saranots Int J Adv Manuf Technol 2013) 64:1411-1421 DOM 10,1007/s00170.012-8111.6 PDFs viewer ORIGINAL ARTICLE Influence of s! P. Kah-J, Martikainen Iding gases in the welding of metals Received 29 December 2011 /Accopted: 26 March 2012 /Publishod onlin: 12 Apeil 2012 © Springer-Verigg London Limited 2012 Abstract Shielding gases are of considerable in the protection of molten metal from atmosplh ination during welding processes. These gases play an im- portant role in a number of aspects of welding, including are characteristics and the microstructure of weldments, Under- standing of the influence of welding shielding gases on different materials is consequently important, and extensive studies and experiments have been performed by numerous researchers. Based on previous studies, the objective of the current study is to collate and summarize the most important findings and approaches of earlier research. This paper provides analysis of the influence of different combinations of process gases on welding of commonly used materials in ‘manufacturing, The results presented can be used as guide- lines to achieve higher quality and efficiency in welding practices. This study provides good foundation for lear- ing and creates enhanced awareness of shielding-gas-related issues among metal industry actors, permitting objective valuation of welding productivity and quality. entice Keywords Welding shielding gases - Welding processes ‘Materials - Mechanical properties - Microstructure 1 Introduction Shielding gases in arc and laser welding processes have @ remarkable effect on the overall performance of the welding system. The main function of these gases is to protect the weld pool from adverse reactions with atmospheric gases. P Kah 0-2). Maranon Lapposnrania University of Technolog P.O. Box 20, S38S1, Lappenrata, Finland email: paulkabv@lut ‘Oxygen, nitrogen and water vapour present in ambient air can cause weld contamination. Weld shielding, therefore, always involves removal of potentially reactive gases from the vicinity of the weld, preventing the detrimental effects ‘on the molten metal of the surrounding atmosphere. Shield- ing gases can also stabilize the are and enhance the metal transfer mode in are welding processes {1}. Shielding gases hhave a distinet effect on the formation and the structure of the are plasma, This plasma, composed of ionized gas, melted metals, slags, vapours and gaseous atoms and mol- cules, can be controlled by application of appropriate shielding gas [2, 3]. The shielding gas also interacts with the base and filler metal and can thus change basic mechan- ical properties of the weld area, such as strength, roughne ‘hardness and corrosion resistance. Shielding gases moreover have important effects om the formation of the weld be: and the penetration pattern. ‘The application of different shiclding gases can result in different penctration and weld bead profiles. Porosity in the weld is one of the most common welding defects related to the shielding atmo- sphere. Pores can be the initiation point for erack propa; tion in the welded joint and can considerably decrease the life cycle of joints under dynamic loads [1,4] It is clear fiom the above that appropriate selection of process gases is an essential consideration for efficiency, ‘quality and overall weld acceptability. In order to met Welding requirements, a mixture of different gases is usually used. These blends can be composed of two, three and even four different gases. Various factors should be taken into account when selecting the composition of shielding blends, including the type of hase material and the chemical-metal- lurgical reactions between the gases and the molten poo! [1-3, 5-8]. Despite the type of shielding gases used having a re- ‘markable effecton the mechanical properties of welded joints, ‘there are few comprehensive scientific resources dealing with spring nips researchgste neUpicatin!257396726_Irluence_of shielding. gases_in_te welding of metals wmsaranots Ma PDFs viewer Int Ady Manuf Technol 2013) 68:1411-1421 this issue. The aim of this paper is to provide concise and inelusive information about the interactions of different shielding gases with welding materials. The focus of this study is on metals most commonly used in manufacturing, namely stcels (carbon, ferric, austenitic and duplex) and aluminium alloys. Variation in chemical composition, micro- structure and mechanical propertics of weldments in relation to the type of shielding gas is investigated from this perspec: tive. Data on which the paper is based are taken from scientific literature and the findings can be ulilized as an instructional source for welding practices. 