,

.
,

.
,

(Question).
,

,
,

.
,
,

.
.

,
,

Chapter 1

Vectors in Rn

1.1.

.
,
,

a, b R

a, b

P,

),
P

(b > 0

; b<0

(
(

(c, d)
Q

P, P

a=c

Q = Q
,

PQ

P = P
,

R2

u, v
v R2 ,

,
a, b R

b = d;

PQ = P Q

).

Q.

Q = Q .

; a<0

PQ = (a, b).
,

P = P ,

(a > 0

(a, b) = (c, d)),

P = P . (

P, P , Q, Q

,
Q

).

(a, b)

a, b
),

(a, b)

Q
(a, b)

a, b R (

(a, b)

v = (a, b).
(addition)

(scalar multiplication).

1. Vectors in Rn

u = (a1 , a2 ), v = (b1 , b2 ) R2

Denition 1.1.1.

r R.

u + v = (a1 + b1 , a2 + b2 ) and ru = (ra1 , ra2 ).

(

denition)

,
,

.
.

PQ + QR = PR

P, Q, R

P(x1 , y1 ), Q(x2 , y2 ), R(x3 , y3 ) (

P, Q, R

),

PQ = (x2 x1 , y2 y1 ), QR = (x3 x2 , y3 y2 ), PR = (x3 x1 , y3 y1 ).

PQ + QR = ((x2 x1 ) + (x3 x2 ), (y2 y1 ) + (y3 y2 )) = (x3 x1 , y3 y1 ) .

PQ + QR = PR.
,

u = (1, 2), v = (3, 4)

r = 5,

rv

a1 , a2 , b1 , b2 , r

R2

,
,
,

,
.

;
,

(Proposition

Theorem)

R2

Proposition 1.1.2.
(1)

u, v R2 ,

(2)

u, v, w R2 ,

(3)

O R2

(4)

u R2

(5)

r, s R

u + v = v + u.
(u + v) + w = u + (v + w).
u R2
u R2
u R2 ,

ru

(scalar multiplication)

Denition 1.1.1

rv.

:
ru = (5 1, 5 2) = (5, 10)

u +v = (1 +3, 2 + 4) = (4, 6)

Denition 1.1.1

r = 5,

ru = (5 1, 5 2) = (5, 10).

u + v = (1 + 3, 2 + 4) = (4, 6)
u = (1, 2), v = (3, 4)

(1.1)

O + u = u.

u + u = O.
r(su) = (rs)u.

1.1.

(6)

r, s R

(7)

rR

(8)

u R2 ,

u R2 ,

(r + s)u = ru + su.

u, v R2

r(u + v) = ru + rv.

1u = u.
,

(1)

(2)

,
u

.
,

(u + v) + w

(1)

(3)

,
?

.
,

(4)

u + u

= O.

.
(5),(6),(7)

r.

r(su)

u
,

.
(8)

2u = v,

,
(5)

1/2,

1
1
u = 1u = (2u) = v.
2
2
:

Proof. (of Proposition 1.1.2)

.
,
.

(1)

u = (a1 , a2 ), v = (b1 , b2 ),
u + v = (a1 + b1 , a2 + b2 ), v + u = (b1 + a1 , b2 + a2 ).

1. Vectors in Rn

(2)

a + b = b + a)

u + v = v + u.

u = (a1 , a2 ), v = (b1 , b2 ), w = (c1 , c2 ),

u + v = (a1 + b1 , a2 + b2 )

(u + v) + w = ((a1 + b1 ) + c1 , (a2 + b2 ) + c2 ).
v + w = (b1 + c1 , b2 + c2 )
u + (v + w) = (a1 + (b1 + c1 ), a2 + (b2 + c2 )).
(

(3)

(a+b)+c = a+(b+c))

O = (0, 0),

(u+v)+w = v+(u+w).
.

