294, No.1, pp. 1-7. 1995, 1984 Ekevier Science Led Britain. ll ights reserved (0955 8564/98 $9.50 + 00 “Transpo. Res. V Copyright Pergamon Printed ia Ges (0965-8564(94)0009-X PUBLIC TRANSIT RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT IN GERMANY PETER KIRCHHOFF Lehrstuhl far Verkehes- und Stadiplanung, Technische Universitat Munchen, ‘ArcisstraBe 21, 80333 Milnchen 40, Germany Abstract —This paper provides an overview of the situation of public transit in the Federal Repub: lic of Germany as well as its integration into considerations of transportation policy. It isthe goal of transportation policy to effect a shift of parts of urban automobile traffic to public transit, Beyond restrictions on private vehicle travel this requires an improvement ofthe service quality of public transit. Research and development in public transit serve this goal. The emphasis of research is in the following areas: organization of public transit, expansion of fixed-guideway transit systems in major cites, use of demand-responsive operation modes with low travel de- ‘mand, improvement of transit network and schedule structure, acceleration and stabilization of transit vehicle progression, improvement of comfort levels for access and transport, differentia- tion of fares and simplification of fare structure, improvement of passenger information and assistance and rationalization of service provision. Public transit has a long tradition in Germany. Before mass motorization, public transit used to be the only mechanized means of transportation. It originally existed in the form of suburban trains and electric trams and was later supplemented by buses and subways. It had the transport monopoly. In terms of people transported, the share of transit was radically reduced as motorization increased while absolute numbers remained in the same order of magnitude (1950: 41000; 1970: 62400; 1990: 60600 mill. passenger-kilometers) Meanwhile, the supply of transit was expanded qualitatively and quantitatively because of its important role in transportation policy. As a consequence of declining ridership, higher expenditures and socially motivated fare limitations, earnings dropped. This, in turn, led to deficits particularly on routes with low demand. Total deficits increased from DM622 Mill. in 1970 to DM2252 Mill. in 1990. These deficits, which have to be borne by the public authorities, often led to reductions in service and consequently to a further decrease in ridership. This development was more pronounced in the Federal Republic than in the former German Democratic Republic (GDR). In the GDR, the full extent of this development is just setting in today. Meanwhile, the automobile is encountering limits of infrastructure capacity and the problems of environmental pollution. For this reason public transit today is gaining new importance. After the failed attempt of the 1960s to develop cities according to the needs of the automobile and the unrealistic demand to close parts of the city completely for all automobiles, today the belief prevails that the task of passenger transport needs to be divided among the different means of transport. This division should be geared toward the goals of city development — fostering of economic activity and improvement of the environment —and the characteristics of the specific transport modes —differing capaci- ties and capability of concentration (Kipke, 1993). For this, a differentiation according to trip purpose is necessary. A division of tasks among different means of transport could Jook as follows: 1, Preference of bicycles and walking for short distances (¢.g., within neighborhoods), 2. Preference of public transit in areas and at times of high travel demand (e.g., com- muter traffic to the inner city and to areas of high employment concentration), 3. Competition between transit and private vehicles in areas and at times of medium travel demand (e.g., commuter traffic in peripheral locations, shopping, and other personal business travel to the inner city), 12 P. KincHHOFE: 4, Preference of private vehicles in areas and at times of low travel demand (e.g., leisure travel); at the same time, however, minimal transit provision as a social service for those who depend on public transport. A shift of modal shares from private vehicle travel (PVT) to public transit has to be sought particularly for commuter traffic. Empirically, this can only be achieved if the service quality of public transit is considerably improved and simultaneously the use of the private vehicle is substantially limited (¢.g., parking supply restraint policies differen- tiated by trip purpose). Restraints of PVT for personal business have to be applied caution. Limiting downtown accessibility for private vehicles can lead to a shift of cus- tomers and visitors to more accessible destinations at the periphery rather than to a shift from the private vehicle to public transit. The downtown could thus lose commercial attractiveness and shopping centers would increasingly develop in suburban areas, in turn leading to an increase of PVT. For economic reasons, transit is unable to provide suffi- ciently attractive service for leisure travel because of its typically dispersed travel demand. ‘The described division of tasks has already developed because of the growing problems with automobile traffic. However, it should not be left to itself but be steered through a change of conditions determining modal choice. For travel between city