproprte generalization Det Abi: My fend Sued mp with Mind ate and shuld ‘ave now the "mine he thes opie bow te ten el Nr Ee tne fad cated on me Evy ne gp wh ames ‘he en's bow es the seg pens, ek {Sel be warmed abew men wl wea te Agua Bow Tes In the owe example th Iter writer had gee razed whale patter of sal Sehr fo bow {ia sina one would no exp tobe routinely toreted with decals Tote extent tat er lnsptory hole actos vale aepetve couse tesco i bow-tid men, her dfaive bebe ‘Seat adverse experiences and se thereby all Derpeuited. Here the tappropate, behaviors Fantalned by = sell-pedasedsealitysather thanSocil Learning Theory cone that had been in ett inthe pat but no longer lexis under changed condition of life. Irrational defensive behaviors often occur on the bastt of overgenealzstion from events aerocited ‘with traumatic experiences to others that are sila to them either physically or semantically, in the tften quoted study by Watson and Rayner (1920), for example, several plrags of « rat and a bod sound prodaced in a young boy, not only marked fear of the rat, but the fear generalized widely to other fury objects including rable, dogs, far coats, cotton, wool, nd even human hae. ‘Cina evidence exits tht sugges that relatively innecuous stimuli may be daverted with powefl aversive properties through semantic genertlzaon. ‘Walton and Mather [1963] report the ease of @ wo. ‘man who sufered from obsessions about being dry Sn spent much of her fe peforning sncapactating ‘even ital. ‘The maa este was compuive handwashing which fppened ty are fom doubt about contamagton of ial by die afer very Cay sctity or whenever she belerad she ray hve tosched romethng which fd een tale ty anather pnb Ete ‘woul wash her aes our Bremer (ang ito ‘tw Die nob al op, we prey oy Cong 6 the tls wold absaye be felled Syrhaninaling and addsorl sence of the ol ‘Tanga tnth ad wathng her bat coal cent ral hours duc to contin! remain of ere, toe bch, and the warhbanin ‘To sid stamina the steal ene that ae never broshsd agint wal of ther pep sabing tnd she always ep her on tle in spect sce touched by ste. y Seto theroghfare wold by examina for pts (Fe Many sich sce, sue taming ety Aand opening doors were delegated to her mather. She Tinie er seen pide tut ne he were required fo tend annthing and tae tite ho faite! for waehing Siting on Sub ets wav aie dial for herp e3). SP ‘The obuesrive-compulive behavior began with her severe gull and feaingr of “aitnes!” because of Sens relations in a love aa with + maried man Eventually, « wide range of stimuli related to wo genital actives and all forme of dirt became di {arbi to her. Maladsptive emotional responses can nat only be ‘ceated by unpleasant paired experiences, but they ‘an be eliminated by therspeutie tnethods utilizing Siaular principles [Bandura 196%, Franks 1960) ‘This is athived by repeated expovure to threatening ‘events without the occurence af any adverse cot sequence, Several varant procedures have been de- ised and applied with relatively high success In the " cesintion method disibling saseties are removed by gradually exposing ents b progressively more fnghtening stuatont or though massive contact vith what they fear. Some usderstandably loathe Fang what Ghey dread, thus requiring poritive ioe Adsoements, Therapies bated on countercondiioning Aeseniize anssout people by presenting to them the ‘hinge they fear together with anxiety newtalizers (for example, muscular relate, wangulsing im gery, or the reassurance and secaty of & supportive ‘perso capable of ebiting higly postive reactions By reducing the level of ans arousal, postive sci allow person to tala threats they might ‘nliarly avoid without emertocing them ur daly aversive. A thud major approach relies upon modeling procodures Wherein ansety disorders ae clminated by having ansour cients observe cthess ‘engaging. s2 threatening sever without expes using any untoward consequences, After undergo ing this form of ueatment they lose their fears, hey can engage tn activities they formerly inhibited, and they develop more favorable mituder toward the ‘hing they abhored, Stimulus Control of Action ‘The same actions can produce markedly dierent consequences, depending upon the time, the place tnd tho parsons toward whom they are exprested Daving through a bury inertecion on ted signal, for example, will have puinflly diferent ect from ‘costing on green light. People therefore come 12 sxtend closely to simul that prdlctretforcement {nd to ignore those that do ot and they ute cues that sigaly” probable comtequenees in regulating thete behavior. Stimuli indatng thet given actions will be purshed or monrewardedtend to nib their performance, whereas thse sgafying that the ac Sons ae permissible or rewarnble facilitate this occurrence, The eapacty to replat respontiveness (n the basis of information comsyed by antecedent ‘timullabovt kay response eontequences provides ‘he mechanism for ferent tehaton ‘Stimuli aoquite controling power by being core lated with diferent! response consequences, Tri Ational explanations of how stimulus conte i de eloped foeur primany an drt traning in which responses are reafored ony inthe presence of cer- fain cues but never in diferent mulus contest, Stimulus control is undoubtedly established and ‘maintained im many iestances rough comelation with experienced reponse consquences, However, tats symbolic eapacty enabler him t0 gain such