O
u = (a1 , a2 )

O + u = (0 + a1 , 0 + a2 ) = (a1 , a2 ) = u.
.
(4)

O = (0, 0),

u =

u = (a1 , a2 )

(a1 , a2 ),
u + u = (a1 + (a1 ), a2 + (a2 )) = (0, 0) = O.
(5)

u = (a1 , a2 ),

su = (sa1 , sa2 ),
r(su) = (r(sa1 ), r(sa2 )).

(rs)u = ((rs)a1 , (rs)a2 ),

(

(6)

r(sa) = (rs)a)

r(su) = (rs)u.

u = (a1 , a2 ),
(r + s)u = ((r + s)a1 , (r + s)a2 ).
ru = (ra1 , ra2 ), su = (sa1 , sa2 ),
ru + su = (ra1 + sa1 , ra2 + sa2 ),
(

(7)

(r + s)a = ra + sa)

(r + s)u = ru + su.

u = (a1 , a2 ), v = (b1 , b2 ),
r(u + v) = (r(a1 + b1 ), r(a2 + b2 )).
ru = (ra1 , ra2 ), rv = (rb1 , rb2 ),
ru + rv = (ra1 + rb1 , ra2 + rb2 ),
(

(8)

u = (a1 , a2 ),

r(a + b) = ra + rb)

1a = a,

r(u + v) = ru + rv.
1u = (1a1 , 1a2 )

1u = u.


Question 1.1.

R2

1.1.

R2

(1) O = (0, 0)

u R2
u = (a, b)

u = (a, b) R2 ,

(2)

u + u = O.

R2

(Proposition 1.1.2)

O + u = u.

.
Example 1.1.3.

(1) QR = PS.
(2)

PR

PQ = SR,

P, Q, R, S

ST = T Q.

PT = T R

SQ

:
R

Q
T
S
P
(1)

PQ = SR

PS + SR = PR.

QR = PS.

PQ + QR = PR

(1.1)

PQ + QR = PS + SR.

Proposition 1.1.2 (4),

u
PQ + u = O.

1.1.2 (1)
PQ = SR
,

PQ + u = u + PQ = SR + u = u + SR = O
(1.2)

(1.2)
Proposition

u + (PQ + QR) = u + (PS + SR)

(1.3)

Proposition 1.1.2 (2), (3)

u + (PQ + QR) = (u + PQ) + QR = O + QR = QR.

u + (PS + SR) = (PS + SR) + u = PS + (SR + u) = PS + O = PS.

(1.3)
QR = PS.
(2)

,
.
.

PR

SQ

PR
PR

,
SQ

SQ

1. Vectors in Rn

PR
PR

PR
T

SQ

SQ

SQ

PR

T , T

T ,

PR

PR
PR

SQ
.

SQ

SQ

SQ

T=

= T ,

.
T , T

PR
SQ
,

1

PT = T R = PR
2

1

ST = T Q = SQ.
2

PT = PT

T = T .

(1.4)

(1.5)


PT = PS + ST ,

(1.5)

PT = PS + ST = PS + SQ.
2

PS = QR

(1)

1
1 1
1
1

1 1

PT = QR + SQ = ( QR + QR) + SQ = QR + (QR + SQ) = (QR + SR)

2
2
2
2
2
2
2

PQ = SR,
1
1
1

PT = (QR + SR) = (QR + PQ) = PR

2
2
2

(1.4)
PT = PT ,
T = T
PR
SQ
,

T =T =T .
(1.4,1.5)
PT = T R
ST = T Q.
Example 1.1.3

Proposition 1.1.2

1.1.2

,
Example 1.1.3

, Proposition 1.1.2
,

Proposition

Example 1.1.3

...

).

1.2. Rn
R3 .

Rn

.
Rn

.
.

R2
nN

Rn

,
,

R3

R2
R2

,
.

R3

).

R2

1.2. Rn

R3

a1 , a2 , a3 R

(a1 , a2 , a3 )
(a1 , a2 , a3 ), (b1 , b2 , b3 )

nN

a3 = b3 .

a1 = b1 , a2 = b2

:
n N,

Denition 1.2.1.
(a1 , . . . , an )

Rn

(a1 , . . . , an )

a1 = b1 , . . . , an = bn .