2 Properties of the most common shielding gases in welding ‘The various shielding gases used in welding have specified properties and functions. Table 1 presents basic chemical and physical properties of gases commonly used in laser and are welding and Table 2 presents the function and effect of different shielding gases used in laser and are welding: hhelium(He), argon (A1), carbon dioxide (CO), oxygen (G2), nitrogen (Ns) and hydrogen (Hs) [9-12]. 3 Materials The most welding materials used nowadays have been ana- lysed by various researchers [1-24]. The focus is on metals Table 1 Welding shiolding gas characterises ‘most commonly used in manufacturing, namely steels (car- bon, ferritic, austenitic and duplex) and aluminium alloys. 3.1 Carbon stecls (COs is a preferred shielding gas for gas metal are welding (GMAW) of carbon stecls because it provides advantages like higher welding speeds, greater penetration and lower ‘cost. However, the use of pure CO, is restricted because of problems associated with spatter and element lasses duc to oxidation. Ithas been reported [17, 18] that pure argon is not suitable for welding steel since it cannot provide the desired are stability and desired weld bead characteristics. Argon mixed with CO; and/or O is therefore preferred. Mixtures of argon with 5-20 % carbon dioxide are very common for ‘the welding of mild and low alloyed steels. It is claimed that increasing the amount of CO3 in the shielding gas reduces ‘the amount of inclusion and porosity in the weld [17] Inclusions in the weldment initiate and direct cracks. and promote brittle fracture, Increasing the CO, percentage also ‘enhances the formation of acieular ferrite, which improves weld toughness and decreases hardness. Hydrogen- ‘enhanced mixtures are not recommended for joining plain carbon steel because of detrimental effects such as under bead cracking [1. 3,5, 6, 13-18]. From Fig. 1, itean be seen that the amount of porosities and inclusions deereases with increase in the amount of COs in the shielding gas [17]. The effect ofthe shielding gas on the impact strength and tensile strength of ST37-2 is illustrated in Fig. 2. As the Type of gas Content in Boiling point Atomic weight and Deasity at 15°C, Relative density Dissociation Chemical sir (vol) at LOTS bar °C) mean molecular weight I bar (ke m") with regard to air and ionization activity Har lsc— enerpies (eV)" Hydrogen (Ha) 05x10 2529 2.016 oss 005 48a Reducing 1359 ‘Argon (A8) 0934 =1ss9 30.948, 1669) 138 Incr 15.76 2750 Helium (He) saxo 2689 4002 0167 ous Inert 24.56 54.10 Nitrogen (Ns) Teas =1988 2x013) L170 on 976 Reactive lass 260 Carbon dioxide (CO:)_ 0.033" as aon Lxay 14a 5.80 oxidizing Oxypen (0,) 20.946 -183.0 31.998 1337 Loe 1362 oxidizing 3520 "1 eV=1.6%10* J; fonization energy ofthe majority of metals ranges between 6 and 9 €V Not obtained from the atmosphere * Sublimation temperature 2 spring nips researchgste neUpicatin!257396726_Irluence_of shielding. gases_in_te welding of metals amtPDFs viewer saranots M413 Inc Ady Manuf Technol (2013) 64:1411-1421 fr dooy> Apaseee ay sagsuod psy poo’ *sess00ud pomuoy 9291p wog paren eau ‘ssstannoy> OF sjoais ssquras uate 3 Sup >ns ood ut usdoupsy 1g tusuoduios Tried » se pos ars Suuopueys, ou a}gnsun, are Susopueyy uv agusun, ose ys. sun [reus ws susuodusoo Tried vse pos paynnisques 15 nagonpuos| TrADip ort an souod sos053099 noued por oui oop oy sase8 saxomIDy Ananonpos idiom moa Truuoi poory yews pur Ays4p ory Supjrys moras sunowe Angnonpuoo| tom seno3jous Trusyp oT any pur Sasuap UAH ‘aysouod saseanap suo} sey Tes wt pos ogy sosed Buplays uwogupuad ‘ur yupuodios oo) renued ese psn, io sn99(o18 ems pur Asap oy sfiou9 uowezor 804 aay raofgns hae ui ‘wanodtoo ‘moeas ON, A1ous wore 00% BIH vu rpofgns uw gas ‘wanodaos ‘aoeat ON, Afsous uowezwor 07] uu pas ssojmes anus ‘wenodaioa rogue v se pas, appisuoo 9q asnur ssou9q pos 30 Asn poop, poads Supa 2H samo a0 GL aumesody am og8H sompms pag 29096, tN oH ay (1 apap Swovosy — Aayageyenyuononpaug snore any fasuap pu uBio any ‘Bujppsase paw abs] wr posn SoseR Fupanys JO WAND PUP HORDENT ZAIgEL, spring amt of metals nas sin te_ wel 