Electric Furnace Steelmaking - 21 CHAPTER 3 Electrical Equipment and Operating Power Characteristics by Jon A. Ciotti, Are Furnace Technology and Donald L. Pelfrey, Armeo, Inc INTRODUCTION Since the publication of the first volume of Electric Furnace Steelmaking in 1962, important advances, in design and powering have been made to bring the elec- tric are furnace into the forefront as a prime tool for producing iron and steel The advances in the technolo- gy of electric furnace olectrical equipment have lead to many major advances in the electric are furnace steel production. The development of a strong interconnecting grid system by the utility companies has lead to a much stiffer power supply to the electric furnace melt shop facilities. The advancement in transformer technol- ogy leading to the design and manufacture of largor transformers and the triangulation of the secondary bbus system have all contributed significantly to the im- provements seen in the last several years. ‘This chapter will review the arc furnace electrical system with emphasis on circuit impedance and trans- former powering. The power characteristic curve, the heat cycle, and the interpretation of these operating characteristics is discussed providing pertinent informa- tion which can be used as a guide to predict efficient power utilization and furnace operation. Just as there have been significant changes in the electrical design and construction of arc fumaces in the past several years, there have been equally important developments in the operation of the are furnaces. In this chapter we will attempt. to deal with some of these operating techniques, discuss how some of the changes evolved, and the end result as far as improved production end reduced operating costs Tn the period of the 1960's and 1970's, utility power systems were upgraded to meet the increased electric are furnace loeds. Arc furnace loads of 160 MVAVfur- nnece with up to 3 furnaces per shop (totaling 480 MVA) are supplied by utility system fault capacities at the substation voltage bus [645 KV) in the range of 10,000 MVA. Due to increased are furnace loads, sys- tom supply voltages have been increased to 69 KV at the primary terminals ofthe furnace transformer. In several installations, supply voltages of 115 KV or higher are fed directly into primary terminals of the arc furnace transformer. Figure 5-1 presents 5 methods of supplying power to the arc furnace load. These include single, 2 and 3 transformer schemes with a selection of on-load or off- load tap changing. ‘Any of these schemes can be adaptable to an arc furnace load A selection of one over another is based primarily on the considerations between the furnace ‘user (his design requirements) and utilities supply available ‘The major components of the power system are designed to fit the requirements of the individual furnace considering essentially the desired melting rate ops/hour), ‘Switehgear, transformer ratings, protective equipment, ete are designed commensurate with the incoming utility supply voltage and the intermediate voltage selected to feed the arc furnace transformer. A brief description of the major electrical circuit components follows. Disconnect Switch Disconnect switches aro used wherever a circuit may require convenient isolation. The switches may be of the open type or enclosed in a metal cabinet. For FIG. 8:1. Schematic circuits for five methods of supplying power22 - Electric Furnace Steelmaking B.phase service, three individual units are mounted high ‘on a wall or frame, sufficiently spaced for the voltage class of the switch They may be arranged for a hook Stick operation, ganged lever operation or motorized ‘The disconnect switehos should be equipped with a key interlock to provent thoir being operated unless the respective circuit breaker is open. The interlock is par~ ticularly desizable when the switches and the breaker are not Iocated in the same vault The interlock will prevent closing the switches while someone may be ‘working on the line or the breaker In some special cases, the disconnect switches are equipped with fuses for line protection in lieu of a backup power circuit breaker) when the short circuit line capacity exceeds the Interrupting rating of the furnace breaker In this ease, the furnace breaker would be arranged for fur- nace switching and interruption of relatively light over- loads only ircuit Breakers Oil circuit breakers are used in present day applica- tions as backup breakers for are furnace loads They are primatily used for protection of equipment ahead (on the primary side) of the furnace switch Ratings of the ‘OCB are predicated on the system voltages and power Toads Furnace Operating Switch Modern technology has provided the are furnace user with a vacuum switeh to handle the repetitive switching of furnace loads. The vacuum switch is a module or modules containing contacts which are enclosed in a porcelain or acrylic housing and operated in a vacuum, ‘These switches are grouped in a series or parallel ar- rangement to match the current and voltage require ments of the installation This switch has for all practi- al purposes become the standard furnace switch for the are furnace industry. It can and has been applied on primary voltage levels from 15 KV up to 115 KV classed for are furnace applications. Figure 3-2 shows ‘an arrangement of a vacuum switch and a cut-away of 1 vacuum bottle FIG. 20, 15kV. 500 ampere 20 Transmasterawitch on a single "mechanism with ane vacuum madul inesch phase Photo courtesy af Joslyn Manufacturing and Supply. High Voltage Equipment Division, Cleveland. OH adil eat Instrument Transformers ‘The signal for automatically tipping the fumace switch or the circuit breaker comes from current transformers If these are used for tripping the breaker only, they may be the relatively inexpensive bushing type’ current transformers When current transformers must energize meters and the meter readings must be accurate, the so-called wound type curvent transformer is used which has a primary and sesondary winding accurately wound about a properly sized iron core Current transformers are used in the primary line of the are furnace power supply system and usually in one leg of the secondary Windings of the are furnace transformer ‘The ratio of the CT windings is usually ehosen s0 that the CT produces slightly less than 5 lamps. ffom its secondary when rated current. passes through its primary Tho burden (voltamps) on the CT is determined by the units they energize. Caution must, be exercised so that the CT's are never energized with- ‘out their terminals connected to some complete circuit ‘On some systems, two primary CT's are considered sufficient to protect the Jine and equipment, but the added protection of a third CT is desirable regardless of the type of system (delta or wye, grounded or ungrounded) from which the furnace transformer is energized When primary current transformers are used to energize meters uch a3 watthour meters, primary potential transform 13 (PT's) are also required. Those are che wound type, or Ginarily equipped with fuses. The ratio ofthe PT’s is such a8 to produce approximetely 120 volts from the voltage of the bus to which they are connected. ‘The burden is based on the instruments energized by the PT's Condensers, Capacitors, Reactors, Static Var Generators Synchronous condensers, capacitors and statie var gen- erators in the electrical system act as a voltage stabilize er and provide power factor correction, Asynchronous condenser or a synchronous converter as it is also called, is a machine like a motor or generator and can be both fat the came time. It is connected to the main incoming. Ceramic Cylinder Vacuum Atmosphere 10 Tort Fixed Contact Moving Contact, Copper Condensing Shield Bellows Shield Copper Bellows FIG. 22h Cat way photograph of a vacuum conteet. Moving con: tact separates 0160 in. from fxod contact Copper bellows presorvee vacuum intarrupting dielectric Photo courtesy of Joslyn Manufacturing and Supply, High Voltage Equipment Division, Cleveland. OMBlectric Furnace Steetmaking - 23 ‘TABLE 8-[— KILOWATT MULTIPLIERS FOR DETERMINING CAPACITOR KILOVARS Original Power Factor Desired Improved Power Factor (cos Ay) cos A) 100 85 90 85, eo 0 1938 Too os O73 0589 e 1265 0997 oraz oes 0516 6 1201 oer on 0581 0451 66 1138 0809 ose Osis 0.988 68 1078 0749 0594 0458 0328 0 1020 691 0536 0.400 0270 2 0964 0635, 0.480 os8 oni 4 0309 0580 0425, 0289 0159 6 0.865, 0596 ost 0235, 9105 8 0.802 0473 oa o1s2 0082 0 0750 oat 0266 0130 9.000 a 0.698 0369 0214 0078 86 0648 oat? 0162 0.026 86 0.599 0364 0109 88 0540 oz 0.056 9 0484 0155 0.000 2 0426 0097 9 0363 0034 96 0292 98, 0.203 300 0.000 power line and is designed to run at synchronous speed Its basic function is to stabilize voltage, minimize volt- age flicker and provide power factor ecrrection at the point of common coupling (point at which the utility company supply eouples with other customers’ voltage requirements. Static capacitors are used for power factor correction of large reactive loads on are furnaces and also provide a minimal increase in supply voltage ‘The static var generator is a combination of harmon- ie fiver, capacitor banic and thyristor switehed inductors. ‘Phoir function is again voltage stabilization, harmonic suppression, and power factor correction. ‘A reactor is simply a large coil installed in the main coming circuit with the load current flowing through ‘Are furnace loads supplied by an adequate power grid (MVA fault capacity at the point of common cou- pling is at least 60 times the operating load) usually Use static capacitors for power factor correction and in-line reactors for harmonic supprossion, Now for some discussion and explanation of these terms. The arc furnace load is a highly reactive one, due to the amount of inherent or added reaetance the are citcuit required for are stabilization, The are furnace draws useful energy from tho line, converts only a patt of it to useful heat, and the rest is fed back into the line as reactive energy. It has no value in the ine, and the synchronous condenser is used to convert it back into useful energy By converting the reactive energy to active energy, the synchronous condensar converts a low power fuctor Joad into a high power factor load on the line and its flywheel effect absorbs the fluctuations in the line volt- age and current caused by the arc