eee ee
MECHANISMS
AND
DYNAMICS
OF MACHINERY
FOURTH EDITION
Hamilton H. Mabie
Charles F. Reinholtz
Virginia Polytechnic Institute
and State University ~
Joun WiLEY & SONS
New York Chichener Brisbane Toroato SingaporeDEDICATED to the late FRED W. OGVIRE About the Authors
‘whose contributions to the First and
Second Editions motivated later editions,
and to SALLIE MABIE and sent REINHOLTZ
whose assistance and forbearance have
made this edition possible.
Professor of Mechanical Engineering at Visginia Poly-
B.S. degree trom
and his
- | Haxauton H. Mab
technic Institute end Staie University since 1964. ceceived his
the University of Rochester. his 8S. degree from Comet! Univers
Ph.D. degree from Pennsylvania State University
‘Froe 1941 to 1960, Dr. Mabie was-on the faculty of the Sibley Schoo! of
i
i
i
‘All sights reserved, Published simultencously ka Cant {
| Mechieteal Engineering at Cornell Univesity. From 1960 to 1964, he worked at
1
i
|
‘Copyright @ 1957, 19,1975, 1967, by Jobe Wey Son. ne
Sandia Laboratory in Albuquerque, New Mexico, where he was enesged in
esearch and development related to nuclear Weapons.
In addition ta his work in kinematics, Ds. Mabie is engaged in resesrch on
il bearings, environmental effects
Reprovection or tnelation of any pact of
‘as work beyond chat prmiled by Sections
ET and 108 of the 1996 United States Copysght
‘aetwitont the permision of the copie
‘wer is wold, Request fer penmision
tr Faber information should be adesied 1
{he Permisions Department, Jahn Wey & Sons
gears, torque characteristics of instrument bal
umiaumn and fretting corrosion of rolling ele ment be:
hored many technical papers in these fields. le is a
igan Soviery of
fnthe fatigue hile 0
He has authored and eoaut
Teenged protersional engineer and a Life Fellow of The Ame
Mechanical Engineers.
aie est ction of Mechanisms and Dynamics of Machinery wa published
vein 1957 ond the second in 1563, both sith the late FW
“The third ecition was published in 1975 and an SI Version
Charles F. Reinfoliz a5 coauthor
Ltrory af Congres Catsloging Ia Pablicadon Dates
Mabie, Hamilton H. (Hamiton Herb), 1914 by Joha Wiley & So
Oceirk as coauthor.
a
Incl ades index in 1978. This fourth edition has
freee Metin, ee |
tne
Tis M1316 eid meus 1 Cuances F. Reintoute is currently Assistant Professar of Mechanical Engi-
Tan OTST | secring 2 Viginia Polytechnic Institute and State University te Blacksburg,
Virgins,» postion he has held since 1983. He holds B.S., M.S. and PD.
worked for Burroughs Cor
Peinied in the United Sates of Amedca
degrees from the University of Florida. He has sf
ws
Ss erieiv AMQUT TEE AUTHORS
sdtion ata design engineer in the Peripheral Products Group. Professor Rela.
arhas bee active ia the arca af kinematics and mechanism design since 1976.
He is o member of The American Society of Mechanical Engineers, The Amer.
ican Society for Engineering Education, nnd Signs Xi. He as also a member of
‘Tau Beta Mand Pi Tow Sigma Honor Sucieties
Preface
“This textbook has beea completly revised and updated. Is contents have been
‘rongenize to better math the sequence of topes typically covered and to reflect
{he many changes brought about bythe wse of computers inthe classroom, These
‘honget iclade the wae of erative methods for linkage position analysis and
Stati methads fa force onalyeh. BASIC langwoge compte programs, devel
Oped on 8 personal compoter, have been added throughout he text to demo
Sate the simplicity and power of compater method. All BASIC programslisted
‘tite tem have sho been coded in FORTRAN 77 ond listed in Appendix Thee,
“The tex cam now be used with cther U.S. writs, Sl units, or combination of
both, Where the unis of am equation masi be specific, bath 3 U.S. and an Sl
foumare given. Ain efforthias been made 10 mainte a balance between analytical
and graphical methods, 2
"This edition es been cxpanded to incade # number of sew topics. In
keeping wth the addconal emphasis on computer methods, kinematic and 8
ers analysis of inkages tas een demonstrated using the comeeilly a
hte Totegeried Mechanisms Program (IMP). Analytical com eg tes
‘cen expanded to include equations for deteraiing the various isk cam cow
tours Bosh the U.S. and meric systems of gearing ake covered, alo complete
‘problem set is given foreach ayatem of nts, A.new sectiow that covers now
‘Meadard apor gears cul with pinion cutter has been added 10 the chapter on
onatandard geeang, TWO new topics nnve Deen inetuded inthe chapter on pear
Ttaim, heemanie doves and power flow through planetary gear tains.
‘Complex number metheas ard loop-clostrerequations have becn wed more
catensively in the velocity and scoeleration analysis of linkages. The chapter on
force analy ha been thoroughly evieed In aition tothe supecpsiion meth
vVi PREFACE
it now includes the matrix method, which is» powerful tool when used in com-
junction with w computer. In the cipier on bainacing, 8 method for balaseing
four-bar Wakages tas beun uded. The chapler on kinematic ayers haa b
revised and expanded to include may new topics, including 1 genesal dispusion
ol feaction generation, path generation, and body guidance, and the problems
of branch defect, orde: defect, and Grashof defect, The fal chapter. On spatial
Rechusisms and robotics, is completely new. The mileril contained ix this
chapter it becouing increasingly important in the design of compler sulometie
production machinary.