257336725 Inuence_of shield nist researchgsteneypticaion2Int Ady Manuf Technol 2013) 68:1411-1421 PDFs viewer Maid saranots Uworsnour apo snow 192319 U1 rmpued v se pos, ‘woe hs, awom oauaes ode ys rae nanonpuos| ' doy poo uonerdas ry yu © spas) TUDO Asp yannay, —fious uogeztr 807] Sues 0 op prog, usonod $897 (mam toy sp) apap sorp fq ut ‘quod pus (ae ay. 20), Bousyeds vonm2usd opseay rut HOS eupreu on apts poo quad st vonet20s81 ‘uy soa are out ssnax0 amnssad pe ‘anioy roman ® —ouinjoa se8 owt ‘voRNISOED uon20ssIp 2 120, 2 Omg RRP Bupfeys poor 28qy0n a0 YE 2 poo ‘wx puv wou ‘souny umd iamod pr soenaoid engin ame aygesun Anaponpuos —_us8Kx0 pur woqins so £ iooyg) wangyTP Woy popeNT “suo PosN voy BLN pooN —_yno>fou SusNOP GBH. Buzpxo “09 Asoo fasuap pu (5-1) 9pm uovory —AygEBAR UOHNPAA snowsyog 24 uBio any ‘ious wore] ant of metals nas sin te_ wel 257336725 Inuence_of shield Springer as nist researchgsteneypticaion2saranots Ine Ady Manuf Technol (2013) 64214111421 Fig. 1 Inclusion in samples with diffrent shiskding ae composition. a 97.5 % Ar= 215% COs, 890% Ar+10% CO, €82% Ar+18 %CO2 and 475% Ar+25 %CO3- Samples fr in untched Sate, Matera SST3T-2 Process GMAW [17] oxidation potential of the shielding gas inreases, the tough- ness and the tensile strength of the weld deposit decrease Argon blends with lower oxidizing gas content will gener- ally produce weld propertics superior to those obtained by shielding with COs only. There appears to be an optimal oxygen content, sinee too low oxyzen levels ean also be detrimental to toughness [1] Figure 3 shows different weld microstructures of welded samples (ST37-2) under two different shielding atmos- pheres: (a) 97.5 % Ar+2.5 % COs, and (b)--90 % Ar+ 10 % CO, In sample (a), the microstructure is mainly acicular fersite, except in a small rca adjacent to the grain boundaries, where grain boundary fete is formed. While sample (b) has about 90 % acicular ferrite and 10 % grain & i. : i £ é é = Fig. 2 Weld metal impact cnergy as a function of shielding gas composition for GTAW of earbon ste [1] PDFs viewer ais boundary or polygonal ferrite and Widmanstatten patterns LITL The hardness value of the weld zone decreases with doerease in the AF content, Therefore, the hardness of the samples decreases with increase in the amount of carbon dioxide in the shielding gas [17] 3.2 Stainless steels ‘One commonly used gas blend for welding stainless steel argon with low levels of an oxidant (either oxygen or carbon dioxide). Increasing the proportion of the oxidizing element in the shielding gas inereases the loss of manganese, chro- mium and niobium, The addition of CO, to the mixture reduces cost and improves the wettability of the weld bead, thereby improving the weld quality. However, the addition of CO» results in carbon absorption and oxidation of the deposited metal. Incorporation of carbon in the weld pool ‘can reduce the content of ferrite in the bead, Since carbon is 4 strong austenite producer at high temperature and during cooling, martensite can be formed in the ferritic grain boundaries, impairing the tenacity of the joint. When is creased oxidation can be tolerated, addition of a small amount of oxygen can enhance dip transfer. The addition of hydrogen to argon increases the volume of the melted material and permits increased welding speed; however, it can produce hydrogen cracks in welds and its usage is strictly limited. Helium can be added to the gas mixture for some welding processes, to increase weld penetration and weld puddle fluidity. The addition of helium leads to higher travel speeds and less distortion [1823] springer nips researchgste neUpicatin!257396726_Irluence_of shielding. gases_in_te welding of metals aitsaranots M16 PDFs viewer IncJ Ady Manuf Technol (2013) 64:1411-1421 Fig. 3. Moallographic ricrographs of the weld post (75% Ar+2.5 % COs) 3% WE=PF), b 00% Are10.