furnace ‘Static condensers or capacitors are also used for power factor correction and, to some extant, to absorb fluctua tions in the line They cost less per unit of correction, particularly for the smaller loada Smaller capacitor Units can be located on the line closer to the erratic induction loads of an arc furnace Large groups should bbe located at the substation in insulated racks ‘When an electrical circuit is struck by lightning, or when a heavy load is suddenly interrupted (as when a furnace breaker opens the circuit under load), transied| voltages are generated in the line several ‘times the rated voltage of the line These voltages could break: down the insulation of the line or equipment end couse serious short circuits Static capacitors on the line can absorb or dampen these transient voltages sufficiently to avoid any damage When so used, the capacitors are called surge capacitors. Surge capacitors in a line will produce very little power factor correction because only a small amount of capacitance is required for surge protection. A far greater amount is required for signil cant change in pover factor Since are furnace load is not a constant load, the demand (KVA or KW) vauies as the heat in the furnace progresses, This makes it difficult to size power factor correction equipment properly ‘As we said before, a reactor is simply a coil with current flowing through it ‘The current flowing through ‘one turn of the coil induces a voltage which reacts against the same current in the adjacent turn ‘Thus, @ reactor inserted into a line holds back the line curren ‘The greater the current in the reactor, the greater is the force holding it back ‘Therefore, reactors are used to reduce surges in line current ee well as control undesirable harmonics Calculation of KVAR's Required . The amount of magnetizing kilovars (kilovolt amp reactive) which must be supplied from capacitors or synchronous machines to make a desired improvement in the power factor may be determined by using the (KW multiplier) tables, shown in Table 3-1 ‘As an example of the use of Table 3-1, assume that the original power factor is 70 percent, the original load of 100 KVA and the improved power factor is to be 96 percent. ‘The load KW is: KW = 7x 100= 70 From Table 1, the “KW multiplier” is 0691 for im. proving the power factor from 70 to 95 percent. The capacitor KVAR required is then found to be: chvar = 70 KW x 0681 = 48.424 - Electric Furnace Steelmaking FIG. 33a, Coretype transformer ig 3:16. Sholltype transtormer ARC FURNACE TRANSFORMERS Are furnace transformers supplying furnace loads to day are much larger in capacity than the transformers of the pre-1960 era, There are two basic concepts used in designing are furnace transformers They are the shell form and core wound type of construction In the core wound design (Figure $-3a) the windings are ar ranged by concentric cylinders around the core section The main leakage flux direction is parallel to the core section In the shell form (Figure 33b) arrangement the windings are interleaved in graups along the care, thus the leakage flux is perpendicular to the axis of Are furnace transformers are designed to more strin: ent specifications than utility type station transform cers because of the heavy stresses caused by unbalanced load during scrap cave-in There are several seasons why an are furnace transformer is designed differently than a distribution type transformer: 1) The are furnace transformer is subjected to fre- quent switching. The exiting current can be interrupt- fed as many as 70 to 100 times in a 24-hour period 2) The arc furnace transformer is subjected to fre- quent secondary, single-phase and three-phase short cireuits for an extended period of time 3) There is a considerable amount of inhorent unbal ‘ance within normal furnace operation, This causes unpredictable stress patterns and uneven heating within the transformer. Those, as well as other sten- uous are furnace requirements, dictate more rugged design and better bracing than'in a distribution type transformer. Transformers rated below 7500 KVA may require supplemental reactance in order to limit the operating eurrents under load ‘Transformer Size In an era of the 1960's and 1970's, terminology was established for arc furnaces regarding powering based on KVAlsq ft of hearth area These classifications are as follows: Regular power 160 KVAlsq ft High power 180 KVAlsq ft Ultra-high power 200 KVAisq. ft ‘There is little correlation between transformer name- plate MVA and maximum MW into the bath ‘The rea- Son for the wide variation in power output capability is the influence of the utility company's stiffness and in the mateh or mismatch of the furnace’s electrical sys- tem with a transformer design It is very important that the transformer design be electrically compatible with the rest of the furnace’s electrical system ‘A very Important characteristic of an are furnace transformer is known as the transformer impedance. ‘This value, along with the corresponding impedance of the rest of the furnace electrical system, determines how efficiently the transformer supplies power to the furnace. Any are furnace transformer specification should in- clude the impedance value along with the following other important characteristics 1) MVA at 55°C rise 2) MW capacity at nameplate MVA (specify point of MW measurement) 8) Inlet cooling water temperature ® Loading cycle 5) Primary voltage, 8) Short cizeuit MVA of utility company's power system ‘7D List the transformer accessories 8) Transformer should be designed and built in ac- cordance with ANSI* and NEMA standards 9) Secondary taps, 10) Type of tap changer Accessories Any transformer manufacturer's catalog will include approximately two pages of transformer accessories Some of the more important ones are listed below: LD) Primary and secondary current transformers Pri- mary current transformers should be of metering accuracy; secondary current transformers should have a ratio of (Lmax)/2 88, This will provide a 5 amp secondary current at full load when connected in delta. “American National Standards Institute National Hlectrie Manufacturers Ascoviation2) Sudden pressure relay. 8) Hot spot winding temperature indicator 4) Lightning arrestors and surge capacitors. 5) Extemal oil/water double wall leak detector type heat exchanger 6) Demand accurate and complete transformer name- plate drawings and certified test documentation Secondary Voltage Taps Probably the most complex problem encountered in designing a furnace transformer is the selection of volt- fage taps While itis beyond the scope of this chapter to include all of the various considerations which should logically be included in the tap selection process, some general discussion will be helpful First ofall, recognize the fact that the power input level is not determined by theostat setting. The operator changes the power level by changing voltage taps This is why voltage tap selection is important Voltage taps should be selected to give the desired megawatt power input at near opti- mum current This selection will result in good are stability, improved power factor and reduced electrical losses All major furnace builders and transformer man facturers have the ability to determine (with aid of a computer) the voltages required to meet the above stat- ed objectives ‘What should the top voltage tap be? As a general rule the top voltage tap should be selected to deliver maximum transformer MW et rated current. The curve shown in Figure 3-4a can be used as a guideline for selec ting the top voltage for a given transformer MVA rating. rating Specify a minimum of three full capacity taps This will ensure sufficiont current capacity at a voltage level low enough to operate the furnace smoothly and efficiently in normal operating modes ‘Transformer Tap Changers ‘There are two basic tap changer designs: 1) Omload ~ normally a 33 position motor-operated tap changer designed to. change position under load ‘This tap changer is used primarily with a computer for automatic load changing, and is frequently used as part of @ plant demand control scheme The on- load tap changer has fallen out of favor recently but with the inereased application of computers and tieroprocessors, engineers are starting to take an- other look 2) Off-load - the most popular type of tap changer is the offload tap changer ‘This has been an extreme ly dependable device with many years of relatively fallure-free service. The offload tap changer normal- ly has six positions and a delta wye awitch giving the operator an additional six positions for a total of twelve voltages to choase from. The six delta taps are selected by the transformer designer and then the six wye voltages are derived by simply dividing the delta voltages by the square root of 8. Figure S-4b shows the intemal assembly of a 6-position offload tap changer with a delta wye switch In developing this chapter, a survey of recent arc farnace installations was taken regarding power density (KVA) per square foot of hearth area. Table $-I lists a varied cross tection of furnace diemeters and powering indicating the power density in the arc furnace of the 1960's far exceeds the original classifications established Figures 35a and S-Sh show a series of graphs of power densities for are furnaces in the 1970's era and the are fa nace of the 1980's. All of the recent are furnace installa Electric Furnace Steelmaking - 25 tions listed fall in the range of the revised power density Figure 3-6a is a photograph of a modern are furnace transformer with the secondary windings closed in a ‘wye internally and the secondary voltage terminals ar- ranged in an equilateral triangle exiting from the front side of the tank. Figure 3-4b is @ photograph of @ core wound furnace transformer with the high current secondary bus con- ductors shown in the front. Figure 36 shows the major components of a modern electric furnace transformer ‘The Are Furnace Cireuit ‘The electric are furnace power system can best be doseribed separated into two sections, the primary power supply and the secondary electrical circuit. Combine they control the electrical operation of the arc furnace in terms of voltage, current and power input ‘The two parameters from which the resultant power characteristics for the furnace are developed, are thy supply voltage and total circuit impedance. In the for lowing text, the primary and secondary cireuit parame. ters will ba discussed fo acquaint you with the power supply system and how it controls the operating ‘characteristics, ‘The Primary Circuit — The power for the electri are furnace begins at the utility generating station anu is transmitted by power transmission lines and station transformers to the primary bushings of the are fur- nace power transformer, "The basie power system is comprised of the following components: 1) Short eireuit MVA fault capacity at incoming high voltage supply. 