We appreciate the many suggestions and helpful comueats made by our
reviewers: Richard Alexander, Marvio Dixon, wud Willian H. Park. We are in.
debicd to the following instructors at Virginia Polytechaie Teriitute and State
Univemsity for their belpful suggestions: Craig A. Rogers, Richard E. Cobh,
Edgar G. Muaday, Joseph W. David, and Peier J. Leave. Finally, we would
bike to acknowledge thehelp and eneouragemen! provided by oureditorsal Wiley,
‘Charity Robey snd Bill Seenguist,
Hammroet H. Mom
(GuARLES F. Renatourz,
Chapter
Introduction 1
Jntradyetion 1a the Study of Mechanisms 1
Mechanism, Machine 5
Motion 5
Cycle, Herod, and Phase of Motion 7
Paising Elements 7
Link, Chain 7
Inversion &
‘Transmission of Motion 9
Motiity, or Number of Degrees of Freedom
PROBLEMS 15
Chapter 2
‘Linkages and Mechanisms 20
21
22
23
2
Position Analysis of the Fous-Dar Linkage 20
FourDat Linkage Motion anct Grashott's Law 24
Position Analysis of Linkages Using Loop Closure
Fquations and Ueralive Methods 26
Linkage Analysis Using the Integrated
Mechanisass Progra (IMP) 12
‘Slider Crank Mechanism 35ewe wee ee ee ewe wee eee eee eer rere
vi, CONTENTS
Taggle Mechanism 40
Ovdnarw Coupling 41
Straight-tine Mechanisms 41
Pantograph 42
Chamber Wheels 43
Moake’s Coupling 44
Constant-Velacity Univertal Joints 46
Intermittent Motion Mechanisms 50
‘Computing Elements 54
grators 55
Synthesis 57
‘Case Study in Mechanism Design: The Hydrominex $7
PROBLEMS 61
Chapter 3
Cams 71
3.2
a4
Cam Classification and Nomenclature 71
Dick Cam with Radial Follower (Graphical Design) 73.
Disk Cam with Oscillating Follower (Graphical Design) 76
Positive-Return Cam (Graphical Design) 78
Cylinder Cam (Graphical Design) 78
Inverse Cam (Graphical Design) 79
Cam Displacement Curves 79
Cam Displacement Cusves—Advanced Methods &
Disk Cam with Radial Flat-Faced
Follower (Analytical Design) 99
[isk Cam with Rodis! Retler Rollower (Analytical Design) 96
Disk Cam with Ozeiliating Roller
Follower (Analytical Design) 106
‘Contour Cams 111
‘Thee Dimensional Come 115
(Cam Production Methods 118
PROBLEMS 119
Chapter 4
‘Spur Gears 128
41
Introduction to Tnvolute Spur Gears 128
Involutometsy 131
Spur Gear Details 134
Characteristics of Invodute Action 133
Interference in Involite Gears 140.
Gest Standardization 141
Minimnm Number of Tecth to: Avoid Interference 151
Determination of Backlash 136
‘CONTENTS
49° nternal (Annular) Gears 162
4.10 Cyetoidal Gears 163,
PROBLEMS 164
Chapter 5
‘Nousiandard Spur Gears 171
5.1 Theory af Nonstandard Spur Gears 171
5.1 Extended Center Distance System 173
5.3 Long and Short Addendum System 183
54 Recess Action Gears 185
53 Nonstandard Spur Gears Cut by a Pioion Cutter 187
PROBLEMS 199
Chapter 6
Bevel, Helical, and Worm Gearing 26
6.1 Theory of Bevel Gears 206
2. Bevel Gear Detaiis 210
63 Gleason Straight Bevel Gear Tooth Propostians 213,
GA Angular Straight Bevel Gears 214
65 Zerol Bevel Gears 214
6.6 Spiral Revel Gears 215
6.7 Hypoid Gears 219
68 Theory of Helical Geare 220
69. Parallel Helical Gears 26
{6.10 Crosted Helical Geant 225
6.11 Worm Gearing 231
PROBLEMS 235
TA» tntodvctioa to Gear Trains 245
7.2 Planetary Gear Trains 248
7.3. Application of Planetary Gear ‘Trains 258
TA Assembly of Planetary Gear Trains 262
7.5. Circulating Power in Controlled Planetary Gear Systems 257
76 Harmonic Drive Gearing. 273
PROBLEMS 775
Chapter &
‘Velocity and Acceleration Analysis 292
A Introdection 291
2 Linear Motion of a Particle 29%
83. Angular Motion 296Bd Relative Motion 296
5 Methods of Velocity and Acceleration Analysis 298
86 Volactly an Acceleration
88 Relative Velocity of Particles in Mechankums 312
89 Relative Velocity of Particiesis & Common Link 313
‘B40 Relative Velocity of Coincident Particles on Seperate Links 316
G11 Relative Velocity of Coincident Particles at the
Point of Contact of Rolling Elements 318
8.12 lastantancous Ceatccs of Velocity 321
8.13 Iasiantancous Center Notation 323
814 Kennedy's Theorem 324
8.15 Determination of Instantaneous Centecs
bby Kennedy's Theorem 325
8.16 Determination of Velocity by Instantaneous Centers 327
5.7 Rolling Blements 329
8.18 Graphical Determination of Acceleration
fn Mechanisins by Vector Polygons 329
8.19 Relative Acceleration of Particles ia Mechanisms 330
8.20 Relative Acceleration of Pasties in a Common Link 330
8.21 Relative Acceleration of Goinciden! Particles on
Separate Links. Coriotit Component of Acceleration 333
8.22 Relative Acceleotion of Coincident Pastcies at
the Fotat of Contact of Relng Elements 340
$25 Analytic Vector Solution of Relative Velocity
sod Acceleration Equations 344
5.24, Velocity and Acceleration Analysis by Numerical
‘or Graphical Ditferentiasion 349
825 Kinematic Analysis by Complex Numbers 354
8.25 Anslyic of the Stider Crank by Loop Clowure