% C0.) (10% WE=PE) AP cicular fei, WE Widmnsaten ferite, PF polygonal ferric. Material SST37-2, process GMAW [14] 3.2.1 Ferritic stainless steels Fertitie stainless steels have chromium as their major alloying clement with typically low carbon content. Fertitie stainless stecls have a noticeable resistance to stress-corrosion cracking and good resistance to pitting and crevice corrosion in chloride environments. The mechanical properties of the weld zone in ferritic stain- less steels are very sensitive to the microstructure, and grain coarsening in the weldments is a serious problem, ‘The appearance of a large columnar structure leads to a decrease in the crack resistance and high-temperature strength of the weld metal. It has been reported [24] that the large grains of the weld metal degrade the resistance to both oxidation and corrosion. The micro- structure of ferrtic stainless stecl weldments is highly dependent on the type of shielding gas mixture used. ‘The addition of oxidizing gases (carbon dioxide or oxygen) tends to reduce the percentage of alloying clements (manganese, silicon, niobium and titanium) in the weld, Increasing the amount of carbon dioxide in the shielding gases may result in increase in the carbon content in the weld and increase in the martsite con tent at the grain boundary. Oxygen has a slight tenden- cy to reduce carbon in weld metal, No change in the amounts of martensite has been reported with increase of oxygen in the shielding blend [1. 15, 24] Figure 4 shows the microstrcture ofthe fasion zones of the weld using ER430 wire. The presence of columnar rains a ferstic matrix with martensite proiptation inthe train boundaries and the formation of precipitates can be fobserved. No change in the amounts of precipitate and martensite is observed with increased Oy content in the Shielding gas. However, an increase in COs eauses an in- crease in the content of martensite at the grain boundary (24 Fig. 4 Fusion zone microstmctre with J pure argon, 2 Ar=2 % Os, 3 Art % 0s, 4 Ar=2 % COs, 5 Ar=4 % COs, 6 Ar+8 % COs as shilding 8. a represents ferric matrix, Mf martensite and p precipitates. GMAW of E430 ferie stainless stel [24] 2 spring nips researchgste neUpicatin!257396726_Irluence_of shielding. gases_in_te welding of metals antsaranots Inc Ady Manuf Te nol 2013) 61411-1421 PDFs viewer a 3.2.2 Austenitic stainless steels High strength and ductility with good formability are the characteristics underlying the versatility of austenitic stain- less steels. However, due to the high thermal expansion coefficient and the low thermal conductivity of such stecls, excessive welding distortion can be problematic. The low thermal conductivity also limits welding speed and affects ‘weld penetration. Argon-based blends with carbon dioxide or hydrogen addition are commonly used to minimize oxide formation and increase weld puddle fluidity. Austeniti stainless steel typically solidifies as a mixture of austenite and metastable ferrite. Incomplete transformation of ferrite 10 austenite during cooling results in retention of some delta- ferrite in the weld metal, A certain amount of retained delta- ferrite has a beneficial effect on reducing hot cracking susceptibility. Nitrogen or hydrogen may be added to the shielding gas blend to refine weld properties and improve bead appearance. It is widely known that nitrogen is one of the most effective elements to increase the mechanical strength and pitting corrosion resistance of austenitic stain- less steels. Nitrogen dissolves intersttially in austenite and is a strong austenite stabilizer. Adding small amounts of nitrogen to the argon shielding gas can rapidly reduce the retained delta ferrite content, which directly affects the ‘mechanical properties and corrosion resistance. It has been reported that increasing the amount of nitrogen in the shiekd- ing gas increases the ductility and improves the tensile strength and the hardness of the weld [25]. The amount of heat input determines the nitrogen solubility of the weld metal [26, 27]. Higher energy density also significantly affects hot cracking defects and decreases this problem, The effect of nitrogen content on the ultimate strength and Vickers hardness of welded metal is shown in Fig. 5, Nitrogen added to the shielding gas increases the ultimate strength and Vickers hardness. The nitrogen absorbed dur- ing welding results in interstitial solid solution strengthening itera Hardness. Hu Fig. § Effect of nitrogen addition on the mechanical properics of \weldments. GTAW of SUS 304, argo-based shielding gas [25] and grain refinement. Therefore, nitrogen added to an argon- based shielding gas can simultancously improve the tensile strength and hardness of the austenitic stainless stel. Nitrogen addition to the shielding gas increases the arc voltage and consequently the heat input, which increases the peak temperature of the weld metal and reduces the cooling rate, It also causes a rise in