2) Substation (stepdown) transformer and regulating transtormer (UPTIUNAL). 3) Are furnace transformer. Figure 3-7 is a single line diagram showing the ma- Jor resistance and reactance components that make up the power system of the are furnace In analyzing the primary power circuit, the system components are given in values of percent impedance, per unit impedance, ete, These can be converted into FIG. Sa. Guidelines for selecting tap voltages for a given transformer MVA rating‘Tap Changer Section Dottanvye Switch FIG 3.tb. No load deltattype tap changer 1+ Motor and control mechanism 2 Internal assembly. showing switches and gear drive Photos courtesy of Westinghouse Slectsle Company. Pittsburgh, PA TABLE 3:11 — RECENT ARC FURNACE INSTALLATIONS — Power Density (RVAI Company Location Fee, Dia. (Ft ‘Transf Rating (KVA) Sq.ft. Hearth Area) Babcock & Wilcox 2 ‘0,000 23 Beaver Falls, Pa Bayou Steel 1B 60.000 308 LaPlace. Louisiana Bethlehem Stoo! 4 120,000 324 Johnstown, Pa Border Steel 2 20,000 259 EI Paso, Texas Chaparral Steet 2 100,000 327 Midlothian. Texas Crucible Steel 2 85.000 230 Midland. Pa Kentucky Electric “ 32.000 2or Ashland, Kentucky Newport Steel 16 #2000 288 Newport, Kentueky Raritan River 20 30.000 364 Perth Amboy. New Jorsey Structural Metsts 8 60,000 08 Seguin. Texas 0 60.000 243 SOURCE: 1) Motel Pending WinAll Handbook Tas8 i :ohmic values for evaluation of system characteristics fusing the following formulas: ‘System Impedance (MVA Fault Capacity) Bao)? OhmsiPhase Gy MVA where: Z = Impedance in Ohms Bog = Phase to Phase Voltage in Kilovolts MVA_ = Short Circuit Apparent Power in MVA ‘The stepdown and are furnace transformers rated at nominal voltage, MVA and percent (%) impedances can be reduced ta ohmic values as follows: ($2) (B90) x 10 {262) Ci 10 ohms 2) MVA Base x 10% or where: Z. = Impedance in Ohms Sez, = Value of Impedance in Percent Bog = Voltage in Kilovolts MVA = Transformer Base Rating in MVA Tn the evaluation of the circuit for power characteris: ties, all of the impedances are reflected to a given reference voltage which is usually the secondary name- plate voltage of the arc furnace transformer FIG. 358 Range of power usoge in the 1970s and 19803 FIG 850 Siang guido for stealing furnaces Copied fom Ele trode Digest, courtesy Union Carbide Corporaion Blectric Furnace Steelmaking - 27 voltage (E1) becomes (Za) at the reference voltage (Ea) where: 2) om an FIG. $69, Transformer with internal wye, secondary voltage er minals on right. Photo courtesy of National Industri, an Blekt! Union Co. Norway FIG. 6b Core-wvound transformer, secondary bus leads infront Photo courtesy of General Bletrie Corporation, Schenectady. NY49; wiueLriG rurnace Sveemacing (11) UVT Load Tap Changer (6) Lifting Hooks (12) Fow Cootere (1) HV Surge Capacitors, (2) HY Surge Ateaster [7) Deltaswye Switch Motor and Conti () HY Busning Cabinet (13) Cooting Water Connection and Wat (8) Motor Operated No Load Deltanye (8) Control Cabinet Flow Indicator (9) inertaire Cabinet Switch (9 LV Bus Bar Bushing (10) Oil Circulating Pumps- usin coming hin ie rot spec : = Regulater teeiona) “u~—— J——eiectrodes i L PIG 2.7. Schematic of the electrical circuit of an are furnace ‘installation Gonerally, the value of line and transformer imped. ance are given in the absolute form (Z) and not broken down into resistance (R) and reactance ([X) components If the vector values (R + §X) are of interest in the system calculations. the following ratio of 1) to (R) ‘can be assumed: Line Impedance xX _10 R= Zoos Ratia of X = 12 Rod X=Zsing 10 0 = aretan 22 = 4.29" ‘Transformer Impedance: X_8 Zoos Ratio of X= & RTT Zsing = arctanS 7 = ser The Secondary Circuit — The secondary arc fur- nace circuit is that portion of the treut from the fir nase transformer socondary bushings to tho electrode tips Ie conelats of four majr component 1) The transformer dota closure 2} Socondaryflnible cables 5) Tubular bos, 4) Electrodes ‘The design arrangement of the secondary conductor groups is either coplanar, fully triangulated or a mit ture of both. In furnaces ‘up throught the easly 1960's the standard design was @ coplanar stray Uf fnline smrngemat of he senda cuca in the middle 1960, increased powering emphasized the per phase power' unbalance’ and_eaused severe hotspots! in the Race, sometimes refered as the Blectrie Furnace Steelmaking - 29 primary and secondary hotspots. To minimize this fondition, the theory of equilateral triangulation, well ‘known in transmission line applications, was introduced ta the secondasy circuit of the electric arc furnace Comparing the two circuit arrangements (a) Coplanar and (b) Triangular design, actual measurements and theoretical caleulations substantiate the large unbal ance in the resistance (R) end reactance GX) compo- nents ofthe thtee-phase secondary furnace circuit “The cause of this electrical unbalance is due 1) Unequal conductor length, and 2) Unequal mutual coupling of fluxes between the three phases ofthe eireuit The coplanar array produces mutual coupling of the fluxes between the center and two outside phases which eallses an additive or subtractive component called trans. posed “resistance.” Depending upon the phase rotation, this component inereases the operating resistance. in tho loading phase and reduces the operating resistance in the trailing phase of the circuit ‘With the introduction ‘of equilateral triangulation of the secondary eireut, the mutual coupling between thy phases is theoretically equalized thereby minimizing t Unbalance in the resistance and reactance components ofthe circuit. Figures 36 and 9 show the application of equilateral triangulation in the secondary are furnace cireuit using. Water cooled delta closure coppor Figure 2-10 illasteater the details of water cooled eable constriction i igure 3-11 shows typical secondary circuit crass section for a moder electric are furnace Using the formulations in Table $-{f1 and 3-1V, calculations of the secondary circuit reactance for any conductor configuta tion ean be made ‘TABLE 3-11 — FORMULAS FOR CALCULATING A. Coplanar Design Ly =LycbteeLen Ly wLs-LaaLem Le = Lebanban ign ( s-Lan-Len LasLa-Lan-Ler Le=LarLanLon { Formulae for Calculating Self and Mutual Inductance | Lselt= 3-4) | | | 28 4d i j Stin 28144) x 10-9 Mensies 195) | tin 23148) x 10 Ht where: S=Length of conductor (centimeters) dsmGeomotrie mean radius (centimeters! 44=Goometrie mean distance between conductors (contimeters)or & Miller Ine Pittsburgh. PA,TABLE 3:1V — FORMULAE FOR CALCULATING INDUCTANCE (LEVY) Por Conductor a Lyebageie Bat 110888 Man MAE j0866 Mic 8) LoaLasere MAP 0 866 Man ~ MBC 0 866 Me an Lewteycr -MBE-10 866 Mac—MUEsj08s6 ae 8) Per Phase Uiinnc = havent tate 6 —— Copper stranding ~<+—— Retaining sleeve —<—— Water jacket —*—— Heat shield —+—— Anti-chafe casing j—*—— Retaining straps Electric Furnace Steelmaking - 31 Dello closure bus tubes on transformer ra0m wall) o> os JIN Electrode arm ‘wr toes rN CO SY on x ay: FIG. BL. Are furnace secondary circuit cross section Flexibie eoble Electrode piten elvele ‘The inductance resultant is transformed into the reac- tance of the circuit by the formula: Xi = 20 £L (Ohms) (3.10) Where: X= Reactance per phase in ohms quency in Hertz L_ = Inductance in henties X 10-9 1416. An example is given for a set of four conductors per phase arranged in an 80 percent triangle ‘The results are given as follows: Phase _Z. R ‘The e018 as 8 B O718 0.006 omg a9 c 0765 0.169 0746 | 1028 All values X 10 ohms In evaluating this data, the transposed resistance val: ues are +0 182 to -0.169 mulliohms in the two outs) phases because of unequal mutual coupling of the flux ‘The reactance is approximately 50 perzent less in the center phase due to the shorter conductor length and the effects of coupling unbalance in the R and X compo- nents of the secondary circuit ‘The amount of unbal- ance is dependent on the degree of triangulation of the circuit. In the selection of power (MVA) for the electric are farnace, the annual tonnage or tons per hour for the furnace’ must be specified. Also, the heat size require ment adaptable to associated equipment such as a con- tinuous casting machine must be correlated with the primary melting equipment ‘A general rule of thumb is that the furnace can melt one (1) ton per hour per transformer MVA rating Thus, if the furnace is powered by a 25 MVA transformer, it should produce approximately 25 tons per hour tap to tap.