(b1 , . . . , bn )
,
.

n=4

.
ai R

: i

a1

an

a1 , a2 , . . .

a1 , . . . , an R,

a1

n
1in

ai
,

ai = bi , 1 i n
R2

a1 = b1 , . . . , an = bn

Rn

(addition)

an

(a1 , . . . , an )

(a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 )

ai R, 1 i n

a2

R4

n=4

a1
an

a1 , . . . , an R.

(a1 , . . . , an ),

(scalar multiplication).
u = (a1 , . . . , an ), v = (b1 , . . . , bn ) Rn

Denition 1.2.2.

r R.

u + v = (a1 + b1 , . . . , an + bn ) and ru = (ra1 , . . . , ran ).

Rn

,
u = (1, 1, 2, 2, 3), v = (5, 4, 3, 2, 1) R5

u + v = (1 + 5, 1 + 4, 2 + 3, 2 + 2, 3 + 1) = (6, 5, 5, 4, 4).
Rn

u, v
R4

, Rn
(

Rn

Proposition 1.2.3.
(1)

u, v Rn ,

(2)

u, v, w Rn ,

(3)

O Rn

(4)

R3

u+v
R2

u + v.

u Rn

),

u + v = v + u.
(u + v) + w = u + (v + w).
u Rn
u Rn

O + u = u.

u + u = O.

R2

1. Vectors in Rn

10

(5)

r, s R

u Rn ,

r(su) = (rs)u.

(6)

r, s R

u Rn ,

(r + s)u = ru + su.

(7)

rR

u, v Rn

r(u + v) = ru + rv.

(8)

u Rn ,

1u = u.

Proposition 1.2.3 (3)

additive identity,

ai = 0, 1 i n,
u

tion 1.2.3 (4)

1 i n.

additive inverse,

Question 1.1
u

Rn

),

u , u

u + u = O

= 1u

Proposition 1.2.3 (3)

additive identity (
O + O

O=

= O .

O ,

Proposition
,

additive
u Rn ,

u + u = u + u = O,

bi = ai ,
Rn

Rn

= O.

Proposition 1.2.3 (3)

Rn ,

additive identity

O + O

identity

1.2.3 (3)

Rn

Proposi-

(b1 , . . . , bn ),

Rn

O+u = u

u = (a1 , . . . , an ) Rn ,

(a1 , . . . , an ),

u = u + O = u + (u + u ) = (u + u) + u = O + u = u .
.

Rn

Corollary 1.2.4.
u

O
u

Rn ,

Remark 1.2.5.
inverse

Corollary

u + u

Rn

additive identity
.

Corollary

Rn
,

Proposition 1.2.3
).

u + O = u,

additive identity.

additive identity

.
u

Rn

Corollary 1.2.4
Proposition 1.2.3

u Rn ,

additive inverse.

additive identity
O

Rn

Proposition 1.2.3 (3)

(3)

Proposition 1.2.3

,
u

),

Corollary 1.2.4 (

additive

Corollary 1.2.4,

Corollary 1.2.4

O + u = u.

= O.

. Proposition 1.2.3 (3),(4)

u Rn

,
.

u + O = u.

additive identity

Corollary 1.2.4
Proposition 1.2.3
u Rn
.
v

u + v = u,

1.2. Rn

11

v Rn

Corollary 1.2.6.
Proof.

u Rn

u + v = u,

v = O.

u,

u = u + v = v + u,

O = u + (u) = (v + u) + (u) = v + (u + (u)) = v + O = v.


.
Corollary 1.2.4

,
Rn

Corollary 1.2.6. Corollary 1.2.6

Rn

Proposition 1.2.3

v Rn ,

Corollary 1.2.7.

Rn

v+u = u

u,

(1) 0v = O.
(2) (1)v = v.
Rn

Proof.
Proposition 1.2.3
(1)

Corollaries

.
.

