Key words Q ‘cluten Note sleton Maton Theory (rg of pecs 38 Evolution Making sense of biology Does evolution really explain the origin of the amazing diversity of living organisms and their different life styles, or is itjust a theory? In 1973, biologist ‘Theodosius Dobzhansky published an essay with the title ‘Nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution’. This article explains what Dobzhansky meant by this statement, and why evolutionary theory is the central idea that unifies the whole of biology. U1 the modern branches of science are founded on theories, You have to be careful when using the wor ‘theory’ vecause it has two quite different ‘meanings. which are often confused with each other Iv ordinary conversation, the word theory” fs used to mean a ‘wild or fancifil speculation, 4 une but thin is not what the word. theory means in scence. Seiemiietheotes ae coherent conceptual frameworks that strive to unify and ‘make sense of the maximam amount of curently available evidence in a given field. Chemisty is founds onthe theory that matters made of atoms. Physis is founded on two theories — quancum mechanics dealing withthe verysmall, nd relativity dealing with the very large. Biology i founded on fone theory — evolutionary theory, the idea that all ‘organisms are related to one another and change cover time, ‘The central importance of evolutionary theory It fs dificult to overstate the importance of evolutionary theory for understanding the living world, Evolutionary considerations permeate four understanding of biology at all levels, from ccosjstems to individual organisms, ftom anatomy to cells to molecales. This i because the theory states that every organism inthe worl isthe product, ofan evolationaty process. Not onli evoltionary theory fundamental toundersanding the biological ork team be argued tha itis the most prominent and farreaching theory inthe whole of science Why ist? ‘The idea of evoation can be traced back 0 the Ancient Grccks, However, before teas substantiated by Charles Darsrin in the nineteenth century, the prevailing view in the Western wold was that we Tie in @ universe created specifically for us afew thousand yeasago by abenevelent god —ahuman. centred universe, Discoveries of fossils of extinct ‘organisms, the growing cealfsation by geologiststhat the Earth is much okder than previously thought, and, in particular that humans ace of very recent origin, were starting to raise doubts among some people even before Darwin made his contribution ‘The extensive evidence published in Darwin's book On the Origin of Species in 1859 supported an alternative view to the human-centied one ‘This view was that humans are one animal among many, ereated by a natural proces that has no design, foresight of purpose, and that has been ‘operating for many millions of years. In his Tater book, entitled The Descent of Man (1871), Darwin further argued that humans are different from other animals only in terms of degree, notin kind. This view contrasts with the older view that human nature can be explained only om the basis of the actions and intentions of a supernatural ‘The implications of this new outlook are still stimulating vigorous debate among some non scientists, but among biologists, evolution is regarded asa fact aswell asa theory fortwo reasons (0) there ate so many different strands of evidence consistent with evolution, and (2) there are no seriously discussed alternative scientific theories Tn the sameway, chemist discussing atomictheory agiee that tis a fact as wel 2 theory that matter is made of atoms, because there are no alternative theories Box I defines the terms theory, Tat’ and Ihypothesis as used by scientists, logical Scenes ReviewFigure the divetsity of o Biodiversity and adaptation The aim of evolutionary theory isto explain the toa most striking fextures of le on Eatth — its astonishing diversity and the exquitite adaptation of each organism to its environment, Organisms ‘occur in many diffrent environments, from polar ses tropical forests Fach distinctive environment is called an ecorystem, The biodiversi ‘corgtem isdefined a he total numbe diferent ‘ongenisms it contains (se Figure 1. How many differen types thought to exis? Hove do we distinguish between diferent ypes! These questions are more difficult to Answer than you might think, For those organisms that are visible to the naked eye, the basic unit of classification is the species. There are several diferent definitions of a species, but the most widely used is ‘a species 6 a group of actually for potentially interbreeding natural organisms that is reproductively isolated from other such soups! Thus all humans are members ofthe same species but chimpanzees are 2 different species Howse and donkeys are diferent species because although they occasionally mate and produc November 2012 rem found on the Great Baier Reet of Auetrlia, 1 ERC Facts are emptical obserations pital means derived fom observation ‘and experiment, ot fom what somone els you Facts a ten dered om “rect bseruatins, but hey ean also be infeed rom set observations. er example, electrons ere egated 3 ais, and your mobile phone was designed on the ferene bit slater cannot be abserved dct Seme aspects of evouton ‘nat beabrened drety beet they happen ato dauly tobe seen in 2 human iftine, bat they are inered fom so many indrect erste that hey srerogarded a fot Hypotheses ae acts of cstv imagistion —spcustione that might epin some fact Acintii ypathers must be testable abseraton andlor rprimen, at actin pone Thais oy, hypothe ecience mut have observable consequences. A hypothesis maybe ether refuted or supported, but camot be proved, because the abstr may ao be consistent with ferent hyptheses tat youve net thought of. hypotheses ae ae called Theories are coherent conceptual modes thatemplain wl ets of facts ana withetane fable precios, For exarple the thery of evouton woud be ated we ud vestige gs o (ahr in moreso man fois cer en dinorr fori God theores are quotaive, prope mechonisr,ond eed tw epimers tht revel prev unknown phenome, Scents on soyFigure2 hovtadoptaton nthe facinating agir fh ch may be 20-100 cm in ength, offspring called mules, asualy fertile Extimatesof the total numberof living species hat have been deserved are around Tete is general agreement that this number is mich too small an that many more species remain be discaveed, Estimates of hav hese offspring ate not ving species remain to be described range from 5 million to 100 million, any ofthese species will be bacteria One feature of the natural word that greatly impressed Charles Darwin is how well organisms ate adapted by their form and behaviou and reproduce in their natural enviooment. One froup of plants that he studied extensively are hose that ae adapted tex insects such a8 pitcher plants (se onc Scrscs Review, Vo, 22, No. 1 Invidualsinapopuation ofa given species ae variable Some of ths variation hertable. 