the amount of nitrogen in the weld. Figure 6 shows the calculated heat input per unit length in GTA welds produced with various amounts of nitrogen in the shielding gas. Increase in nitrogen addition to the argon shielding gas increases the magnitude of the heat input [23]. When welding austenitic stainless steel, hydrogen, gen- crally less than 10 %, may be added to shielding gases (usually argon) to increase the fluidity of the weld puddle, improve travel speeds and to provide good weld bead ap- pearance. It has been observed [27] that the mean grain size in the weld metal increases with inereasing hydrogen tent and the amount of ferrite decreases, which degrades the ‘mechanical properties of the weldments. Hydrogen added to the argon-based shielding gas increases the arc voltage and heat input, which causes a slower cooling rate of the molten pool and facilitates more phase transformation from ferrite to austenite. The increase of heat input also contributes to an increase of stresses in the weld metal. Hydrogen increases both weld penetration and weld width, and therefore, the depth to width ratio typically decreases, which causes higher angular distortion of the weldment [1, 6, 23-30]. Figure 7a- show optical micrographs of 317 L welds in black and white contrast. The figures show that retained ferrite in the core of the dendrites has vermicular morphol- ogy. Quantitative metallography determines the volume fraction of delta ferrite to be around 8 vol% [30]. When the nitrogen content of the weld increased, the optical esting es ‘S:Tavelsped (mm/min) :> g «|: z wie | 0 pL esi oo 08 150 e250 aa 3s Welding current, A Fig. 6 Relationship between are volage-curent curve and volume pertentage of nitrogen gas added to an argon shielding eas, type 304 Stainless sta [23] spring nips researchgste neUpicatin!257396726_Irluence_of shielding. gases_in_te welding of metals amsaranots Mais PDFs viewer IncJ Ady Manuf Technol (2013) 64:1411-1421 micrographs (Fig, 7, ¢) did not display the presence of delta ferrite. Comparing Fig. 7a, b and c, it ean be said that nitrogen addition effectively controls the primary delta fer- rite phase in the dendrite cores even at 0.5 vol% No in the shielding gas. According to the literature, Ni-rich phases demonstrate colour contrasts varying from blue to grocn, and Crrrich phases show colour contrast changing from reddish to yellow; white contrast represents delta ferrite, while austenite appears with a blue contrast colour. It can be observed from Fig. 7a-c that adding nitrogen to the welds has made the cores of the dendrites darker and the interdendritic regions lighter in colour (i.e. austenite (Ni-rich) nucteates first and the Cr-tich austenite nucleates at the interdendritie regions), which indicates that addition of nitrogen has changed the solidification mode fiom pri- mary 6 t0 primary -y 30} 3.2.3 Duplex and supper duplex stainless steels Welding of duplex stainless steel is rather challenging, it is necessary to ensure that the phase balance in both the ‘weld deposit and the heat-affected zone is maintained; oth- crwise, an optimum combination of mechanical propertics and corrosion resistance may not be achieved. An important improvement occurs with the introduetion of nitrogen as one of the main alloying elements, Nitrogen increases the cor- rosion resistance, especially of the austenite phase. Nitrogen is a strong austenite stabilizer which increases the tempera- ture of the transformation to the austenite phase. A part of the nitrogen which exists in the metal may be lost during ‘welding and ithas been observed that weldments of nitrogen containing duplex stainless steels suffer from pitting attack due to this nitrogen Toss [2]. The loss of nitrogen from the ‘weld pool appears to result from the difference in partial pressure between the nitrogen dissolved in the weld pool and the gas directly above the weld pool. As can be seen in Fig. 8, the loss of nitrogen from the weld pool can be ‘modified by using a shielding gas containing proportion of nitrogen [2 © Super dupinstinies see |_ © cuplestainess sto! tog in weld metal % 246 0 Nitrogen in shieling ws, mol % ig. 8. Relationship brwcen nitrogen in the shilling gas and nitrogen in the weld metal for GTAW of duplex and super duplex stainless steels pl The use of pure argon or helium as the shielding gas generally results in nitrogen loss. It has been reported [22 that a higher