Corollary 1.2.6,

0v + u = u

u = v,

0v + v = 0v + 1v = (0 + 1)v = 1v = v.
0v = O.
(1)v = v,

(2)

(1)v + v = O

Corollary 1.2.4 additive inverse

(1)v + v = (1)v + 1v = (1 + 1)v = 0v,

(1)

(1)v + v = O.

Rn

, Corollaries 1.2.4, 1.2.6, 1.2.7,

.

Rn

u=

Proposition 1.2.3

1
2 (w v).

Proposition 1.2.3

w v.

w + (v)
.

2u + v = w,

1/2

1. Vectors in Rn

12

1.3. Span of Vectors

Rn

Rn

Rn

(subset).
.
,
(

,
L
L

P, Q, Q

PQ = rPQ.

PQ = rv,

P, Q

PQ

.
,

PQ

PQ = rv.
r R,

(directional vector).

,
PQ

P, Q

v,

L = {Q | PQ = rv, r R}.
,

PQ = rv,

r
L

PQ = rv, r R

r,
w

parallel (

vw

),

w
.

Rn

w = rv,

,
,

{w Rn | w = rv, r R}
.
,
,

,
|

,
,

L1 , L2 ,

L1

L1 , L2
L1
,

r1 R

L2

PQ = r1 v1 .

L2
v1 , v2
Q
r2 R

L2

1.3. Span of Vectors

QR = r2 v2 .

13

PR = PQ + QR

PR = r1 v1 + r2 v2 ,

PR = r1 v1 + r2 v2 ,

PR = r1 v1 + r2 v2 .

r1 , r2 R

L1

v1 , v2

L2
H

H = {R | PR = r1 v1 + r2 v2 , r1 , r2 R}.
H

v1 , v2

H
,

{w Rn

{w Rn

| w = rv, r R}

H
.

| w = r1 v1 + r2 v2 , r1 , r2 R}

.
,
Rn

Rn

.
v1 , . . . , vm Rn ,

Denition 1.3.1.

r1 , . . . , rm R

w = r1 v1 + + rm vm ,
linear combination (

v1 , . . . , vm

combinations

span (

).
),

linear

v1 , . . . , vm
Span(v1 , . . . , vm )

,
Span(v1 , . . . , vm ) = {w Rn | w = r1 v1 + + rm vm , r1 , . . . , rm R}.
Rn

v1 , . . . , vm
Span(v1 , . . . , vm )

Rn

(
w = r1 v1 + + rm vm

Rn

Span(v1 , . . . , vm )

).
O

Rn

v1 , . . . , vm

ri

0),

w = (r1 )v1 + + (rm )vm

w Span(v1 , . . . , vm ),
w Span(v1 , . . . , vm ).

Proposition 1.3.2.

v1 , . . . , vm Rn ,

u, w Span(v1 , . . . , vm )

s,t R

su + tw Span(v1 , . . . , vm ).
Proof.

u, w Span(v1 , . . . , vm )

r1 v1 + + rm vm

r1 , . . . , rm R

R
r1 , . . . , rm

u=

v .
w = r1 v1 + + rm
m

su + tw = (sr1 + tr1 )v1 + + (srm + trm

)vm .

su + tw

v1 , . . . , vm

su + tw Span(v1 , . . . , vm ).

1. Vectors in Rn

14

Proposition 1.3.2
Span(v1 , . . . , vm )

Span(v1 , . . . , vm )

Span(v1 , . . . , vm )
.

v1 , . . . , vm Rn ,

Question 1.2.

Span(v1 , . . . , vm )

w1 , . . . , wk Span(v1 , . . . , vm ),

Span(w1 , . . . , wk ) Span(v1 , . . . , vm ).
span of vectors,
span

vectors
(1, 2, 3) R3

.
r, s R

vectors

Span((1, 1, 2), (2, 1, 2))?

(1, 2, 3) = r(1, 1, 2) + s(2, 1, 2).

1r + 2s = 1
1r + 1s = 2 .

2r 2s = 3
.

column vector), r(1, 1, 2) + s(2, 1, 2) = (1, 2, 3)

1
2
1

1
r 1 + s
= 2 .
2
2
3
.
.
(

vector

column vector
)

row vector

column vector

column vector

row vector

column vector.