‘To determine the emount of meltdown power (MVA) required to produce a typical heat, the following formu- la can be used: Meltdown MVA ‘Tons x KWH'Ton x 1.08 x 60 4 = Tons x 0 2 gab ad ‘Time (Min } x 0.707 x 1000 where: Tons = Tap weight RWE7Ton Meltdown KOWE1/Ton = 875 Los Yield factor a Hour to minute conversion Time Required meltdown time 0707 Operating power factor Example Problem: "Tap Weight’ = 100 Tone Meltdown Time = 74 Min MVA = 100 x 975 x 1.08 x 60 74% 0707 x 1000 MVA 46.45 MVA" CONTROLS AND INSTRUMENTATION ‘The electric are furnace is supplied with an operator's control panel which is used to control the power input and monitor the operation of the furnace, Various com- Ponents of the panel, including the regulator, load ad. Just rheostats, indicating power meters and voltage and current meters will be discussed briefly. The Regulator ‘There are a number of methods of electrode control used in the regulation of an electrie are furnace The basic drive systems used are DC Motor, AC. Motor o hydraulic ‘Ahead of these systems is an electrical control, either solid state or amplidyne, which develops an error signal as the product of a phase to ground voltage and a line current reference signal This “Impedance” control permits operation at a con- stant power input consistent with accurate electrode ositioning The electrode control system should be fast, accurate, and responsive It should permit fast electrode ‘movement, especially during scrap cave-ins to reduce the short circuit stresses on the utility supply system and the furnace electrical equipment ‘Types of Arc Furnace Regulators ‘The most widely used are furnace regulators or so- called electrode position controllers taday still use the current-voltage reference feedback from the furnace pow. er system to position the olectrodes ‘The first genera- tion of are furnace regulators used relays and contac. tors to actuate the electrode movement You may re- member the old balanced-beam type regulators which are still effectively used in some smaller furnace instal- lations today The next generation of regulators com. monly employed “Amplidyne” or “Rototrol” motor Kencrator sets for smoother, faster electrode positioning ‘These fairly simple and reliable regulators are still in use today With more and more steel produced in are furnaces and the advent of the ultra-high power and super ultra-high power principle of are melting, a new rowulating system has been successfully. introduced, ‘These regulators employ modern technology and solid ‘The calculation of meltdaiwn power ‘MVAI establishes the ‘ranslormor rating for the ate furnace state electronic components With these modern regulat ing systems, some mansfacturers have introduced differ ent methods of regulating; for example, resistance tt ihe af Sho by Hntrauain ofa Hons aston (OF Signal, in addition to the voltage and current feedbel is ueed to control the sect movement Heretatre the circuit impedance, which in a sense uses voltage and current feedback from the power circuit anly, hac been used Cost of regulators vaties Depending an Spt of furnace equipment, one ean get along with'a single but modern tegvlstor which incorporates, most of the features needed for average furnace operation Furnace installations, however, with sophisticated computer con trolled operating and power equipment are usually ad vised to install a more sophisticated are furnace Togulator “A typical are furnace regulating system i shown in Figure 312 [ates SE Secondary Sesondory valage FIG 3.12 Schematic of « typical arc furnace regulating system Function of Are Furnace Regulators It is a function of an arc furnace regulator (one per phase) to maintain a preset socondary current by lower- ing or raising the electrode The regulator is controlled by the feedbacie from the voltage and current in the Power circuit Are furnace regulators control the power input with preset current and voltage settings per phase ‘The regulator also markedly affects productivity and the consumption and breakage of electrodes, as well es the consumption of electrical energy and refractory The electrode movement is usually activated by an electric motor in an electro-mechanical regulating system or by a hydraulic cylinder in an electro-hydraulie regulation system The most important characteristic of an ate furnace regulator, in addition to fast, smooth response, is adjustment capability Ideally, a ‘modern regulator should have @ minimum full range of adjustment capabilities Included in such capabilities are: 1) Increase or decrease in sensitivity 2) Adjustment of the width of the dead bend 3) Current and/or voltage adjustment per phase and per tap ) A sufficient gain adjustment ) Electrode speed adjustment, manual and automatic| | A fast pullout during a cave-in during the meltdown period should also be provided by the regulator. Vari- us regulator manufacturers differ in their specification for regulator functions, and all use slightly different citeuitry Adjustment of Are Furnace Regulators Adjusting are furnace regulating systems is usually a won link tn are melting, One tain reason is-a faily Complicated circuitty which is seldom understood. by the technical personnel assisting the operator ‘These furnace regulators, and particularly the modern elec: Homie devices, have been designed by highly qualified Gngineers whose knowledge of are melting unfortunately fain many cases, limited, The most advanced regulator {s'nut very helpful if it does not provide for masimum melting or at least has the capability for easy adjust ‘ent and tuning for maximum productivity How then should a properly tuned regulator operate? ‘To bogin with, it should have adjustment. capability ver a certain’ range of the widely used are furnace power curve, and move the electrode up and down in a Smooth, nonjetKing motion. It should respond electrical iy tast but slow enough so that the desired movements can be exercised by the mechanical drive mochanism ‘An electrode should smoothly respond to any change in the are zone, particularly during the boredown. and imelting period Even during the refining period, one should be able to see a slight up and down movement of the electrodes, as shown in typical power-time recordings ‘To translate this in distance, a 1 to 2" up and down movement during the boredown period i usually sufficient excopt in response tof cave-in, in ‘which case a special circuit moves the electrode up at a high rate of speed Following are speeds usually recommended for electrode movements Manual AT min Automatic 10 fUmin, (sometimes mare) An unresponsive regulator: without, sufficient move- ‘ment usually generates excess power directly below the clectrode tips, but does not produce enough ate flare to melt the rest of the furnace charge An easily adjusta~ ble regulator can be tuned quickly for any new melting requirement and a given tap setting For smaller fur- races using supplemental reactances in the power circuit (transformer), a change in reactance settings usually also affects the electrode movement Many arc furnaces still use so-called current adjust- ment theostats as part of the regulating system These theostats, usually located at the operator's panel, give ‘the operator the capability to change the arc lengths; end consequently, the secondary current and the sec ondary voltage, followed by a change in power input and, ‘not least, a change in conversion costs and productivity Most modern are melt shops have opted to eliminate these rheostats and depend on an optimized well-tuned and maintained regulator and power tap se- lection only. To give the operator the opportunity to melt with a shorter or longer arc, depending on melting procedures, some of these furnaces have successiully Installed a short are - long arc switch in the regulating system, providing for a controlled and optimized shorter or longer operating arc possibility The electrade control should provide a smooth and uniform power input in maintaining a very nari ‘mogawatt envelope on the recording chart Refer co Figure 3-13 Load Adjustment Rheostats The operator's panel contains three load adjustmy rheostats located on the front center of the console. 1 function of these rheostats is to regulate the power input within certain limits Modern technology and operating procedures suggest limited use of the rheostats to the lower taps for hold- ing bath temperature while waiting to tap the heat ‘The load adjust rheostat is being used less and less to control (regulate) power input during the meltdown cy~ cle of the heat Indicating Meters Instrumentation is provided on the operator's control panel to indicate to the operator the performance of the FIG. 3419. Recording of power input in megawatts vs clock timejensen CUEHueY SteuLLUI I 2 Back-up I Fu valtoge petenticl Yocum Franstormer ¢ dhign-vttoge Patent ttomer A sis SEE] FIG. $-14a Schematic representation ofthe instrumentation used) 9 typical installation furnace with respect to power input, operating currents, Power factor and accumulated megawatt hours In or: der for these indicators to mean anything to the operator, he must understand their individual and com. bined funetions ‘The arc furnace circuit is fed by a three-phase supply line but in actual operation, each electrode is regulatad independent of the other two ‘Thus, some metering fune tions indicate per phase values and others indicate 39 values Figures 3-14a through 3-L4e illustrate typical Primary and secondary metering installed on the furnace operator panel POWER CALCULATIONS. MVA, MW, MVAR Considering power calculations for an electric arc furnace, the total circuit impedance (2) and its compo, ents of resistance (R) and reactance (jX) are used wich the secondary voltage to develop the power characterie. ties Referring to Figure 3:7, there ‘are five separate parameters to consider in the furnace circuit. “Thess are: 1) Utility tine impedance + xXy 2)Stopdown transformer imp. (Ry = Xt) 3) Furnace transformer imp (Rr + Xp) 4) Secondary circuit imp (Rs + Xs) 5) Are resistance Ra, These components, in total, form what is called the impedance/power triangle (see Appendix) FIG. 3.106 Schema the are charaeteriti tic of the instrumentation for @ fumaee and es for a furnace FIG S40. typical Corparation. Pittsbus ‘control panel Photo courtesy of Lectromelt gh, PA‘To calculate maximum power at the infinite bus where cos equals 0.707, the following formulas are used: ae MVA (Apparent Power) = 25 2oinv (32) MW (Real Power) SE RON (o29) aE aw MVAR (Reactive Power? XEN (asta) where: 1 = Secondary Line Current at 0 107 power factor (amps) ZéIN = Total phase to neutral Impedance (ohms) Ro/N = Total phase to neutral Resistance (ohms) XdiN = Total phase to neutral Reactance (ohms) For determining the operating power at the primary terminals of the are furnace transformer, the following equations are used: SH Ute + Re Ra + j Ole + Xo wa = a (6 SE UR + Rs + Ra) Hl tere 1 = Secondary Line Current at 0.707 power factor (amps) Furnace Transformer Reactance (ohms) Re = Secondary Cireuit Resistance (ohms) secondary Circuit Reactance (ohms) wre Resistance (ohms) Note: All values of resistance and reactance are re- ferred to the secondary voltage base ‘The calculation of secondary line current used in the preceding formulas is computed as follows: 5~ (Amps) (918) where Esp = Socondary phase to phase voltage (Volts) Zr = Total Circuit Impedance (Obras) ] In most cases, the power calculations for the electric | are furnace are based on the maximum power transfer Point or 0707 power factor at the infinite bus | Figure 316 is a cet of formulas involving the func- tions of voltage (E), current (D, reactance (X) and threes Phase power (W). At 0.707 power factor, the watts and vars are equal and the operating resistance and reac- tance are equal Referring to the diagram, if any two variables are known, the third can be