‘Equations and Complex Numbers 357
PROBLEMS 372
Chapter 9
Force Analysis of Machinery 395
9% xluction 395
9: ifugal Force in Rotor Biades. 396
9.3 Inertia Force, Inertia Torque 399
alysis by Vector Mathematics 208
8.7 Determination of Velocity in Mechaaiums by Vector Poiygoms 311
34 Force Determination $02
9.5 Methods of Linkage Farce Analysis 404
2.6 Liakaps Hover Analysis by Seperpasition 404
9.7 Linkage Force Analysis by Matrix Methods 413,
9.8 Force Analysis Using the Integrated
Mechanisans Program (IMP) 418
9.8 Linkage Foroe Analysis by the Method of Virtual Werk 428
Linkage Force Analysis from Dynamic Charneteristics 425
kage Force Analysis by Camplex Numbers 49
9.12 Engine Foro Analysis 44
9.13 Dyoamically Equivalent Masses 440
9:14 Application of Equivalent Masses 441
9415 Engine Force Analysis Using Point Masses 442
9116 Engine Block £45
9.17 Engine Quiput ‘Torque 430
9.18 Flywheel Size 455
9:19 Forces on Gear Teeth 462
9.20 Cam Farees 468
9.21 Gyroscopie Forces 470
9.22 Moment-of-Inertia Determination 475
PROBLEMS 479
‘Chapter 10
Balance of Machinery 503
10,1 Introduction 503
102 Balance of Rotors 504
103 Dynamic and Static Balance 510
10.4 Balancing Machines 511
10.5 Balance of Reciprocating Masses $13
10.6 Analytical Determination of Unbalance 516
10.7 Fisiog Order 525
10.8 ¥ Engines. 525
10.9 Opposed Engines 532
10.10 Dalanve of Four-Bar Linkages $33
PROBLEMS 535
Chapter JE
Introduction te Synthesis 545
1.1 Classification of Kineramtic Synthesis Problems 545
412 Spacing of Accuracy Points for Function Generation S49
3 :
‘Analytical Desi
11.4 Curve Matching Applies to the Design of a Four-Bar
[Linkage as a Function Generator 557 3we wee eee we ee ewe eee ee wee HY ve
fas
ne
na
ie
19)
110 Pra
Graphical Desiga of 2 Four-Bar Linkage
as Function Generator 560
Graphical Design of a Four-Bar Linkage for Body Guidance S61
‘Analytical Design of a Four-Bar Linkage for Body Guidance 554
‘Analytical Synthesis Using Complex Numbers 567
[Design of a FourBar Linkage a8 a Path
‘Generator Using Cagnates 570
ical Considerations in Mechanism Syntbestc
(Mechanism Defects) $72
PROBLEMS 373
(Chapter 12
‘Spatial Mechanisms and Robotics 542
wa
22
3
4
ibs
126
7
Introdvetian 582
Mobility 583
Describing Spatial Motions $87
Kinematic Analysis of Spatial Mechanisins $95
Kinematic Synthesis of Spatial Mechanisms 59)
Introduction to Robotic Monipulators 600
Kinematics of Robotic Manipnlators. 612
PROBLEMS 608
Appendixes 612
“Answers to Problems 628
Index 635
Chapter One
Introduction
1.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE
STUDY OF MECHANISMS
"The study of mechanisms iz very important, With the continuing edvences. made
inthe design of instruments, aulomatic controls, snd automated equipment, the
study of mechanisms takes On new significance. Mechanisms may be defined 35
that division of machine design which ic concerned with the kinematic desipn of
linkages, coma, gears, and gear trains. Kinematic derign is design om the basis of
mation sequitements in contrast to design on the basis of strength requirements,
‘An example of each of the mechanisms listed above wil be given in arder to
nt a. carnpeliensive picture of the components to be- studied
Preeth aketeh of a Hokage ts chown in Fig. 1.1. This particu
‘serangement is
known a he Sldat-rank mechanor, [ink 1 isthe frme adi tionary, ik
Bien extn Unk 1 the eonnecting rod, and hak 415 the slider. A contmon
spaltaoa ef his Wekage i in the femal combustion engine where link 4
FIGURE Li Stider-crmk mechanism2. wmopucrion
‘becomes the piston (Fig. 1.22). This figure also demonstrates how difficult it may
Ibe to diacern the basic incenatie device when looking at & photograph or a
drawing of complete machine, Figure 1.2 shows the kinematic diggrars of the
slider-crank mechanism corresponding to the left sie crankxbaft-comecting-rod-
Piston im the photograph of Fig. 12a. Such a kinemae diagram is much easier
to work with and allows the designer to separate the Kinematic considerations
‘rom the larger problem of machine design
(General Maiors Corporation).
RETRODUCHON TO THE STUDY OF MECHANISMS 3,
8 1.3 shows the sketch of m cam and follower. The cam rotates at «
Constant angular Yelacily, and the follower moves up and down. On the upwasd
‘motion the follower is driven by the cam, and on the return motion tis driven
by the action of gravity or of a spring. Came are used in mindy machines, bet
‘one of the: most coramom is the automotive engine Where two Cains ake UScU pes
Cylinder to operate the intake and exhaust valves, alvo shown in Fig. 1.24. A,
three-climensional cars showa ia Fig. 1.4. In this cam, the mation of the follower
depcods not only upon the rotation of the cam but alco upon the axial matioa,
of the cam
inure 13
‘Two-dimensienl cam,
FIGURE 14 Three-dimensions cam.
