Chapter “4 i { ok Introduction 1.1 Introduction ‘The study and design of physical systems can be cartied out using empirical methods. We can apply various signals toa physical sysem and measure its responses. If te performance fs not satisfactory, we can adjust some of is parameters or connec oi a compenstor to improve its performance. This approsch ries heavily on pastexperience andi eried out by tial and tor and has succeeded in designing many physical systems, [Empirical methods may become unworkable if physical sytem are complex or too expensive or too dangerous tobe experimented on. [nthese cases, analytical methods become indispensable. The analytical study of physical systems consists of love pars: modeling, development of mathematical descriptions, analysis, and design, We Eiefly introduce each ofthese tasks. “Thedistnction between physical systems and modelsis basic in engineering Forexample. circuits or contol systems stadied in any textbook are models of physiil systems. A resistor ‘ith a constant resistance is 8 model: it will burn out if the applied voltage is over a limit. This power limitation soften disregarded in its analytical stay. Am inductor with a constant inductance is again a model in reality, the inductance may vary with the amount of current flowing through t. Modeling is avery important problem, forthe success ofthe design depends con wheter the physical system is modeled properly. A physical system may have diferent models depending onthe questions asked, It may alsobe modeled differently in ditferentoperational ranges. Forexample, aneleconicamphiier is modeled differently at high and low frequencies. spaceship can be modeled as patcle in investigating its trajectory; however, t mist be modeled asa rigid tody in manctsering A spaceship may even be modeled asa flexible body when itis connected toa space tation. In order to develop a suitable model fora physical system, a thorough understanding of the physical system and its operational range is essential. tn this text, we wll call a move ofa physica system simply a system. Thos a physical system i a device o acollection of devices existing in the real world a system isa model ofa physical sytem Once a system (or model is selected for @ physical system, the next step i to apply various physical laws to develop mathematical equations 10 describe the system. For ex- ample, we apply Kirchhott's voltage and current laws to electrical systems and Newion's Taw to mechanical systems. The equations that describe systems may assume many forms:INTRODUCTION they may be linear equations, nonlinear equations, integral equations, difference equation, differential equations, or others. Depending on the problem under study, one form of equation ‘may be preferable to another in describing the same system, In conclusion, a system may have diferent matbematical-equation descriptions just asa physical system may have many differen models ‘After a mathematical description is obtained, we then carry out analyses—quantitative andéor qualitative. In quantitative analysis, we are interested in the responses of systems excited by certain inputs. n qualitative analysis, we ate interested in the general properties of systems, such as stability, controllability, and observabilty, Qualitative analysis is very ‘importa, because design techniques may often evolve from this svidy. IF the response of a system is unsatisfactory, the system must be modified. In some cases, this can be achieved by adjusting, some parameters of the system: in other cases, compensators must be introduced, Note thaf the design is carried out on the model of the physical system. If the model is properly chosen, then the performance ofthe physieal system should be improved by introducing the required adjustments or compensators, Ifthe model is poor, then the performance of the physical system may not improve and the design is useless. Selectrg model that is close enough toa physical system and yet simple enough tobe studied analytically isthe most difficult and important problem in system design 1.2 Overview The stuly of systems consists of four parts: modeling, setting up mathematical equations, analysis, and design. Developing models for physical systems requires knowledge of the particular field and some measuring devices. For example, to develop models for transistors requires a knowledge of quantum physics and some laboratory setup. Developing models for automobile suspension systems requires actual testing and measurements; it cannot be achieved by use of pencil and paper. Computer simulation certainly helps but cannot replace ‘actual measurements. Thus the modeling problem should be studied in connection with the specific field and cannot be properly covered in this text. In this text, we shall assume that models of physical systems are avsilable to us. “The systems to be studied in this text are limited to linear systems. Using the concept of linearity, we develop in Chapter 2 that every linear system can be described by v= f Geucyae ay ‘This equation describes the relationship between the input w and output y and is