.
[
i=

Rn

standard basis.
[column
] vector
1
0
,j=
,
R2
vector
i, j
,
0
1
2i + 3j.
R3
standard basis vectors



1
0
0
i = 0 , j = 1 , k = 0 .
0
0
1
]

standard basis vectors

1
0

e1 = 0
..
.

, e2 =

0
1 i n, ei
Rn

vector

standard basis vectors

0
1
0
..
.

0
0
..
.

, . . . , en =

0
0
1

1,
e1 , . . . , en

vectors,

R2[

2
3

column vector.

linear combination.
.

Rn

1.4. Dot Product

15

1.4. Dot Product

R2

R3

Rn .

Rn

Rn

.
R2
uv

R3

u v = a1 b1 + a2 b2 .

uv

R2

.
R3

u = (a1 , a2 ), v = (b1 , b2 ),

u, v

u = (a1 , a2 , a3 ), v = (b1 , b2 , b3 ),

u, v

Rn

u v = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 .

:
u = (a1 , . . . , an ), v = (b1 , . . . , bn ) Rn .

Denition 1.4.1.

u, v

dot product

(inner product)
n

u v = a1 b1 + + an bn = ai bi .
i=1

,
u, v, w Rn ,

Proposition 1.4.2.

(1) u v = v u.
(2) u u 0

uu = 0

rR

(3)

u = O.

(ru) v = u (rv) = r(u v).

(4) u (v + w) = u v + u w.
Proof.

R2

R3

Rn

,
Rn

.
(summation)

u = (a1 , . . . , an ), v = (b1 , . . . , bn ), w = (c1 , . . . , cn ).

,

(1)
n

u v = ai bi
i=1

uv

ai bi

bi ai (

,
n

i=1

i=1

ai bi = bi ai = v u.

u v = v u.
(2)
n

i=1

i=1

u u = ai ai = a2i .

ai bi

1. Vectors in Rn

16

ni=1 a2i

a2i 0,

0,
a2i

= 0,

ni=1 a2i 0,
1in

0,

u u 0.
ai = 0,

u = (a1 , . . . , an ) = (0, . . . , 0) = O.
1in

u = (a1 , . . . , an ) = O

ai = 0,

u u = ai ai = 0.
i=1

(3) (ru) v

ru

ru = (ra1 , . . . , ran )

(ru) v = (rai )bi .

i=1

1in

(rai )bi = r(ai bi ) (

i=1

i=1

(rai )bi = r(ai bi )

ni=1 r(ai bi )

i=1

i=1

r(ai bi ) = r ai bi = r(u v)

(ru) v = r(u v).

u (rv) = r(u v),

u (rv) = (rv) u

(1)

r(v u) = r(u v)

(rv) u = r(v u),

(1)

u (rv) = r(u v).

(4) u (v + w)

v+w

v + w = (b1 + c1 , . . . , bn + cn )
n

u (v + w) = ai (bi + ci ).
i=1

ai bi + ai ci ,

ai (bi + ci )
n

i=1

i=1

ai (bi + ci ) = (ai bi + ai ci ).

ai bi

i=1

i=1

i=1

ai ci

(ai bi + ai ci ) = ai bi + ai ci = u v + u w,

u (v + w) = u v + u w.

Proposition 1.4.2 (2)

.
Denition 1.4.3.

v = (a1 , . . . , an ) Rn ,
v
(length)

v = v v = a21 + a22 + + a2n .

v v > 0,

1.4. Dot Product

17

Proposition 1.4.2
u, v Rn ,

Lemma 1.4.4.

u + v2 = u2 + 2u v + v2 .

u + v2 = (u + v) (u + v),

Proof.

Proposition 1.4.2 (4)

(u + v) (u + v) = (u + v) u + (u + v) v = u u + v u + u v + v v.
v u + u v = 2u v

Proposition 1.4.2 (1)

Question 1.3.