Gears are used! in many applications 10 transmit motion from ane shaft to.
another with 4 constant angular yelocity ratio. Figure 1.5 shows.several commonly
used pears
eve re
FIGURE 15 (comiraed neet page)Hersigtone
FIGURE 15 (continued)
In some cases, the desived reduction jit angular velocity
achieve wsing omly two gears. When this occurs, several gears must be connocied
together {@ give what i¢ known as a gear tain. Figure 1.6 shows a gear train
‘where the speed is stepped down in going from gear T to gear 2 and again in
froing from gear 3 (0 gear 4. Gear 1 isthe driver, and gears? and.3.are mounted
‘on the same sha. In many gear Cains, it is nccessary wo be able vo shift gears
in and out af mesh so 98 to obtain different combinations of speeds. A. good
example of this is the automobile transmission where thee speeds forward and
fone in reverse are obtained by abifting two gears
In devices such as insuuments and automatic controls obtaining the eorrest
motion is all-in portaat. The power transmitted by the elements may be'so slight
a to be negligible, which allows the components to tbe proportioned primarily
fon the basis of motion, stcength being of secondary importance:
however, where the kinematic analysis is only
23 been determined. how the variaus machine
FIGURE 1.6 Goss tte
4
MoniaN 5
these parts must be analyzed, From this, the physical size of the parts may be
ddctermined. A machine tool isa good example; its strength ate rigidity are more,
cult 10 attain than the desired) mations.
‘tis important at this time to define the terms. used in the study of mec
‘anisma. This i done in the following section
1.2 MECHANISM, MACHINE:
In the study of mechanisms the terms mechanism and mochine will be used
repeatedly. These are defined as follows:
"A mechanism is a combination of righ! er resistant bodies so formed and
connected that they mave upen each other with definite relative mation. An
example ithe crank, connecting rad, and piston of an internal-combustionengine
ts shown diagrammatically in Fig, 1-25.
“A machine s 8 Mechanism oF collection of mechanisns which trnnsrai fore
from the source of power to the resistance to be overcome, Am cxnmple: is
internal-combustion engine.
13 MOTION
J dealing with the study of mechanisms, itis mecessary to define the variows
types of motion produced by these mechanitms.
Plane Motion
‘Translation
\When & rigid body so moves that the position of each sistight line Of the
body is parallel to all of its other pasitions, the body has motion of translation,
te Reetilincartranstation. All points of the body move im parallel atesight Hae
‘ithe. When the body mover back and forth in this manner, itis ssid to
feciprocate. This is ilusirated in Fig. 1-7, where the slider 4 secipeocates
between the limit BP and 2.
2. Curvilinear translation, The paths of the poiats are identical curves parallel
ta ficed plane, Figure 1.&showsthe mechanism that wasused in connectingWIGURE 14
the drive whecis of the steam Jooorotive. In this mechanism, tink 3 has
‘arviliacas traasletion, and al points ia the body trace oat identical cyciids
se wheels? and roll along track 1. Link Simoves with rectilinear tramlation.
Rosation
It cach point of 1 rigid body baviog plane motioa remains at # constant
distance trom a fixed axis that is perpendicular to the plaoe of motioa, the body
has motion af rotation, If the body rotates back and forth through a given angle,
it ia ssid to oxcillate. This is shown im Fig, 1.9, where link Zsotatcs and lak 4
consillntes between the positions 2” and ZF,
FIGURE 19 Fourbar Unkage.
Rotation and Translation
‘Mary bodies have motion whichis combination of rotation and translation.
‘Link 3 in Fig. 1.7, links 2 and in Fig. 1.8, and fink 3 in Fig. 1.9 are examples
of this type of motion.
Helical Motion
Whea a rigid body coves sa that each point of dhe body has motion of rotation
aboot a fixed axis and at the same time has translation parallel to the axis, the
unex, CHAIN 7
body has helical motion. An example of helical motion i the motion of nat as
he mut is screwed onto & bolt.
Spherleal Motion
When 1 rigid body moves 10 that ¢ach point of the body hes mation about a
fGxed poiot white remaining at a constant distance from it, the body bas spherical
Spatial Motion
A body moving with rotation about three nomparallel axes and transistion in
lite independent directions is said to be undergoing general spatial mation.
14 CYCLE, PERIOD, AND PHASE OF MOTION
‘When the parts of a mechanism have pasted through all the possible posiions
they can assume after starting from some simultaneous set of relative posiions
aod have retumed to ther erginal relative positions, they lave completed ncycle
‘of motioa. The time required for a 0,0,
(0.4 ~ 0,0) + AB > 0.8
(OB ~ 0,04) + OA > AB
“The second and abltd relation can be derived from the triangles O,A"B" and
O,A°E*, respectively, and the fact hat the sum of two sices af a iriangle must
be greater than the third side.
Figure 23d shows an arrangement whereby liok 4 of Fig. 2.1 fas bee
tcplaced by a sliding block. The motion of the two linkages it identical.
"The motion of the foar-bar linkage i offen characterized by the term crank
rocker to indicate that crank 2 rolales campletely und link 4 oscillates a4 in Fig.
2.Sa. Lo a similar manner, the teria double crank means that both link 2 eed link
4 rotate completely atin Figt, 2.50 and c- The term double rocker indicates that
Doth link 2 and link 4 oscillate as shown in Fig. 2:2
‘Aa a mein of determining whether a four-bor lakage wil operate as a
crank rocker, a double eranik,or n double rocker, Grashoff's law can be appiled.