calculated as indicated in the twlve formulas on the wheel Power Factor ‘The power factor of the are furnace citeuit changes from the infinite bus to the tip of the electrode For all Practical purposes, the power factor at the electrodes Electric Furnace Steelmaking - 35 under any operating circumstance is unity or cos @ equals 1 ‘Of interest to the furnace operator is the power fac- tor at the primary of the arc furnace transformer. At this point, the power factor can be calculated by the following formulas: Mw x 108 PR o= gyTRya (19) where: MW = Megawatts at Transformer Primary E (Volts) = Primary phase to phase voltage (Volts) T (Amps) © Primary line current (Amps) (Re+ Rot Ra a PR = Rey Rs + Ru? st Or PX ee where: Rr = Fumace Transformer Resistance Xp = Furnace Transformer Reactance (Ober Rs = Socondary Circuit Resistance Xs = Secondary Circuit Reactance Ra = Are Resistance PF =cos6 0 =aretan MVAR ee MW where: MW = Megawatts at Transformer Primary MVAR = Megavars at Transformer Primary When operating a furnace with equal values of mega- watts (MW) and megavars (MVAR), the power factor is 0707 and maximum circuit power is being transferred into the system at that point Formula: Operation et 0 TO7 power factor E Voltage, phase ro phase I Line amperes W. Sepnase warts X Line to naateal ohms reactance FIG $415. Formula whesl for the calculation of B, 1, X and WMAXIMUM POWER IN THE ARC FURNACE, ‘The text has discussed the theoretical approach to the are furnace cireuit and how to caleulate the electri- eal parameters which effect the operation of the are furnace ‘The theory can now be applied to the power system to determine the power characteristies for the are furnace, A point of interest to the operator and the steel plant engineer is the power charaeteristics at the are furnace transformer primary ‘To calculate the power characteris tics, the circuit impedance must be established The following data is given as an example: 1) Utility Short Circuit MVA. 3000 MVA at 138 KV 2) Stepdown Transformer 70 MVA 188 KVI34.5 KV Z= 80% Are Furnace Transformer TOMVA 345 KVI700 Volts Z= 50% Secondary Are Furnace Cireuit 219 = (0.45 + j 2 80) x 10-? ohms 3 4 Impedance Calculations 1) Utility Impedance (0! 1389 = 6 3 samen 2= SAK = Gop 685 chmsPhase (3-22) 2) Stepdown Transformer Impedance (622) (Bopy? x 10 _ (81138)? x 10 MVA x 10° 70 x 108 21.76 ohms'Phase (3-28) 8) Are Furnace Transformer 7, = (22) Boo? x 10 _ (634.5) * 10 MVA x 10° "70 x 107 = 085 ohms'Phase (3-24) 4 Secondary Are Furnace Circuit Calculated (based on 700 Voits) Z = (0.45 + 52.80) x 10 ohms/Phase 19-25) Calculations to Reflect Impedance to Reference Voltage of 700 Volts t= (2) ohms 1328 51 uty naan 38 R70 109_)? 0) Steown Teast Impedance 188/700) roo 7) Are Furnace Transformer Impedance (94 5 KV/700V) 709 y2 2=085 (5i5R.)" = 0950x105 chms (829) Summary Total Circuit Impedance ‘The following table lists a summary of the circuit components referenced to 700 volts The primary cireuit impedances are broken down into veetor components using the X to R ratios given earlier in this chapter Circuit ~~~" Resistance -——~"Raactanee Component Rx 10? JX x 103 Utility Oe: rT Stepdown Trans 0.0753, + 50.5549 areFee Trans. 00471 + j03465 Sec Feo. Circuit 0.4500, * 28000 Total 05886 + 73.8838 For the effects of harmonic distortion, the total sys. tem reactance is increased by a factor of 10 percent yielding a total circuit impedance of: Z (4.2908) = (0.5886 + 4.2502) x 10-9 ohms/Phase which is called the short circuit impedance of the circuit, Power Input Calculations To ealeulate the power input at the furnace primary at any operating power factor, the following equations AP.E.)? (Xtot ~ Kut — Xe? ‘Total operating resistance (MM) Operating power factor Xu: = Total operating reactance (M0) Xu = Utility reactanes (MO) Ke Stepdown Transformer reactance (MA) 2) Operating Impedance VR Kak (MO) (sn ‘otal operating impedance = Total operating resistance = Total operating reactance 8) Secondary Operating Current lop =E22-— Kiloamps (Ka) (932) Secondary Operating Current (Ka) Rated Secondary Voltage (Phase to Phas Lop Total Operating Impedance (MQ) 4) Primary Power Input (MW) = (Rar + Rudd Po MW ~ 3 URon= (Bus + Ball POP irropawattsy 10 (3-33) where: MW = Fower at Trans. Pri. (MW) Rep = Total operating Resistance (Ma) Rat Utility line Resistance (MO Re Stepdown Trans. Resistance (M9) Ip Operating Line Current (Ka)suectric rurnace Steeumainy « o/ “TABLE 3-V— OPERATING POWER CHARACTERISTICS Power Rep Zap ley Pri Pri Pai Factor oh) ae) (Ba) MW MVAR MVA 095 1058 1195 35.60 3968 1916 4180) 080 Tu Bal 4862 5002 2455, 5571 935 558 702 5160 3465, 2448 6461 080 461 627 ee S631 au 7092 075 392 378 soa? 3612 5070 75.64 on 359 556 64 5539, 5481 1792 70 3.3 544 438 5469 5738, 199 068 321 533, 15.85 53.86 BoB 8049 065 296 518 7804 5240 6325 8219 060 260 498 8L16 3047 seat 8442 050 200 470 85.08 4235, 76.92 ara 040 151 451 88.06 347 83.33 9012, 030 109, 439 9212 25.37 88.14 12 020 on 4a 93 80 1623 9139 9282 00) 035, 4.26 9477 6.9 93.29 93.54 5) Primary Reactive Power (MVAR) MVAR (megavars) (3-34) where: MVAR = Reactive Power at Trans Pri. (MVAR) X; = Furnace Trans Reactance (MO) x Secondary Furnace Reactance (MA) Top Operating Line Current (Ka) 6) Primary Megavolt Amperes (MVA) MVApa = V(SIWSFTMVARF (3.35) MVAR = Apparent Power at Tra MW = Power at Trans Pri. (MW) MVAR_ = Reactive Power at Trans Pri (MVAR) With the formulae given in this chapter the power characteristics for any secondary operating voltage can be generated Using the impedance values calculated earlier, a table (Table 3-V) of operating power characteristics can be developed. Power Characteristic Curves From the data developed in Table 3-V, the power characteristic curves can be plotted to give a graphic representation of the primary operating parameters, Figure 3-16 is a graphic representation of the power input curves for electric arc furnace operation. This set of characteristics is plotted on a (unit) base to show the fanetion of each parameter. ‘As noted, the values of MVA, MW, MVAR, Power Factor and’ circuit losses (PR) ate all ‘plotted against operating current. A brief description of these curves fand how they can be of use to the operator will fallow Primary MVA — This parametar is a product of the operating voltage and current times the factor (V3) or iva BLE regavtt amperes) (2.86) wc Ego = Primary phase to phase voltage (Volts) 1 Primary Blase coteat mpd 1 fs important because it gives the operator a guide i the load being placed on’ the transformers in the system which are rated in MVA Primary MW — The primary power curve is tue operator’s visual guide to good arc furnace operation ‘This parameter is measured with a megawatt meter on the furnace panel and provides a means of monitoring the power input for the complote heat cycle. Primary MVAR — The reactive power curve is ¥/ jn conjunction with the MW curve to determine tne ‘operating power factor at the primary of the furnace transformer It has been stated earlier, but worth mentioning again, that maximum energy transfer is obtained when the MW and MVAR values are equal Many furnaces also measure the primary MVAR, which when used with the MW meter, is the operator's visual guide to good are furnace performance Power Factor — The operating pawer factor (usually not diroctiy measurable on the furnace panel) is very a | 16] 15) v4] 131 12 Vout-omperes, Watts, ars, Percent power factor Oe sa Se Te 8 toe as eres (410°3) FIG 3.16. Characteristic power input curves for electric are fur nace operation38 - Electric Furnace Steelmaking important in efficient utilization of power As shown on the graph, there are three ranges of power factor considered lal Power factor operation above 0.85 Is considered the unstable are region where the rogulator on the furnace cannot maintain a stable operation. without hunting (wide swings on the panel metering) tb) Power factor operation during meltdown in the range of: 085 to 075 for small furnaces 0.80 to 065 for large furnaces represent the area of are stability with maximum power utilization fe) Power factor operation below 065 is considered the region of uneconomie power consumption Al- though the are is stable, the circuit losses become too large and make the operation inefficient. Circuit Losses — The circuit losses in the arc fur- nace are a product of the circuit resistance times the square of the operating current As depicted in the graph, the losses increase as the current reaches its short ‘circuit value, Are Power — The arc power is the resultant energy available at the tips of the electrodes This parameter can be calculated and graphed by subtracting the circuit losses from the primary power (MW) Tn equation form: 30MM = (MWoy- STB) megawatts 6-87) imary power in megawatts (30) Operating current in amps Cireuit resistance (ohms) In the evaluation of the arc furnace, a family of Power characteristic curves can be developed for each operating voltage tap giving the user a complete set of operating curves. See Figure 3-17. PIG 317 Typical power curves for various tap settings POWER AND CURRENT BALANCE Although impedance unbalance was discussed earlier, all of the power calculations and discussions have been related to the three phase parameters since this is. & three-phase power system In actual operation, depending on the secondary con- ductor arrangement, the values of impedance can die tate separate operating parameters for each electrode ‘Three Phase Characteristics Reviewing the three phase characteristics, they proj- ect the overall operation of the electric are furnace If the furnace electrical cireuit is fully triangulated Figure 8.10) the component values of resistance (R) and reactance (jX) are for all practical purposes equal Numerous short cireuit tests have been performed on are furnace installations with equilateral triangulation of the secondary circuit, and results indicate an imped- ance balance to be within =2 to 5 percent ‘Thus, the power characteristics ealeulated for the three- phase operation can be projected to per phase operating characteristics The values of voltage, current power and power factor would be approximately identical Per Phase Characteristics Uf the are furnace secondary is coplanar in design or ‘a modification thereof, the per phase operating charac- teristics will need to be computed to determine the best operation for each electrode In an arc furnace with unequal