and region public transit cannot always provide attractive service because of a low demand concentration. If this is true, even commuters are largely dependent on the private vehicle. However, Park&Ride systems can relieve the burden of private vehicle commuter traffic. Such Park&Ride facilities need to be located at stations of high-capacity transit lines. Public transit service for trips within rural areas can only be provided economically if conventional line-haul service is combined with some form of demand-responsive operation. Increasing the appeal of transit requires improvements in the policy areas illustrated next. ORGANIZATION OF PUBLIC TRANSIT ‘The legal foundations of public transit are included in the Passenger Transport Act (PBIG). According to this Act there is a differentiation between line-haul transport ($42), special forms of line-haul transport (contracted services for schools and firms) ($43), and taxis (§47). A license for the provision of transport services is required. For line-haul transport, these licenses are distributed on a line-by-line basis. Thus, it is difficult to produce balanced supraregional service. For this reason, many demand today that line licenses be transformed into regional licenses. Transit services are carried out by transit agencies that are either organized privately or owned by the public authorities (German Federal Rail, local transit authorities). If several transit agencies are active in one transport region a unified service can be achieved through cooperation, Common forms of cooperation are the tariff cooperative (mutual recognition of tickets by different operators), the transport cooperative (schedule coordi- nation between different operators, fare arrangements like tariff cooperatives), and the transport association (with uniform plans, services and fares), In urban areas such forms of cooperation today are widespread and have been successful. Rural areas, on the other hand, still need to catch up in this field. In these areas the forms of cooperation suited for urban contexts need to be modified. The two-level model (coordination of services through the direction of the district) coincides with a transport cooperative and the three-level model (creation of a transit agency between the district and the operators) with the transport association. To test such forms of cooperation on a volunteer basis several larger pilot projects supported by the Federal Government, e.g.., in the District of Hohen- lohe, have been carried out (Ludwig, Krautter, Menzel, & Neidhart, 1985). They have only been successful as long as public subsidization could guarantee the previous incomes of the operators. The most far-reaching cooperation is achieved when operators merge to form a regional transport company. In the context of privatizing the German Federal Rail, itis planned that public transitPublic transit research in Germany 3 bbe regionalized: The service and budgetary responsibilities for transit are then transferred to the local authorities. These local authorities form a transport company for the individ- ual transport regions (regions with strong transport linkages between subareas with dis- tinct demarcations to the outside). In these companies, which are organized under private law, the respective local and regional authorities and, if applicable, private transit opera- tors become shareholders. The transport company takes over the service and budgetary responsibilities, becomes the owner of licenses, and commissions private agencies to carry ‘out operations. In this constellation, there is competition between the operators. To the extent that nonprofit services are adopted by the transit company, the costs have to be covered by those who request these services. To finance a regionalized transit system, the federal government transfers monies previously expended for public transit to the local and regional authorities. Currently, the organizational structure for regionalizing transit is being discussed and the level of compensatory payments by the Federal Government disputed EXPANSION OF FIXED-GUIDEWAY TRANSIT SYSTEMS IN MAJOR CITIES Should restrictive measures against PVT result in a major shift from private vehicles to public transit, the spare capacities of bus systems would quickly be exhausted. In these cases, higher-capacity systems such as tram/light rail systems need to be considered. Unconventional transit systems like personal rapid transit (PRT) could also be consid- ered. Fixed-guideway systems attract additional ridership because of their better image. The modal share of transit lies an average 20%-30% higher in cities with tram/light rail systems than in those without In the 1960s and 1970s many medium-sized cities in Germany have abolished their light rail systems for economic reasons. Considering the traffic situation in these cities today this appears as a mistake. Therefore, a couple of medium-sized cities are contem- plating the reintroduction of a transit service in the form of a tram/light rail system (e.g., Saarbricken, Aachen, Wiesbaden). These plans have a pilot character. Light rail components (vehicles, tracks, operational control systems) have been further developed within the scope of the research project “Stadtbahn 2000” (Light Rail 2000) (Rothermel & Sparmann, 1986). When light rail systems are reintroduced ot existing systems expanded, it is sensible from a transportation and economic point of view to link urban networks with those of