amount of ferrite is produced with argon- shielded than with helium-shielded weld metal, Since heli- uum yields a hotter ar, it provides a suitable cooling rate for transfer from the a to ~y phase, which improves the impact toughness of the weldment, Ferrite-rich weld metal in an argon-shielded weld has poorer corrosion properties and lower hardness than helium-shielded weld metal, The addi- tion of nitrogen into the shielding gas accelerates the partial transformation from ferrite to austenite during cooling after welding. Increased austenite improves the weld pitting cor- rosion resistance and it has been observed that intergranular austenite impedes pit propagation within ferrite weldments [B1. Nitrogen can also help homogenization of chromium distribution in the two ferrite and austenite phases. Recent work [22] has indicated that the level of nitrogen in the shielding gas should mateh the nitrogen level in the parent metal; for instance, for a duplex stainless steel with a typical nitrogen content of 0.16 %, the shielding gas should contain 1.0-1.2.% nitrogen, and for a super duplex stainless steel with a typical nitrogen content of 0.25 %, the shielding a) ») ¢) Fig. 7 Optical micrographs of 317 L welds prepared with a0 vol N:. showing vermicular dla fest inthe dark austenite donates, b 0.5 vol% 2 spring ‘the Ar shicling gas" The apparent inferdendrtic networks af micrographs b and e are duc to secondary austenite [30] nips researchgste neUpicatin!257396726_Irluence_of shielding. gases_in_te welding of metals antsaranots Inc Ady Manuf Technol (2013) 64:1411-1421 PDFs viewer luis Fig. 9. Microstructure of a ase ctl, b the pore in HAZ, © ‘weld metal welded with Ar> 0015 %4 Nd Ar+S0% Het 0015 % N13] 22s should contain 2.0-2.5 % nitrogen, to obtain a weldment nitrogen content similar to the parent metal. Ifthe nitrogen content ofthe liquid weld pool exceeds the solubility limit, ir may cause porosity in the weld since the excess nitrogen escapes from the pool during solidification. Out-gassing may also produce spitting or sparking. Hydrogen may also be added to the base shi (argon or helium) to increase are voltage and attain ‘welding speeds. Duplex and super duplex stainless steels are less sensitive to hydrogen embritlement and subsequent cracking than, for example, carbon steel. However, since the austenite absorbs a significantly higher volume of by- drogen than the ferrite phase, hydrogen reduces the amount peer: “otal volume of pores cm?/1008 Pressure, MPa Fig. 19 Dependence on pressure of the (otal volume of pores in ‘welded joints in AMg6 aluminium alloys: / aficr etching, 2 etching tnd holding in ae for 3 days, 3 etching and holding in water vapours fr 3 days [35] of nitrogen in the weld, which increases ferrite in the weld- ment and consequently weakens the mechanical and corro- sion properties [2, 3, 22, 31, 32) 3.3 Aluminium and its alloys Welding of aluminium and its alloys encounters more di culties than welding of steels. Major concerns are cracking and porosity, duc to the high solubility of the hydrogen in the molten metal and the relatively high thermal expansion coefficient, which causes large changes in volume upon solidification. In addition, dispersal of the surface oxide film before or during welding and correct identification of the weld pool, because of its lack of colour change, can also be problematic [1, 3]- Argon and helium are the most common shielding gases for aluminium and aluminium alloys and play an important role in reduction of defeets and protection ‘of the weld pool. It has been observed in [3] that argon improves oxide breakdown performance and yields better are stability and weld quality. Helium supplies more heat input to the base metal and causes an increase in the welding rate, penetration and weld puddle fluidity. Greater fuidity of the weld pool can facilitate the escape of hydrogen gas bubbles, which are the source of weld porosity in the weld ool. Thus, the amount of weld metal porosity may decrease thigh values of heat input, It has been reported in [33] that increasing the amount of helium in the shielding. atmoxphere results in an inerease in impaet energy and crack growth ‘energy, and a decrease in the erack growth rate D springer nips researchgste neUpicatin!257396726_Irluence_of shielding. gases_in_te welding of metals antsaranots 420 PDFs viewer Int Ady Manuf Technol 2013) 68:1411-1421 Figure 9 