impedance rent settings and resultant operating characteristics will be different Because of this unbalance, the furnace inherently has an electrically “cola” and “hot” phase In most cases, depending on the electrical phase rotation, the power and current distribution per phase will be a3 fllows: Phase Power Current Leading (Cold) Lowest Lowest Center Highest Highost Trailing (Hot) Mediu Medium Figure 3-18 is a typical power characteristic curve for an unbalanced arc furnace As noted, the operating ‘current, maximum are power and power factor occur at different points for each electrode When set properly, the operating characteristics will provide the most efficient operation FIG, 318. Typical power curve for an unbalanced are furnace FURNACE OPERATION In the operation of an electrie are furnace, the prima- ry objective is to produce maximum tonnage at the lowest cost per ton Having the equipment to produce is not enough. The operator must utilize the available power in the shortest amount of time and Keep the operating delays to a‘The operator of an electric are furnace has a flexible source of heat in the electric energy which is released at the arcs Methods of varying the volume of heat released, however, must be suited to the nature of the oat source, which make controls somewhat different than for oil or gas fuels. For the electric furnace, the most important heat eantrol is the voltage supplied to the arcs, which, in practice, means the furnace trans- former tap position selected for each kind of metallurgi- cal operation. Each tap position corresponds to an ener- fy level, with highest voltages being used for meltdown, fand lower voltages for refining, holding, ete For indica. tion of power input to the furnace, the most important instrument on the control panel is the wattmeter Elec- trode current can be varied over quite a range by the Toad adjusting theostats, but sometimes with only a ‘small change in wattmeter reading. Maximum economy during meltdown requires that oniy a small. variation bbe used in rheostat position. A wider range in current ‘of theostat position can be used during refining For each furnace installation, the operators gradually ‘evolve a procedure which produces the best results For melting cold serap charges, the following sequence is commonly used: 1) Meltdown is started on a medium voltage tap, such as position #3 on a 6-tap transformer. This, energy level is used for several minutes, as discussed further below 2) The main meltdown poriod is run on the highest voltage tap, until essentially all serap is melted. 3) If recharges (backcharges) are needed, steps 1 and 2 are repeated 4) When a full bath is obtained, it is refined metallurgically, For this period, positions #3, #4 or #5 on a Gap transformer are used, depending on temperature required Operation on a medium voltage tap at start of meltdown may be needed for only a faw minutes an tha first charge, when electrodes and furnace are. coolest and a molten metal pool is furthest down in the bottom. Use of medium voltage for initial meltdown serves two purposes First, it reduces the energy level of the arcs to which the roof is exposed before the electrodes bore down into the charge, Second, the ares are given more stability at_an inherently unstable time, due to in crease in effective reactance in the supply cizcuit. This reactance reduces the amount of electrode motion and mechanical stresses on the supply system. When the electrodes reach an area in the charge where some uid metal is under th electrodes, the ionization of the are columns increases, which also stabilizes the arcs ‘The shift to higher power may then be made Operation on meltdown taps, for maximum efficiency, should be at @ high power factor This high power factor, along with a high voltage, will cause a long are, Which produces the desired spreading effect around the ‘lectrode arcing tips High energy input provided by the meltdown taps an be accepted in the furnace only as long as cold serap exists around the banks on the siag line At the end of the meltdown period, and while a small amount of scrap still is present, the electric energy level should be reduced to a refining tap voltage The high- temperature arc, without having cold. scrap against which to dissipate its energy, seeks out the gradient ea between the lining and shell. It can quickly fluid fe these refractories. ‘The “flare” which results from this damage, when present at any zone in the furnace, ould be stopped quickly by change to a lower volta tap The are flare produces an audible sound which ean be associated visually with this action Daring the refining period, operation at lower power factors may be necessary to obtain somewhat shorter Electric Furnace Steelmaking - 39 FIG, $419, Idealized heat cycle profile ares, and provent undesirable are flare and refractory damage A short, high power are drives the heat deep into the furnace bath, and its eylindrical form produces, a concave impression on the bath sucface The upward reflection of the arc heat thus remains captive under the electrodes, ¢ ‘The kilowatt hours of energy required per ton yiela varies with each melt constituent and kind of operation To melt a ton of eold scrap steel requires, theoretically, 380 kilowatt hours In practice, the amount is greater due to furnace thermal and electrical equipment losses ‘Approximately 400 KW hr per ton for meltdown may be used as a practical minimum in large furnaces Setting of the load adjusting rheostats during the meltdown period should be kent in a narrow range ‘Their position should be at the optimum useful eurrent sinea this is the most efficient point. Perhaps 2/4 of all the power consumed during the heat is used during the meltdown period During the initial cold charge, or af ter prolonged shutdown, the initial rheostat setting for meltdown may be slightly higher than normal This difference is due to changes in electrical losses when the secondary conductors and electrodes are cool. Thus, a return to the normal setting is needed after warm-up, for maximum economy During the refining period, the ares are usually very stable, and a wide operating rani is possible Energy levals ‘can be selected then on a basis of thermal needs With the introduction of water cooled roofs and side walls, foamy slag practice and other new technologies, the operating practice must be modified to abtain the best results, but the basic principles as deseribed abot are still applicable OPERATOR AIDS. Operating aids to guide in efficient furnace operation aro as follows: ‘The Heat Cycle ‘The heat cycle is a graphic representation of the power on time (meledown and refine) and the delays Incurred during and at the ond of the heat Total time for-a heat is called the TAP-TO-TAP time Figure 3-19 is a typical heat cycle for carbon steel production with power on times and major delays indicated, Using your existing power characteristles and furnace delays, a heat eycle diagram can be gonerated fas a guide to efficient furnace operation and an ult. mate goal for maximum production rate‘oj9f0 yeou jeo1d © Bump sonsumseseND My “Oe “DNTAP TIME FIG. 321, Graphic record of a heat eycle Using the formula for MVA, the equation can be ‘modified to solve for meltdown time required for a spe- cific furnace installation, ‘Tons x KWH/Ton x 1.08 x 60 Time (Min ) = MVA x 0707 * 1000 (2-38) where: Tons = Tap Weight KWH/Ton = Meltdown KWH/Ton = 375 1.08 eld Factor 60 jour to Minute Conversion 0.707 jperating Power Factor MVA rc Furnace Transformer Rating ‘The refine power for most carbon steel operations is considered to be one-half the nominal MVA rating of the transformer A brief pictorial description of proper operation of an are furnace during various sequences is shown in Fig- ure 3-20, Delay times for most operations are estimated to be as follows: 1) Charging 2) Tapping 3) Slagging & chemistry 4 Fettling, slipping & adding lectrodes, —5 min, per bucket 5 to 10 minutes —5 to 15 minutes ~10 to 20 minutes Developing this information for your are furnace will provide a complete heat profile to be used as a guide for carbon steel production ‘Time Utilization ‘The objective is to produce maximum tonnage from the are furnace A very important consideration in reaching this goal is “TIME UTILIZATION” This val- ue is a function of the power on time and delays in Producing a heat of steel START TIME Tn equation form, itis expressed as: (FU) = Power On (Meltdown! + Power On (Refine) Poreent ‘Total Power On * Delays x 100 (3:39) ‘As the equation indicates, the reduction of any of the parameters with respect to time will inerease the over- all (TU) time utilization percentage for the operation Also, an increase in any of the functions will reduce the (7.0) percentage For efficient ‘operations, the time utilization should be in the range of 70 to 75 percent. Anything below 65 percent would be considered inefficient and requiry some evaluation ‘ Recording Charts In many arc furnace installations, there is a record- ing megawatt or combination MW/MVAR strip che which monitors the operation on a 24-hour basis Th. record can provide the meltshop personnel with all the information to analyze the heat profile and power/( U) relationships ‘As Figure 9-21 indicates, this record is actually a graphic indication of the heat cycle (profile) for opera- tion of the furnace and each heat can be evaluated Heat Log ‘The heat log, which provides a complete record of the chemistry (metallurgy) of the steel being produced, can also provide useful information for the power utiliza. tion and overall time utilization for the are furnace Figure 3-22 is a typical heat log used in a high production meltshop Of particular interest are the indi- cations for times for all important functions and power {input for each charge and the total heat42-- Blectric Furnace Steelmaking Electric Are Furnace Heat Log and Metallur: al Report FIG 322 Typical heat log This log may not be the ultimate, but again, it re- cords all pertinent data necessary to’ evaluate the heat metallurgically, electrically, and for time utilization ‘THE DC ARC FURNACE As of this writing, there is increasing interest in the DC Are Furnace. Although there are none in commer- cial production, at least 3 known pilot furnaces are in operation or under development ‘The DC Arc Furnace is a relatively new development It presents an interesting and quite attractive alterna- tive to the