the regional rail system. With this it is possible to transport commuters from the region to the inner cities without necessitating transfers. The city of Karlsruhe is a pioneer in this field. In spite of great efforts in research and development, all attempts to install PRT systems in cities so far have failed, primarily because of their incompatibil- ity with the structure and character of the historical urban architecture. USE OF DEMAND-RESPONSIVE OPERATION MODES WITH LOW TRAVEL DEMAND Public transit has traditionally been provided almost exclusively in the form of line-haul service with large vehicles. This, however, is only economically profitable if travel demand is sufficiently large and concentrated. With low demand, which occurs not only in rural areas but also at the periphery of major cities, it is more economical to use demand-responsive modes in the form of corridor or area service (Schuster, 1992). Corri- dor service integrates all bus stops along a corridor into one unit of operation; they are only served on demand. Area service integrates all bus stops within an area into one unit of operation. It is equivalent to taxi service with the difference that several passengers or passenger groups are transported together (shared taxi). These demand-responsive operation modes are combined with line-haul services to accommodate travel demand. Their operating costs lie about 10% -30% below those of conventional line-haul service. Demand-responsive operations have been tested between 1970 and 1980 in two spec- tacular pilot programs in Friedrichshafen and Wunstorf (Meyer & Burmeister, 1976). In these cases, the center of attention was the development of control system software. The demand-responsive bus operation in Friedrichshafen, which initially was designed for4 P. Kincitiorr area service and therefore required a sophisticated control system, had to be cancelled for technical and financial reasons. The demand-responsive bus operation in Wunstorf, however, was mainly a corridor service and has been transformed into a permanent service in the meantime. It required lower technical expenses because the demand-respon- sive operation modes were better linked with the line-haul services. Beyond these large- scale tests with demand-responsive operation modes several shared-taxi systems with dial-a-ride operation have developed. They are either operated individually or used to supplement or substitute line-haul services during off-peak periods. By and large they have been successful IMPROVEMENT OF TRANSIT NETWORK AND SCHEDULE STRUCTURE, Transit networks in major cities are typically structured hierarchically: Between ori- gin-destination pairs with the highest demand fixed-guideway systems are employed (commuter rail, rapid transit, tram/light rail) which have primarily a linkage function. The secondary bus networks have a feeder and collector function. To serve areas of low travel demand, demand-responsive bus or shared-taxi operations can be employed. As far as possible, radial transit networks should consist of diametrical lines. They have several advantages over lines terminating at the center: First, they necessitate fewer transfers, second, no space for reversing loops and storage of vehicles is lost in inner city areas, and third, the share of cycle time which is used for unproductive turning, buffer time and terminal time is proportionally smaller. In smaller towns such networks with lines terminating at the center can still often be found (Riger, 1986). To make transit attractive in cities a 10-minute basic fixed headway cycle should be maintained. With overlapping lines in segments of the inner city, a fixed headway cycle of 5 minutes or less would be achieved and with split lines a 20-minute fixed headway cycle in the outer areas. This headway cycle should be provided during off-peak periods independently of demand. With higher demand, typically occurring during peak hours, the fixed headway cycle should be shortened. It is then determined by demand, vehicle capacity, and the maximum vehicle load factor. The short headways render fixed depar- ture times at transit stops unnecessary and it suffices to maintain equal headways. The required control mechanisms exist as components of current operational control systems. During times of very low demand the fixed headway cycles need to be lengthened or service be replaced with demand-responsive operation modes. Important criteria for designing networks and schedules are the length of access to a transit stop, the service frequency of a district centroid, as well as the directness and speed of connections. Networks and time tables should have a simple structure and be easily intelligible. Today, the design of networks and schedules is performed using computer- based methods. As of recently, these methods for optimizing networks and schedule construction including transfer optimization are being increasingly developed and are available for planning practice (Leutzbach, Pampel, & Kirchhoff, 1987a). To this day, however, they are only being used with hesitation because computer-based design tech- niques still meet with a fear of the unfamiliar by the transit agencies. ACCELERATION AND STABILIZATION OF TRANSIT VEHICLE PROGRESSION Public transit vehicles to a large extent use the same right-of-way as general roadway traffic and are therefore subjected to various impediments. Speed and reliability suffer from this fact. A further source of disturbance are delays through