“This lw guates that if the sum of the Jengths of the Longest fink and the shortest26 LINKAGES AND MECHANIENE
link is fess chan the suas of the tengthe of the other two, there will be formed
41. two different crank rockers when the shortest ll: fs the crank and elther
of the adjacent Kinks is the fied link
2. a double crank whem the shortedt Link it the Gxed lick
% adowble rocker when the link appasite the shortest isthe fixed link
‘Aleo, ifthe sum of the lenghs of the longest and the shortest links is greater than
the sum of the lengths of the other two, oaly double-rocker mechanisms will
result. Also, if the sum of the longest and shortest inks is equal to the puss of
{he other (wo, the four possible mechanisms ave similar to (hose of 1, 2, and 3
bore. However, in this last case the center linesof the links can becoste collinear
0 that the driven link can change direction of rotation unless some means is
provided to avoid it. Such a linkage is shown in Fig. 25h, where the links become
‘collinear along the line of conters 0,0). Attthis position, the direction of rotation
of the driven Hink 4 could change unless inertia casted fink 4 through this point.
2.3 POSITION ANALYSIS OF LINKAGES
‘USING LOOF CLOSURE EQUATIONS
AND ITERATIVE METHODS
1 fs posible to analyze the majority of mechaniiess by using methods much ot
the oe described in section 2.1. These aze known as clored-form methods; that
is, a finite number of calcelation: are required to find » theoretically exact 20-
latins. Uniortanniely, however, itis difical to develop a computer aided analysis,
package using tbis approach, because each different type of mechanism penerally
Fequises a separate analysis method and a separate computer program. Because
of this, several of the commercially available mechanism analysis programs have
bea developed based on iterative methods. Iterative methods altempt to eon-
verge aa a solution by repeitive caloulatioas. For this reason, it s not known
beforehand bow many calcultions will be required, er even if «solution cam be
Found. The bisic enoccpts of itceative mechaazsm analysis will now be illestraled
by way of w four-bar linkage example.
‘Consider the four-bar liskage of Fig. 2.6 with the x-eoordinate axis along
Link 1 which i fod. Since the Kinks of this mechanism form a closed loops the
‘and ycomponcats of the Links must sum to zero. This may be expressed 8s
follows:
Components:
Fy bryos ~ rca = rycon by = 0 an
» Components:
retin 0 = sain 6 = rnin 8) = 0 an
POSITION ANALYSIS OF LEWKAGES USING: LOOP CLOSURE EQUATIONS 27
in position analysis, the ink lengths r,,7,.r5, nd 7%, are Rows, and the problem
is to find the angles #, and 0, for a given value of 8;. Thwt, Eqs. 2.7 and 2.8
appeas to be a simple set af two equations in the two unknowns @, and &,, The
‘complication is that these equations are transcendental, and » simple linear s0-
tution isnot possible,
‘Note that the above equations will be satisfied only for thoce particular
valuct of ¢ and 6, that lose the mechaniam loap. ‘Those values arc offen called
the roots of the equation. For any valves of, and 8, ther thaa the roots, these
‘cqualitics will not be satities, so that in peneral
+ recs Ge — ry com Oy — eve, = f1(8,, 0) = $40) 2)
FA, 8 = £40)
Where the shorthand eolation ® = 0,, 0, has been used,
Finding the roots of these equations is now equivalent to fading the valucs
‘96 and 0, for which f,(6) and J,(0) are simultaneously equal to zer0. At this
[PoluL, @ tial soletion could be used to find tke moots. A far more efliicat
Procedure, hoes to use a lincar approximation to the funetiont-in seeking,
successively improved solutions,
__ Suppose, for ekaniple, that values of the angles 6, and have been selected
arbitraily. In general, these will not be roots of the equations. There exist,
hhowcver, some values 4, and.AQ, which, when added to Oy and Q., will give the
roots. This can be expiesied as follows
J) + OM, 0+ AB) = f(Oe ayo Fm a2 QDeee eee ew ewe wee wee wwe
28 LINKAGUS AND MECHANISMS
A linear approximation to
‘ol its Taylor series expanciat
is function is obtained by ‘aking the first two terms
boat the point 0, 6:
a) = 00 + (7 a0, + (8
V Nn ten an
IW is now possible to solve for the values of Ad, aod 0, that will drive this
aear function to zero. Tf the linear function is a reasanable approximation 10
the otiginal function, these values should alsa cause the original function ta be
approximately equal to zero. Setting the linear function equal to zero gives
100+ (262) a0, (22200-0632 aay
[By substicuting ( = 1 and (= 2 ia Bq. 2.13 and by rearranging terms, the fol-
Towing equations result:
Jae. = - 1.00) a4
Jan, = — £60) 15)
‘Once an initial estimate has been made for the values of 6, and'B,, the values of
FA) and f,(8) can be calculated from Eqs. 2.9 and 2.10, The partial derivatives
needed in fags, 214 and 2.15 are found to be
2M) ying,
rain Oy
16)
reas
= ra 805 Oy
Since: the partial derivatives found in Eq, 2.16 are evaluated at the estimated
values of 0 and 8, Eqs. 2.14 and 2.15 are actually two Finear equations in the
two unknowns 40) and fy. Solving these equations simultancously yields the
values of 0; and 48, which, when aliked Lo the estinested values @, and, will
make the approximate linear function equal to neta. Alhough, in general, these
function, they wil be an improved
POSITION ANALYSIS OF LINIAGES USING LOOP CLOSURE EOUATIONS 29
estimate, By using tit improved estimate, a second linear approximation is made
to the function and a. new set of values for 8, and 0, is calculated. This process
is epeated umiil the roots of the approzimats fanction produce velues of the
coriginal function which are nearly equal to rero. The method just desenibed is
‘one of the best known and most often used aumerieal root-finding techniques.
lknown a8 Une Newton-Raphson method. The following numerical example
will help #0 show the detail of this method. and ite epplication to mechanisen
analysis.
Example 2.2. For the four-bar linksge shown in Pig. 26, solve the position analysis
problem asing the Newiow-Raphion root finding method. Use @, = and wre link
‘Slosensions 27, r= kinandr, = 6ia
Refore analyis cas proceed, initial estimates of 8, wad yaa which vo iterate must,
be ebiained, Normally, postion analysis begins t wom known wasting postion of the
tmechasism sad proceeds by incrementing the input angle by some small want. The
‘aloes of nd #, at the previous potion tr Usually» good estimate of the corresponding
aloes at the peesent position, Another approach i to eaimate these values graphically.