(parallelogram relation):

u, v Rn

u + v2 + u v2 = 2u2 + 2v2 .
Lemma 1.4.4
Denition 1.4.1

Proposition 1.4.2

Lemma 1.4.4

. Lemma 1.4.4

.
Proposition 1.4.5 (Cauchy-Schwarz inequality).

u, v
Proof.

uv = 0

|u v| u v.

u, v Rn ,

v = u.
u v = 0,

u0 = u/u
v0 = v/v.
1
1
1
u0 2 = u0 u0 =
u
u=
u u = 1.
u u
u2

u, v

v0 2 = 1,

Lemma 1.4.4
u0 + v0 2 = 2 + 2u0 v0 ,

(1.6)

u0 v0 2 = 2 2u0 v0 .
w Rn

w2 0,

1 u0 v0 1.

u, v

u v u v u v.
|u v| u v.
1.

u0 v0 = 1

u, v
(1.6)

u0 v0 2 = 0

u, v

u0 + v0 2 = 0,

u0 = v0

u0 v0 =
u0 = v0 .

v
v
u v=
u.
u
u
v/u,
v = u.

v=

v = u,

v/u

Proposition 1.4.2
|u v| = | | |u u| = | | u2 = u u = u v.


1. Vectors in Rn

18

Proposition 1.4.5

u0 = u/u.

unit vector,

unit vector.
.

Proposition 1.4.5,

.
u, v Rn ,

Corollary 1.4.6 (Triangle inequality).

Proof.

unit vector

u0 = u/u.
,

Lemma 1.4.4

u + v u + v.

Proposition 1.4.5,

u + v2 = u2 + 2u v + v2 u2 + 2u v + v2 = (u + v)2 .
u + v u + v.

u + v = u + v.

Question 1.4.

u, v

u v = u v cos ,

uv = 0

.
n4

Rn .

Rn

R2 , R3

u, v
cos =

),

Rn

uv
.
u v
well-dened.

|cos | 1.

Rn

?
cos = cos

u, v



 uv 


 u v  1.

Proposition 1.4.5

0 ,

well-dened.
Example 1.4.7.

R4

u = (1, 1, 1, 1), v = (1, 0, 2, 2)

cos =

uv
3
1
=
= ,
u v 2 3
2

= 120 .
.
Denition 1.4.8.

u, v Rn

orthogonal

u v = 0.

1.4. Dot Product

19

Rn

orthogonal

perpendicular.

R3

Rn .

(projection)
R2
,

u R2 ,

v u

vu =

R2

v R2 ,
,

(v u ) u

= 0,

u u.
*
6

v
u
u

v u = ru u = ru2 ,
),

Rn

r = (v u)/u2 (
).

v = u + v ,

v Rn ,

u = ru, r R.

Rn

,
vu
.
u2

r = (v u)/u2

(v u ) u = 0 (

r=
Proof.

).

u Rn ,

v u = 0

Proposition 1.4.9.
u , v Rn

(v u ) u = 0.

r = (v u)/u2 .

vu
u(
u2

u = ru

u = ru,

rR

Span(u),

u = ru

(v ru) u = 0.

vu
u.
u2
(v u ) u = 0.
u
u =

u = ru
v = v u ,

Rn

.
vu
u
u2

projection (
R4

?
Rn

Span(u) (

v ),

Example 1.4.10.
v

Proposition 1.4.9

v + u = v,


Proposition 1.4.9,

Question 1.5.

u )

u = 2

v u = 3,

Span(u)

).
u = (1, 1, 1, 1), v = (1, 0, 2, 2).

projection
3
3
u = (1, 1, 1, 1).
4
4

1. Vectors in Rn

20

3
7 3 5 5
v = (1, 0, 2, 2) = (1, 1, 1, 1) + ( , , , ),
4
4 4 4 4
3
7 3 5 5
(1, 1, 1, 1) Span((1, 1, 1, 1)) and ( , , , ) (1, 1, 1, 1) = 0.
4
4 4 4 4

1.5.

R2 , R3

R2 , R3

Rn

R2 , R3