passenger boarding and alighting, particularly during peak hours. If disturbances always occur in the same manner (systematic disturbances) it sary to remove their cause. Among the possible options are grade separation of rights-of- way for transit and private vehicles, the creation of transit roadways in which private vehicles are only permitted for accessing abutting properties, the construction of exclusive lanes, as well as transit priority at nodes and on critical network segments. The basis for neces-Public transit research in Germany s these actions are the measurement and analysis of vehicle progression for which auto- mated methods are available. The technology to affect signal control for preferential treatment of transit is far developed. The various possibilities to remove disturbances of roadway vehicle progression are currently being tested in several pilot projects in Nurem- berg, Hannover, Wiesbaden, and Saarbriicken (Pieper, Fischer, & Lindner, 1989). Delays during boarding and alighting procedures can only be avoided if service matches the occurring travel demand and regular operations are provided. ‘As far as the cause of disturbances cannot be removed, the effected time losses need to be considered in the corresponding schedules. The feasible travel times are subject to fluctuations according to the time of day because of variations in the interference from general roadway traffic and in passenger demand. Therefore, schedules need to be differ- entiated accordingly by time of day. If travel times only vary between different periods (e.g., peak/off-peak) the time table will remain comparably intelligible and easy to re- member. The time-of-day schedule differentiation has only been rudimentarily imple- mented by transit operators. Corresponding computer-based design methods are available (Leutzbach, Pampel, & Kirchhoff, 1986a), With disturbances that only occur irregularly (sporadic disturbances) control mea- sures are necessary. They are implemented using operational control systems. In recent years, these systems have been developed with private monies as well as with support from the Federal Government in the cities of Hamburg, Nuremberg, Hannover, and Wiesbaden but also in smaller towns. However, their development has thus far only focussed on technical components. These systems are still largely limited to recording operating conditions. The supporting tools for removing disturbances are still insuffi- ciently developed. IMPROVEMENT OF COMFORT LEVELS FOR ACCESS AND TRANSPORT The comfort level of access can be improved if direct, safe, and sufficiently lighted access paths to transit stops are created and sheltered stops with seating are provided. The development of access paths in an urban planning responsibility which is hardly affected by transit agencies. By now, shelters at transit stops are provided and maintained by private firms; the associated costs are financed through advertising. These elements of improving comfort levels for access and transport are being employed within the scope of the cooperative project “Busverkehrssystem” (bus transport system) in Liibeck (Keller- mann & Kirchhoff, 1986). To improve the level of comfort for transport low-floor vehicles for comfortable boarding, racks for passenger luggage, smooth accelerating and braking, good heating and ventilation, as well as noise reductions within the vehicle are important. It is the responsibility of vehicle development —pursued intensively by the vehicle industry with federal support—to find solutions to these problems (Blennemann & Crampen, 198: Piittner, 1986) DIFFERENTIATION OF FARES AND SIMPLIFICATION OF FARE STRUCTURE Fares have to satisfy the conditions of profitability for the company, adequacy for received service, and intelligibility of structure. Profitability is largely determined by the fare level while adequacy and intelligibility are determined by the fare structure. The contradiction between the objectives of profitability, adequacy, and intelligibil- ity can be diminished if the fare structure and fare level are differentiated according to different trip purposes. Fares should be high for commuters because private vehicle use is also expensive with the called for high rates for all-day parking. Because trips are regular and transit passes prevail, a strong spatial and service-related differentiation of fares is possible. Fares for personal business trips (especially shopping) need to be simple (flat rate, independent of trip length) because of the irregularity of the specific trip purpose and varying routes. The fare also needs to be low (e.g., daily pass) because of the fewer restrictions and lower costs for PVT6 P. Kinctiorr ‘Transit agencies still have their difficulties with such fare structures and are accord- ingly hesitant to implement them. An analysis of effects is therefore hardly possible. Currently, the notion prevails that fares need to be lowered during peak hours for reasons of transport policy (environment passes like the “Green Card,” student passes). The “giving away” of transport capacity, however, cannot be justified any longer considering the financial problems of the subsidizing public authorities. In addition, transit agencies need to have sufficient financial leeway in order not to be exclusively dependent on governmental support for further technical development. These considerations, however, are only slowly entering practice. So far, cheaper rates have only been examined with