‘Toderansiate the rapid soavergence of the Newtoa-Raphean method, values of 8, and
8, wil be elected whic are Rowe to be far from the twe roots. The wave of will be
estimated at", and the value of 8, wil be exienated xi 107. Sabsituliag these estimated
‘aloes slog with known dimzasions of the Enkage in the le omure equations (Egy
2.9 and 2.10) sad alsa in the expressions forthe partial derivatives (Eq 2.16) gives
18) = 7 + G08 WO ~ 3 con 6 ~ B eon = ~ 3.50
18) = 6 sn 100" — 3 sin OY — Bein ~ 3.300
2189). sine = 0
fo 8
HE) «6a 09 ~ 590
HY. sca = =
He) a cant = ~ 8.000
Hae) ~
HAS) 6c WOR = —1.082
‘Sataitting these vabos ino Bs. 2.14 and 2.15 yield the foowis
‘herwoknowns Bt and Al:
O48, + (5.900) a0, ~ 2.50
(800) 46, + (1.002) 48, = ~3510
Solving for 40, and 88, gives
y= 0.092 rad = 28.18 0.559 mad = 3"30 UPON AND MECHANISMS.
panning hw 0 hm ete vate an be swing proved ean
= 0 + ms = mae
0, = N00 — 24.244" = s.086"
“Values of te funesions and the patal derivatives ae recalxtned using these oe vues,
tand w second set of approsiaate 8 valves is obeained. This proces ie repeated sil the
‘ilu of the 4,0) and J,(0) ar equal to 2220, own pa rer Inspreveinet can be
‘obtained, A fowehart al this trative proces ie chown in Fig. 2-7. The corresponding
‘omypter program, writen in BASIC, ts shown in Pig. £8 The results of this progam
‘teach ierabom are grea in Table 2:1, Its evideat thom this table thatthe Newioo-
‘Raphon method converges apiy for iis exam,
ROSITION ANALYSIS OF LINKAGHS URC LOOP CLOSUNE EQUATIONS 34
Seadiar dea 7 100 Rn a
*ETAG *Seaanab tueAS~raerAS Dest NNyTASERG= TANTRA OEETRAD
scos (ranma) )=(wascoa’EHETAS}
fa ctateecrany yet entourasensyt
Favrisesvcostaeeras}
braertcataaw(tuerad)
‘TABLE 2.1 Resnlts of the Merative:
Analysis Program
SAA Aart
ome eon 3s 33H
ms GSEs ~0910
ne 71 ~o01s
Ban m8 0000
Hn ti, a5,
350
3407
~ S65
“5.70HKAGES AND AMECHANESMS
a
24 LINKAGE ANALYSIS USING
THE INTEGRATED MECHANISMS:
PROGRAM (IMP)
‘As mentioned in the previous section, several commercially available mechanian.
‘analysis programs have heen developed based on itcrative methods of salving
the loop closure equations. One of the mast widely used af these programs is
the Integrated Mechanisms Program, know ss IMP. This program was developed
by Sheth and Uicker! and ée curveanty distributed by Structural Dynamics Re~
search Corporation, a subsidiary of General Electric CAE Intemational * Peo-
fessor Wicker and bis associates have developed another IMP program which is
being distributed hy IML Research Ine *The IMP system is capable of unalyzing
displacements, velocities, accelerations, atu forces in a wie variety Of two anc
tdiecdimensioaal rigid link meckamians, It ust be emplaced that the se of
is program is ne dubstitite for 8 told understanding of basic kinematic pein
faples, It ean, however, relieve the designer ‘of many routine calcalations and
Provide analysis capabilities far beyond those attsinsble using hand calculation
Dc usce-writlet pOgrams, For these reasons, programs sch as IMP are rapidly
becomming indispensable tools for industrial designers.
‘The following example silt ituetrate how this program can be set up 10
analyze the angular displacements of the iopot and output links of a four-bar
Tinkage.