conventional 3-phase AC. Are Furnace ‘The most important advantage of the serap melting DC Are Furnace is its improved operating economy due to significantly reduced electrode consumption. Pilot plant test results have shown that a DC Are Furnace can cut electrode costs by 50 percent ‘The low electrade consumption mainly results from ‘wo contributing factors 1) Ina DC furnace only one electrode is exposed to the process as compared to three with the 3-phase AC. furnace (Figure 3-23) 2) Electrode polarity is very important. With a negatively charged electrode and a positively charged melt, the are power is concentrated into the melt. As consequence the olectrode runs cooler, with less graphite evaporation from the tip ‘Two other important advantages of the D.C. furnace are that it is very quiet and the arc is itself more stable with DC. The noise due to AC. current variations is almost completely suppressed Furthermore, with all ower on one electrode, the are is very quickly buried in the scrap charge and this rather effectively dampens As the arc current passes through the melt to a bottom electrode, the melt is actuated by electro- mechanical forces, setting up a bath movement. ‘The melt moves down under the arc, outwards along the furnace bottom and returns towards the are at the melt surface ‘This stirring action effectively equalizes both temper- ature and melt homogeneity, contributing to efficient meltdown of a cold serap charge In an AC. furnace the three ares repel each other by magnetic forces A masimum heat load zone is thus created in front of each electrode ‘The DC. furnace operates with one central, vertical ‘are. The heat load on the wall is thus completely equal- ied and the hot spot problem effectively eliminated ‘Tho single graphite electrode is connected to the neg- ative polarity of the rectifier Positive polarity is con- nected to the furnace bottom, which is electrically conductivePIG $23. Directcurzent are farnace Photo courtesy of Brown Boveri & Co, Ltd, Baden, Switzerland 1 Purnace shell 16- Ladder 27 Watercooled edge of —-17- Rooflifting and winging the tani smochanism 8 - Working door 18 Blectrode adjusting 1 Furnace root cylinder 5. Watercooled root ring 19 Electrode clamp 8 Roof eareving arm 20. Tubular higheurrent 17 Roof suspension busbar 8 Support of the roof Electrodecartying arm carrying atm Higheurrent cable 9. Furnace cradle 28. Graphita electrode 10 Rocker bar Bottom electrode U1 Cradle guide Wotercooled contact 12 Tilting eylinder cone 13 Cradie locke 26 - Protection against TL! Main support of the up brealeout per part ofthe furnaces 27 Protaction against 15 - Working platform break-out Electric Furnace Steelmaking «43 FIG. 324 Main circuit diagram for a D © ore furnace Photo courtesy of ASEA Metallurgy. Sweden ‘The Electrical Substi ‘The electrical substation contains a rectifier and a reactor in addition to the equipment normally found j AC furnace installations A diode rectifier has sof. ‘been used, not the controlled type with thyristors. The furnace transformer is conventional with an onload tap changer for arc voltage selection Secondary busbar reactance is almost completely ab sent in a DC, furnace To limit the short cizeuit currey ‘and to stabilize the are current a reactor is, therefor. connected between the high voltage line and the fur nace transformer (Figure 13-24), REFERENCES 1 J. R Bello, "Fundamentals of The Electric Are Furnace,” leciric Furnace Proceedings 29, 1971, p 219 2 EJ Borrebach, “Maximum Power Operation of Arc Furnaces,” fron and Stee! Bnginecr, May, 1963, p74 3 JA. Ciotti, "A New Bra in Melting,” Electric Purnace Proceedings 28, 1970, p 190 4 WE Schwabe and C G_ Robinson, "Report on Ultrehigh Power Operation of Blecttic Steel Furnaces," Electric Furs nace Proceedings 24, 1966, p. 125. 5 Wm Lubbock. “Specifying Regulating Equipment for High Power Automatic Are Furnace Operation,” Blectric Furnace Conference. Pittsburgh, Pa, 1960 6 DB. L” Pelftey, “Specifying Arc Furnace Transformers," Bicctrie Furnace Conference, Pittsburgh, Pa, 1980Furnace Steelmaking GLossary alternating current (A.C.)~An electrical current which con: tinually reverses at regularly recurring time intervals and which has alternatively positive and negative values ammeter—an instrument for measuring the magnitude of an leetrieal currant amperage lampere)~A numerical value fr an eleticl eur tant ae measured by en ammeler Amperage ts designated by ‘e captal letter 1 are—A luminous discharge of electricity from the electrode tip lo the furnace charge, releasing large amounts of heat are flare—The movement of the ate, propelled by electromag: netic forces, toward the sidewalls ofthe elestie are furnace are, furnace electrode—A consumable electrical conductor ‘made of manufactured graphite in eylinders of various lengths tind diameters Eloctrodes are joined in columns extending from the holders above the Furnace. downward to the furnace charge are furnace regulation—A preset, automatic means of con- trolling furnace current and voltage by phase. Regulation, simultaneously permits the control of the are length through current and voltage feedbacks and, thus, the overall power input to the furnace are furnace secondary power cireuit—The part of the for ‘nace power circuie starting at the secondary windings of the farnace transformer and extending through tho ae to the furnace cho are length—The distance between the electrode tip and the furnace charge Under the influence of electromagnetic forces, however. the are inevitably lengthens and flares outward balanced furnace—An electrical condition within the are fa nace where the power in all three phases is equal ‘The phase currents, however, do not need to be equal for the [urnece to be in balanced condition bore-down—Also known as borein The beginning of the tmelting cycle when the electrodes bore through the serap #: ward the bottom of the furnace When the electrodes reach ‘heir lowest melting position, the melting eyele begins bbus bars—Copper conductors in the form of rectangular ot cylindrical structural members which connect the transformer with the furnace's secondary power sables cables—in are furnace practice, the electrical conductors extending from the furnace vault to the ate furnace capacitive renctance—An opposition to the flow of alternat- ing current Capacitive reactance, designated by Xe, arloes {ram capacitors in the power cireuit and is measured ih hms Normally, an are furnace. power citeuil does not exhibit a Capacitive resctance unlost expacitors are introduced cave-in—The callapse of scrap charge which has been tndermined by the hot metal bath or which has been hung us along the sidewalls oF the are furnace center-winding, hotspot temperature indicator—A heat sensing device at the transformer center winding which sitmu: lates the center winding temperature by interpreting rurrent ‘and top oil temperature feedbacle cireuit breakers—Electrical disconnecting devices normally employed in power supply systems ta protect electrical circuits ‘nd equipment gonductor—A shape or structure. usually in the form of wire or cable. capable of carrying an electrical current contact surface—The interfacial areas of two structural bodies In are melting, his refers. to the sutface af the electrode holder which makes intimate contact with the surface of the electrode control panel—A centialized assemblage of instruments, switches. and other electrical devices required in the operation land monitoring of the are furnace current--Refers to the rate of Mow of electricity through an electrical conductor Itis measured in amperes and designated by the capital letter | current adjustment rheostat—A variable type of resistor in an are furnace control citeult mounted onan are furnace operating panel A rheostat is used to vary the current feed Yeack for changing the are length and consequently. the fur. nace power input current transformer (CT) —An instrument transformer usu: ally connected to the primary and secondary power circuits Of an are furnace to measure current for furnace regulation and instrumentation eycle—The change of an alternating wave from zero to a negative peak. to zero to a positive peak and back to zero all within one second ‘The number of cyeles per second is called the frequeney and is designated in Herta. Sixty cycles pet second, or 60 Hertz is commonly used in the industry delta closure—An olectrieal connection universally used in are fumace operation dolta closure i¢ arranged s0 that the individual secondary windings of the three-phase power trans former are joined ta form a closed eireit, demand eharge—Tat part of the power bill for slectsical service which is based upon a customer's power demand. Bill. ing is rendeted on the basis of kilowatts (KW) o mogawatts aw) demand limitation—A measure usually initiated by the user of electrical power to cut back on power consumption in a given Lime period to avoid exceeding a stated power demand and higher power costs dielectric test—A procedure for analyzing transformer oil to determine its insulating value direct current (D.0)—A unidirectional, non-pulsating ew Font which. unlike alterneting current, always. maintains a positive value onuts—Blectrically non-conductive donut-shaped spacers used to prevent secondary furnace transformer power cables fiom making contact with each other electric are—An electrical discharge which, in electric axe furnace practice. refers to the luminou transfer of electsieal energy between the electrode tip and the furnace charge. ‘The are creatas the heat to melt the charge electrical balance—Refers to an electrical condition within the electric arc furnace where the povter in ell three phases is equal A balanced condition. heweves, does not necessarily imply that all three phase currents are ca electrical energy—The capacity to perform electrics! work Beet ical energy is usually expressed in kilowatt hours (KWH) that is, in power multiplied by time electrical imbalance—The uneven distribution of power to the three ares during melting electrical phase—fefers to an electrically conductive path. way extending all the way from the power station te the furnace charge To service the requirements of the usual iron and steel-malsing are furnaces, three such pathways, or phases, are requiredelectrical potential—The difference in voltage between two points ofa eireuit or between a eanductor and ground electrical resistivity—Tho