illustrates the effect of different shielding, gases compositions on the microstructure of AIMg, welded with \W. This experiment [33] demonstrates the positive cffect on the weld quality and mechanical properties result- ing from increased helium in the shielding atmosphere. ‘ain difference that can be observed from these figures is in the amount of porosity, which is mostly found around the joint line between the two passes and the HAZ. Figure 9 shows the pores in the HAZ close to the weld. The highest porosity was found in the weld that was shielded with Ar+ 0.015 % No (Fig. 9e). From Fig. 9d itis clear that the welded structure with Ar+50 % He+0.015 % No contains consid- erably less porosity. In addition, the hardness values for the ‘weld metal in the helium shielding atmosphere were slightly igher. It can thus be inferred that a larger amount of helium in the shielding atmosphere (up to 10 %) results in a mild increase in hardness [33] “Many researchers have reported that hydrogen absorption in aluminium is so strong that the use of hydrogen for welding aluminium is not practically admissible [1, 3, 4, 16, 18, 33, 34], I has been reported [35] that shielding gas pressure can affect nucleation and influences the development or sup- pression of weld porosity. Figure 10 illustrates the results of experiments to identify the variation in the total volume of the pores relative to the argon pressure in the chamber during GMA welding of an AMgé alloy. The decrease in porosity in the weld metal with pressure lower than atmo- spheric pressure is explained by Tiquid metal degassing processes [35]. 4 Conclusions ‘This study discusses the effoct of various shielding atmos- pheres on the microstructure and mechanical properties of different materials, including steel, aluminium and ther alloys. + For carbon steel, shielding blends of argon and CO> are very common, Increasing COs in the mixture to 5-20 % ccan yield higher welding speed, greater penetration, less porosity and lower welding cost. However, the use of pure CO. can cause clement loss and spatter. + For carbon stecl, typically, increasing the oxidation po- tential of the shielding gas decreases the toughness and tensile strength of the weld deposit. + For ferritic stainless stecl, increasing the amount of carbon dioxide in shielding gases can increase the mar- tensite content at the grain boundary. ‘+ For austenitic stainless steel, increasing the amount of nitrogen in the shielding gas increases the ductility and improves the tensile strength, hardness and pitting cor- rosion resistance of the weld. 2 spring + For austenitic stainless steel, raising the percentage of hydrogen in the shiclding atmosphere increases the ‘amount of ferrite, which degrades the mechanical prop- erties of the weldmeat. + For duplex and supper duplex stainless steel, addition of | nitrogen into the shielding gas accelerates transforma- tion from ferrite to austenite, which improves mechani- cal properties and pitting corrosion resistance. + For duplex and supper duplex stainless steel, hydrogen in the ambient gas increases ferrite in the weldment and consequently degrades mechanical and corrosion resis- tance properties. + For aluminium and its alloys, increasing the helium content of the shielding atmosphere results in an in- crease in the impact energy and crack growth energy, and a decrease in the erack growth rate. + Consumables, including the shielding gas and tuode, constitute about 9 % of welding costs ized countries. Itcan be inferred that shielding gases affect the welding duty eyele, welding speed and wastage. + Many advances have been made based on experiments in the field of shiclding gas research. The results achieved aro useful with regard to the selection of shielding gas parameters. However, more modelling should be carried out to clarify the mechanisms under lying their effects. Further, elated work should focus on materials with poor weldability, such as high-strength, steel, magnesium alloys and copper alloys References landbook Commise. Kaavel (Fim) (1993) handbook. Volume 6, Welding bazing, and soldering 2. Chern TS, Tseng K-H, Tsai H-L @011) Study of the character isis of diplex stainless stel activated tungsten inet gas welds ‘Mater Des 32(1):285 263. doi0. 1016, maldes.2010.03.056 3. Published in North America by CRC Pross, Cambridge, Eng. Boca Raton, FL, 4. 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