environment passes (e.g., Freiburg). Tickets are increasingly sold at ticket machines to lessen the burden on the driver. ‘The associated cash problems can be solved through the use of value or debit cards (for payment of single trips) as well as credit cards (for purchasing transit passes). In this field several development projects by transit agencies with federal support are being carried out, some of which are already in the process of being tested (Petershagen, 1991). IMPROVEMENT OF PASSENGER INFORMATION AND ASSISTANCE General information on transit service, information on travel possibilities, at transit stops, and during a trip are necessary for using transit. These steps together form an information chain. For information on travel possibilities, computer-based information systems are already used today (viewdata, semi-automatic telephone information as used in cities such as Munich, Stuttgart, Frankfurt) (Leutzbach, Pampel & Kirchhoff, 1986b). This information can be linked with advertising. For information at transit stops and in vehicles, electronic information displays are available (next departure of a line, delays, next stop, connections) (¢.g., Hannover). The simpler networks and time tables are struc- tured, the less the demand for information. Research on information demand in specific situations and the facility of information absorption by the passenger is the basis for the further development of information systems. Similarly to other services the transit “customer” expects stronger assistance from transit personnel. This is particularly true with information but also with protection from criminal actions. The automation of subway operations makes it possible to free up personnel for passenger assistance. For protecting passengers from criminal actions no satisfying solutions have been found to this day. Possibly the technology of pattern recognition could be applied to this problem, RATIONALIZATION OF SERVICE PROVISION Because today manpower costs represent the largest share of total expenditures and the share continues to increase, rationalization efforts focus especially on personnel sav- ings, particularly for vehicle operation. Great potential for personnel savings still exist with subways where automated train operations without drivers are basically possible. The technical requirements for this have been created in several larger research and development projects (Hamburg, Berlin, Munich) (Mies, 1982). With this technology, train progression, train routing, and opera- tion control are performed automatically. Problems still exist with monitoring passenger boarding and alighting which require the application of technology for pattern recogni- tion. The automation of subway operations, however, has not progressed because the unions fight against a reduction of personnel. Personnel savings in the field of vehicle maintenance are possible with the use of computer-based diagnoses of defects and computer-aided controls of working proce- dures. With federal support such methods have been developed (Leutzbach, Pampel, & Kirchhoff, 1987b). Recently, many agencies are trying to rationalize administrative procedures (control- ling) and therefore to reduce administrative personnel by hiring consultants. In practice, however, it can be seen that there is only minor room for improvement.Public transit esearch in Germany 1 ORGANIZATION OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT Transit agencies are unable to perform necessary research and development on their own because of the tight financial situation. Responsible for research is the Federal Government with its Departments of Research and Technology (BMFT) as well as Trans- port (BMV). Research is financed through departmental funds as well as through monies from the Communal Transport Finance Act (GVFG). According to the GVFG a share of about DMS000 Mill. of the fuel tax is used for investments on the local level. Of these funds, 0.25% are for the fostering of research and development. They are administered by the Federal Minister of Transport (BMV). Research is primarily carried out by engineering firms which are in part subsidiaries of transit agencies. A small share of research is also performed by the universities. The focus of research and development has so far been the topic areas organization of transit in rural areas, PRT, demand-responsive bus operations, light rail and bus systems, auto- mation of subway operations, operational control systems for roadway transit, vehicles ight rail and buses), as well as passenger information and tariff systems. REFERENCES Blennemann, F., & Crampen, M, (1989), Einsatz von Niederflurbussen. Nahverkehrsforschung 1989 (Status- seminar XVi), 2166. Kellerman, P., & Kirchhoff, P. (1986). Demonstrationsvorhaben Busverkehrssysteme (Lubeck). Nahverkehrs- Forschung 1986 (Statusseminar XIU, 273. Kipke, H. (1993). Systematisierune von Zielen und Mafinahmen der stadtischen Verkehrsplanung. Heft 3/1993 det Schriftenreihe des Lehrstuhls fur Verkehr- und Stadtplanung der Technischen Universitat Mdnchen (Ed.: Univ -Prof. Dr.-Ing. Peter Kieehhof) Leutzbach, W., Pampel, F., & Kirchhoff, P. (1986a). Steuerung des Betriebsablaufs im straGengebundenen OPNV. 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Flexable Betriebsweisen des OPNV im lindlichen Raum, Heft 2/1992 der Schriftentihe des ‘Lehestuhls fur Verkehrs- und Stadiplanung der Technischen Universitat Munchen (Ed. Univ.-Prof. Dring, Peter Kirehhof0,