Bxample 2.3. tn the fows-bar linkage shownin Fig. 296, lik 2 the drives and rotates
completely. and link 4 oscillates Use the TMP program 10 determine Ure angles which
Conesped te the entreme poriions of lik &
Tibet
FIGURE 248 ‘one
FW. Sheth a, Vicks, TRAP (Ingrid Mecha Progen), A Compute Aled Daag
“Kastpis Siem for Mechaicne and Lickagen” lewma of Eagiscrin jor lndhery, Brew. ASME,
Yat Bh, May 197, pp 4k
jy me patecnectaniame rogram,” Sirota yeas Rese Coppa, Milford, OH,
fenoeny,
TVTEGRATED MECHANISMS PROGRAM (IMPY_ 4 Feabem Oren Language for
ute Aldea eg nn Attys Of Mechasea! Spies,” IML Rasen Toe 194
LINKAGE ANALYSIS USING THE INTEGRATED MECHANISMS PROGRAM 33
‘Tee designations OH, A, H, anil OWA in Fig, 290 represent taming, pais 01
evolutes (joints) nod permit only relative ration. These posioea would coatain the
bearings ia an actual mechanize. The euds of each Link termite in pit which isthe
‘enter ofthe revolute. Te Fig. 290, lik 2 ic defined by polets GOR aad AA, ink 3 by
[points 443 and BBS. and link Ay BB4 and OO4, (Thisuse of wainge letter, for cxanple,
{A to despite a revolute and af x double eter, AA, 10 desipoate 8 psn’ ts chosen Tor
‘Svemience to avoid confusion in epecsying the made! forthe mechani.) At illstrated
in Chapter 1, point Aa is « point on bath links 2 and 3, wad point BB is comma to both
Tinks 3 and 4, faa similar manner, point O02 is common io inks 1 2nd2, and point OO
is toaon to Hoks 1 aad 4. The kdctonal labeling of the meckaniem to 2pecty there
‘ois i shown in Fg. 2.80. It very intportant tha the revolute and points be ee
Sistngsshed,
om mee
‘oo
FIGURE 236
“The tttements forthe revues tobe sted le the lap trthe IMP program ftiow;
GnouND= FRAME
REVOLUTE (FRAME .LNK2) =OH2
REVOLUTE (LHK2 LNK3}=A
REVOLUTE CLNKS, Luka 1-8
REVOLUTE (LMR, FRAME) =0H4
1 should De noted in the aye Hating ear whe patern & nk 2 yelative 1 frame, ink 3
relative w link 2, ink 4 relative to link 3, and frame relative to link 4 By sting wich
frame snd ending whith frame, the requirement tha the loop mast cose fs Saisted
‘The nent sep isto determine the coordinates of the revolted label theny 3s
shown in Fig. 2:3. Also the orientation of two local cooviiaate system tach! t0 the
Tinks on each side of the revolutes mast be chosen, Al dota for revolute joints must be
fives relative tothe global reference frame
‘Toe data foreach revolute mast now be sedi the inpet tothe TMI program with
1 dataevolutestalement. This will contaia (c) the coordinates of the revolul, whic fs
also the origin of the two neal coordinate systems; () a point on tbe common lead
positive s-enee of these epsteme; an () and (4) polis onthe positive serene the Incsd
Coordinate ayrtem for the Bat and arcond links mamed in the corresponding revolute
‘atemvent, The enscat way to give the directions in item (e) and (d) is ta ga fon OF2
{DA forthe acirection alg Unk 2 for revolute OFZ and fo rewchue A tog back fan34 UNKAGES AND MECHANSSES camara acres $s
FIGURE 294
a
FIGURE 29°
Ato OH2. The diseetions af the xenordinates for the other revolutes are bandied Un 8 i
‘Siar miannes. The dat fos che vevolutcs ave a8 flows:
DATA:REVOLUTECOH2)=0.0,0/0,0,1/1,0,0/-2.1215,2.1213,0
OATA:REVOLUTE(A)=-2.121,2.1213,0/=2,1219,2.1219,1/0,0,078
9.2242 5.9988.0
DATA: REVOLUTE (81=9.2242,5.9388,0/9.2242,5.9980, 178,
2.1215.2.1218.07i0,0,
DATA:REVOLUTE(ON4)=10,0,0/10,0,1/8.2242,5.9988,0/12,0,0 ICURE 25+
“The data for he point ive in he loc coornae pees ofthe sseinted font re
‘ised next 25. SLIDER-CRANK MECHANISM
POINT CLHK2}=002, AK2 {Tis echonun is wey wid a id ils rests ppiction nthe ternal
DATA: POINT (002, 0H2}-0,0.0 combustion engine. Fighte 2.104 shows a sketch ia sich link 1 is Ue Ieame
DATA.POINT{AAZ.AI-0,0.0 (considered fied), link? the erank, tink 3 4 Use coonecting rod, and lnk 4 t
- the slider. With the imernal-combustion engine, link 4 is the piston upon which
paricrourrinas: Alen 0 ‘gas pressure is exerted. This force is transmitted through the cannecting rod to
‘ :Ab=0,0, the crank. It can be seen that there willbe two dead points during the cycle, one
DATA:POINT(E83,8)=0,0,0 at each extreme position of pistoa travel. In arder 10 evereome these, iis wee:
POINT (LMC4} B84 ,0O4 ‘essary 10 attach a flywheel to the crank 50 that the dead points can be passed,
DATA:POINT(884,8)=0,0,0 ‘This mchanisan is abo wed in air compressors where an electric motos driver
DATA:POINT(OO4 ,H4)-0,0.0 he ceaak whick i turn drives tbe piston that cormpresses the aie
2O0MLT)=6 1.5.0 In considering the slider crank, iti oftem necessary to calculate the dis-
] placement of theslider and its corresponding velocity and aceeleration. Equations
for displacement, velocity, and acceleration are derived using Fig. 2.108
RETURN
“The IMP progam was run on x VAX T/TRO compte using the above np king
“tne minim dope ase fs the opt fat OMe shows ia as Tee P= REL~ Roost Loot
‘tine of the uae er oot GHE's 15.65 (ptr bcos en ah 2 its yc cnntin-p
qe frame, ore), IMP deGnes counterciochwits tngler as positive. The valve of the angie ) + 1 )
ea Si iis" (nqaine been ate frame ete fo lak), as
ae eae aeentaen bute oreys Retin torent emer aneye aft fim (Bfewe] amy
Recap to fotn OU 26S, ned he efor fat Oula S173 Ve36 HNKAGES AND MECHANISMS
FIGURE 210,
In order to simplify the above expression, che radical cam be appromimated by
replacing it with the binomial series
o oh
(emp e ne de
where B= (RIL) sin
gene, ibis slficetly ssruatef@wSe ly the fist om terms of the
“Therefore, .
or
ae
wae Hf
at oie
7
‘a
Rt
a= RC cose) + Fant
whore — sof because oi constant; and
as
mdfane + ana] ain
SLIDER CRANK MECHANISM 37)
WAGURE 211
It is possible to fix some link other than 1 om the slider crank and thax
obtain thuee inversions, which ace shown ia Fig, 2.11. tn Fig. 21a, the crank
Pe held fined and afl che othr links are allowed! to move. This gives = mcchanism
that was used inearly aircraftengines, They were known as rotary caginesibecause
the cman was stationary and the: cylinders rotated aboot the crank. A more
tnadern application of this inversion {8 ithe Whitworth mechanism, which wil
fe dhcussed under quick return mechanisms, Figure 2.116 shaw: an anversion in
hich the coanecting rod iS held fixed, This inversion in modified form + he
bes far the crank shaper mechanism to be discussed later, The third inversion
Twhete the slider is held fixed, Fig. 2.11c, is sometimes used in the hand farm
pomp.