olectrical resistance of a conductor of specified material and dimensions clectrode column—An assemblage of electrodes consisting of three, oF occasionally four, electrodes securely joined together ‘and extending downsvard into an elactic are furnace electrode holders—Clamping doviees to secure ond pesition the electrodes daring melting operations Electrical energy pas- 42s from the holders to the eleetrode columns electrode joint—The interface between two electrodes secured by a threaded graphite connesting pin electrode master control switeh—A switching device on the operator's furnsee panel used to move all three electrodes in tunison upward or downward in either the automatie or manu al mode clectro-magnetic field—A field of electrical influence, or mag- netic field, produced by the current flowing through a Conductor. Varying the current affects the strength of the ‘magnetic Deld electrode slippage—A planned procedure in which electredes fare permitted to move dawnward through the holders to adjost the longth below the holder of the individual electrode colamns, usually after an electrode addition forced oil water (FOW) cooling—A methed of cooling trans- former ofl by foreing that oll through a water-cooled external heat exchanger ground—A conducting connection by which an electrical cir- ‘uit or equipment is connected to the earth to establish ground potential andlor a common return, ground relay—A sefety device for detecting electrical leakare to ground in an energized circuit graphite olectrode—An clectrieally conductive cylinder of ‘manufactured graphite engineered for conducting electrieal cur- rent into the are furnace, hortz—A unit of frequency of one cycle per second. Sixty cycles, or 60 Hertz, is commonly used in the United States hhot spot—A lecalized deterioration of the sidewall lining or roof refractory resulting from the arc Mare attack in an unbal- anced electric are furnace impedance—The total opposition offered by an electrical ci suit to the flow of alternating current It is designated as (Z) ‘The real part of impedance is resistance (R); the imaginary pert is reactance (X) induction—An electrical phenomenon that occurs when one current-carrying conductor induess a voltage in an adjoining conductor inductive reactance—An opposition to the flaw of alterna ing current. Inductive reactance, designated by Xi ariees from {cl or other inductive devices in the power eireuit Normally, the only’ reactance in the power eizeuit of an electric are furnace is inductive reactance, messured in ohms instrument transformer—A transformer that produces in its secondary cireait a current of a voltage ased by the instru ‘mente and dovices that moniter and control the electric arc furnace Such transformers are designated as C/T for current transformor and P/T for potontial (or valtage) transformer interface area—A surface forming the boundary between two structures such a6 the hoideslesrode contact onthe elute Electric Furnace Steelmaking - 45 fron core—A laminated metal structure around which the primary and secondary transformer coils are wound It serves fs part of the magnetic field not only in transformers but also in electrical commutating equipment such as mill motors and generator Kilowatts (KW)—A unit of electrical power One kilowatt equals 1,000 watts In an are furnace, Kilowaets refer to the real, whieh creates the heat to melt the kilowatt hours (KWH) — A unit of electrical energy obtained bby maltiplying power by time One kilowatt hour equals 1000 watts ‘mes one hour Ilowatt hour meter—A dial-type instrament for registering the consumption of elasttical energy ilowatt hour register—A digital readout meter for registering the consuruption of electrical energy KVA—The abbreviation for kilovolt amperes It is also called the apparent power Power transformer ratings are normally expressed in KVA a KVAR—The abbreviation for kilovolt ampere reactive It is alse called reactive power and is one of the three types of power found in alternating current cireuite Joad—In an are furnace, the term refers to the total poy owing into the furnace during the melting cysle oad factor—The ratio of the average electrical load over a period of time to the peak load occurring during that same time ‘magnetic fleld—The region surrounding an energized elect fal conductor or a permanent magnet. In an arc furnace sec- ondary power elreut, strong magnetic elds are created by the flow of high eurrents ‘megavar meter—An instrument to measure the units of reac tive power in million volt amperes mogawatts—Designates unite of real power meseured in mil- tions of watts (MW) In are. furnace practice, it is the real power which performs the melting ‘mutual inductanee—An electrical phenomenon involving two for more conductors whereby a change in current in one in duces an electromotive force in the other MVA~A unit of erperent power in an alternating curent {leet that contains reactance The expression one MIVA desig: "ates one mon volt amperes MVAR—A unit of reactive power in an alternating current circuit. MVAR expresses one milion vole amperes reactive / MW-A unit of active, or real, power in any electrical cireuit ‘The expression MW dosignates one million watts no-load tap changer—A device for switching from one tap to another on a transformer With this type of changer, a ‘opposed to an on-load chenger, it is essential that the arc be ‘extinguished before changing taps ‘ohms—A term to express alectrical resistance in a circuit It Is designated by the Greek letter omega (2) chm's law—A statement of the relationship between voltage (current (), and resistance (R) in an electrical cireut. [tis expressed ae E'= I. phases——Separate voltage wave forms coordinated ints an al- fernating current supply system ‘The are furnace is supplied by a three-phase system46 - Bleetric Furnace Steelmaking phase rotation—The order in which the successive elements of a three-phase aystam reach their maximum positive values phase-to-neutral—The voltage potential that exists between 42 conductor and ground or between 2 conductor and the nett {al point of an electrical system potential transformer (PT) — Aa instrument transformer whose primary winding Is connected ia parallel with a eiouit in which the voltage is to bu measured and concealed power circuit breaker—An automatic disconnecting device tm a power supply system to protect the system from abnormal electrical conditions| power curves—Display the power-current relationship in are furnace circuits ‘These curves are helpful in optimizing the are furnace power factor—The ratio of active power to apparent power in an alternating current circuit It is symbolized by PF, and PP equals MW divided by MVA power profile—A predetermined program for power usage uring a heat tis dependent upon the composition and weight of the charge material renctance~The opposition offered to the Mow of alternating current by a coil (inductive reactance) of by a. capacitor (capacitive reactance) Reactance ie measured in ohms reactive power—One of the types of power found in an alter hating current circuit It is part of the apparent power, yot does no work 1€ is designated as million volt ampere reactive or MVAR rregulator—An electrical or electronic davice for automatically controlling the movernent of the electrodos on an are furnace resistance—A force which oppotes the flow of current in an electrical eonduetor Tt depends on the material, dimensions, and temperature of the conductor. Resistance is symbolized by Rand is measured in ohms Fheostats—Variable resistors, one per phase, in the electrode regulator circuit. They are mounted on the opetator’s panel and used for changing the are length and, thus, the input of power into the furnace secondary coil—The secondary winding of» transformer In ‘meat cases, the secondary is the low voltage output side secondary voltage—The output voltage of a transformer Usually, itis lower than the primary voltage. selfinduetance—An electrical property that determines the amount of voltage induced in eixeuit whenever the current in that circuit changes diveetion sine wave—A curve which graphically shows the ideal move ‘ment of voltage and current in an alternating eurvent ciruit, supplementary reactance—Additional inductive reactance built into’ a furnace transformer to improve its electrical elfcieney Supplementary’ reactances are normally used in transformers rated 7.500 KVA or less tap voltage—Are furnace operating voltage selected by the operator to provide the desired heat transfer dwsing various stages of the molting time utilization (T:U)—A power-time relationship expressed in pereentage of power-on time in relation to total tap-totap time Tis designated ss TU "The formula i: total power-of time per heat TU romero} Sine et beat Total heat time tap-to-tap transformer rating—A measure of the transformer's electri- cal capability The rating defines the transformer's capacity in terms of eantinuous KVA output transformer ratio—The relationship dorived by dividing the primary voltage by the secondary voltage triangular configuration—The physical spacing of three eon- Auctors in a three-phase alternating current circuit. unbalanced (imbalanced) furnace—An electrical ot machani- tal condition which must be corrected for the slectrie ate furnace to operate efficiently Blectrial unbalance results from fan uneven distribution of power, meshanieal unbalance arises from misalignment ofthe electrodes ‘yacuum switeh—A power disconnecting device in which the ‘making and breaking of an electrical contact is done in a vector diagram—A graphic display showing the magnitude and direction of various electrical parameters voltage—Electrical pressure or potential which causes current to flow through an electrical conductor Voltage is designated as voltmeter soloctor switch—A switch ot the operator's panel that enables the voltmeter to display the three phase-to-phase and the three phase-te-neutral (ground) voltages, water-cooled eablo—A type of secondaty power cable be- tween the are fumace transformer and the furnace, usually found on medivim and large are furnaces ‘winding-hot-spotA centrally located spot within the trons: former windings which, because of its position, ie particularly susceptible to thermal overloading r |, Glossary coped in part from Hectic! Digest published by Union Carhide CoAPPENDIX Impedance/Power Triangle oy fe var) ———] Blectric Furnace Steelmaking - 47