3 every generation, some dus are move successful at surviving to reproduce tan ates. 1 Surv and vepraducton ae not random, tut depend on incl hertable venation 1p. 26-30), Figure 2 shows the angler fish, striking ample of alaptaton fom the animal wold The angler fish is adapted to life in the deep ocean, One of its doreal spines has evolved into a moveable, fleshy lure containing luminescent bacteria. The light attiets prey wo within reach of itsformidablejaws. ts boo is espable of expanding to swallow prey twice ite size. The animal shown ica female. Ii hard forthe sexes to meet in the deep ocean, so the smaller males bit into a female and stay attached 10 her to be fed through her blood vessels, The female can then fertilise ber eggs Evolution by natural selection The basic idea that Darwin, and others before him, Presented is simple. Because organisms compere with one another for resources, individuals that are better adapted to their particular cumstances will leave more offspring. I follows that those beter adaptations that are inherited will inceate in frequency from one generation tothe next. The arguments peltout in oe 2 in the form ofthe four postulate (ce Bor 1) made by Darwin in his book On the on The most important feature of these postulates Is that they ave testable — they contain no hidden assumptions ox anything vo be accepted uncritical ost of Darwin's book iseoncered with presenting a large range of direct observations taken from ature that support the postulates. any more direct, abservatons from both nature and experiments have since reinforced ths support, Darwin had 10 knowledge of the mechanism of inheritance, Today wwe understand that natural selection changesthe form and behaviour of organisms between generations by favouring those mutations in the genome that enable the organism to hand on more copies ofits genome (its offpring) than ts competiors Evidence for evolution The evidence for evolution can be summarised as follows 1 Similarities (homologies). All organisms show similarities at many levels that would not be pected if they had independent origins. Examples include the basic anatomy ofthe forelimbs in fou legged animals such as bids, bats, cats, whales, humans, amphibians and reptiles, and the base sequence of many ofthe genes in all organisms 2 Direct observation, it 8 possible to observe ‘changes with time in the genetic composition of rapidly reproducing organisms, such as bacteria, viruses and some insects, The production of new species is not observable because it happens 100 slo 3 Transitional fosils.Ifsome species can change ino other species over long periods, there shoud logical Scenes Reviewbe fosis of transitional forms between them — and there are Transitional species are defined a8 ‘howe that show a mixture of features from both thei ancestors and their descendants, There ate teansitional fossils between fish and amphibians, reptiles and bit, hippos and whales, and apes and humans, 4 Logical inference. Modern evolutionary theory slates that forevolution to occut only eo processes ae required, One is mutation — a change in the genetic material of an organism, The other is ‘natural selection, defined as a change inthe genetic composition of & population of organisms caused by diferencesin reproduction between individuals Both matation and natural selection can be directly observed, so evolution is inevitable 5 Hierarchical classification Iall organisms ae related by descent, it should be posible to classify "hem ito a nested pattern of groups within groups Fach group is defined by an agreed set of similar characterstis. The application of this hierarchical scheme for the human species is ilustrated in Figure. 6 Biogeography. Location providesabeter index of biological similarity than does similarity of elimate because geography reflect descent from common, ancestors For example, both the North and South ‘American continents share the same range of humid. forests, arid mountains, grassy plains, marshes, lakes and rivers ax does the Fusropean continent, But ‘there are few species of animals o plants that occur naturally in both locations November 2012 Figure 3 Organisms canbe clasfiod in hierarchical fashion ina nested, pattem of groupe within groups 7 Vestigial structures, Vestgial structures ace defined as strates that are ruc in complexity and function compared with similar structures in other organisms. These structures occur at both the anatomical level inthe form of vestigial organs and a the molecular level in the form of pseudogenes, There are many examples of vestigial anatomical structures that have no known functions, such as reduced pelvis and hind limb bones inside the shins f pythons and whales, andthe wisdom teeth, appendix and coceyx of humans. Pseudogenes are genes that have lost their original prowin-coding ality About 60% ofthe 1000 smelreeptor genes im humans ae pseudogenes — we rely fr les on smell and mote on sight than our ancestors dd Dobzhansky was corec: evolution does make sense of biology mperrnts ce eee ers Peapod * voluton sthe change in the genetic eompesiton| of ogame betwen generations * Natrol selection the change the genetic ‘ompostonaf organs between generations “auved by ifleenes in eprodution Ascent theory is a eoneeptual model that ‘epans whole ete of fctsandwitirtand liable predictions 4