"A ratiation of the slider-craak mechanism can be affected by increasing the:
sive of the erank pin wnti it ie larger than the shaft to- which i ts attached and
iM the same time ofketting the ceater of the crank pin from that of the sha
‘This ealarged crank pin is ealled an eccenfrie and can be used to replace the crank
in the original mechanism. Figure 2.12 shows aaketch where paint A isthe center
‘ofthe eccentric and point O the center af the shaft. The mation of this mechanism
Shih the equivalent erank length OA is identical with that of the slider crank,
‘One sorkous disadvantage of this mechanism, bowever, is the problem of proper
Iubrieation between the eccestric and the rod, This finite the amon of power
that can be trantmited.38 LINKAGES AND MECHANISNS
26 SCOTCH YOKE,
This mechani bs ese wict will lis eatly appte
‘tion was on steam puraps, but it i now used asm mechanism on a test machine
to produce vibrations. 1 is also used a8 a sine-cotine goherator for computing
elements. Figure 21a shows a sketch of thie mechauuen, F
the manner in which simple harmonic motion ic generated. The radius 7 rotates
al a constant angular velocity w,, and the projection of the point P upoa the
axis (0c y-axis) moves with simple harmonic motion. The displacement from
where the cirele cuts the s-asit andl inereasing to the left is
Aor reot, where 8, = et am)
Therefore,
x Fil — 05 wut)
v= Se ra sinas = rasa, @21)
4-8 tenn = rat om, vf
‘Another mechanism which will give simple harmonic motion is a circalar
‘cam (eccentric) with & fst-faced radial follower. This is discussed in the following,
chapter.
AGURE 2.3
27 QUICK-RETURN MECHANISMS
These mechanisms are Wied on machine tools to give w alow cutting stroke and
quick retumn stroke for a constant angular velocity of the deiving crank apd arc
‘combinations af simple linkages such as the four-bar Linkage td the sider-crani
mechanism. Aa inversion of the slider crank in combination with the conventional
alder crank is also used. In the design of quick-return mechanicms, the ratio of
QUICK RFTURH MECHANISMS 39
FIGURE 214
the crank angle for the cutting stoke tu that for the return stroke is of prime
fnportance and is known at the tine ratio, ‘To produce a quick retura of the
sting tool, this ratio must obviously be greater than unity snd as Targe at
(possible: Asan exampic, the crank angle forthe cutting stoke for tke mechanisas
Showa in Fig. 2-14 is labeled a, and that for the reture stroke is Labeled. With
‘he assuciption that the crank operates at a constant speed, the time ratio is,
{hersiors, «/B, which is much pyeates than uaity.
‘Thete art several types of quick-teturn mechanisms which are deecribed 2p
fotos
Ding Link
This & developed from the four-bar linkage and is shown in Fig. 215. Foc 3
‘constint angular veloity of ink 2, Kink 4 will rotate at nonusifocm velocity
Ra 6 will move with nearly constant velocity over most of Uke epward stroke
‘to give a slow upward sizake and 2 quick downward stroke when driving link 2
rotates clockwice.
Whitworth
“This is variatioa of the first inversion of the slider crank in which Wie erank ie
boeld fixed. Figure 2.16 shows a skelch of the mechanises, and both links 2 aed
A make covnplete tevolutions.
Crank Shaper
‘This mechanismis.a variation of the second inversion ofthe slider crank in which
the conaccting rod i beld fixed. Figure 2.14 shows the arrangement in whichlink 2 rotates completely and link 4 oscillates, Ifthe distance 0,0) is shortened
lant itis Less than the crank, the mechaaism will revert to:the Whitwoeth.
‘Offset Slider Crank
‘Thestider erankean be offset as shown in Fig. 2 1?.owhich will give a quick return
motion. However, the amount of quick ceturn is very slight, and the: mechanism
‘would only be used where space was Einited andthe mechsnista had to be simple.
FIGURE 217
2.8 TOGGLE MECHANISM
‘This mechanism has euany applications where it necessary to overcome & Farge
redicance with a «mall driving force. Figere 2.18 shows the mechanism: links 4
rand 5 are of the same length. As the angies a decrense andiinks 4 and 5 approach
bucing collincor, the force P required (@.overcame a given vesistance P decreases
1s shown by the following relation:
&
Fo Fton az)
Ii can be seen that fora given Fas @ approaches 2era, F approaches Eeinity.
stone crusher utilizes this mechaninm to overcome
force. This mechanisen ea be used ot
STRATOHET-LIME ACECANESNES
FIGURE 2
29 OLDHAM COUPLING
‘This mechanism provides a means for conseeting two parallel shafts which are
out of line a small amount so that a constant angular velocity ratio can be trans-
inilted from the drive shalt ta the driven shaft, A sketch is shown in Fig, 2.19
‘This mechanism is an ioverston of the Seueeh yoke.
‘SURAIGHT-LINE MECHANISMS
As the name suggests, thede mec hanigns ore designed 2a that a poiat on ane of
‘te liska will move in'a straight line, ‘This straight line will be either an approx-
imate oF a theoretically comect stmnight fine, depending on the mechanism.
‘An example of an epproximate straight line mechanism is the Watt, which
is shown in Fig. 2.20, Point Fis so located tht the segments AP nod UP are
inversely proportional to the lengths O,A and Q,@. Therefore, if tinks 2 and
are equal in Length, point P must be the midpoint of Fisk 3. Point P will trace