called the ‘nput-ourpue or external description. fa linear system is lumped a8 well then it ean also be described by 3(0 = A@xir) + BOQ) “a (0) = Cieyxts) + DEUCE) a3 Eaquatin (1.2)is asetof first-order differential equations and Equation (1.3) isa setof algebraic equations. They are called the internal description of linear systems. Because the vector x is called te state, the set of two equations is called the state-space or. simply, the state equation, 1.2 Overview 3 fa tinear system has, in addition, the property of time invariance, then Equations (1.1) through (1.3) reduce to yo 7 Ge Duley dr ay b and X() = AN() + Bucy as) yin = Cx(7) + Duis) 6) For this class of linear time-invariant systems, the Laplace transform is an important tool in analysis and design. Applying the Laplace transform to (1.4) yields G(syats) i) i where a variable with eirsumfex denotes the Laplace transform ofthe variable. The furtion Ge iscaled he ronsfer matric Both.) and Tareinpat-outputor extemal escripsons. “The former is said tbe in the me domain and the later inthe frequency domian Equation (1.1 through (1.5) are cll continuous-time equations bscause their ime variable ris continuum defined st every time instant in (~20. 20). H the time is dened only at discret instants then the coresponding equations are ealed discrete-time equations. ‘This text is devoted tothe analysis and design centered around (U1) through (1.7) nd bee Aiserete-time counterparts ‘We briefly discss the contents of each chapter. In Chapter 2. after introducing the aforementioned equations from the concepts of lumpednes, linearity, and time invariance. te show how these equations canbe developed to describe systems. Chapter 3 eviews eat algebraic equations the Lyapunov equation, and other pertinent topes that are sential fr thistexe. We azo trace the Jordan frm becssse it wil be wsed o establish a numberof resus, Westudy in Chapter soltion ofthe state-space equations in 2)and 15). Diterent Analyses may lead todifferent stat equation tat describe the same system. Ths weinroduce the concep of equivalent stat equations. The basi relationship between state-space equations and tansfer matrices is lo established, Chapter 5 intodces the concepts of bounds bounded-outpat (BIBO) stability, marginal stability. and asymptotic staiity. Every s}stem thust be designed tobe suble; otherwise it may burn out or disintegrate, Therefore sity isa base system concept, We ao introduce the Lyapunor theorem t cheek asympiotic stability Chapter 6 introduces the concepts of controllability and observabiliy. They are esenil in studying the internal structure of systems. A fundamental result is that the transfer matrix: desries only the contolaie and observable pat of sate equation. Chapter 7 sues ‘inimal reliations and introduces cprime polynomial fractions. We show how wo cbain Coprime fractions by solving sets of linear algebrale equations. The equivalence of contllble an observable sate eqistions and coprime polynomial factions is extabishe. “The last two chapters discuss the desigh of time-invariant systems. We use contolable and observable state equations to camry out design in Chapter 8 and use soprime pols nomial fractions in Chapter 9. We show that, under the conrlibility conon, all egemlues of a sysiem can be arbitrarily asigned by introducing state feedback. Ia slate equation fs observable, full dimensional and reduced-dimensional state estimat's, with any desired4 INTRODUCTION eigenvalues, can be constructed to generate estimates of the state. We also establish the separation property. In Chapter 9, we discuss pole placement, model matching, and their applications in tracking, disturbance rejection, and decoupling. We use the unity-feedback configuration in pole placement and the two-parameter configuration in model matching. Inour esign, no control performances such as rise time, Settling time, and overshoot are considered: neither are constraints on control signals and on the degree of compensators. Therefore this isnot a control text per se. However, all results are basic and useful in designing linear time- invariant control systems Chapter aunt Mathematical Descriptions of Systems 2.1 Introduction ‘The class of systems studied in this text is assumed to have some input terminals and output terminals as shown in Fig. 2.1, We assume that if an excitation or input is applied to the input terminals, a unique response or output signal can be measured at the output terminals. This unique relationship between the excitation and response, input and output, or eause and effect is essential in defining a system. A system with only one input terminal and only one output terminal is called a single-variable system or a single-input single-output (SISO) system. A system with two or more input terminals and/or two or more output terminals is called a multivariable system, Moze specifically, we can call a system a mult-input multi-output (MIMO) system if it has two or more input terminals and ourput terminals, a single-input rulti-output (SIMO) system if it has one input terminal and two or more output terminals. any we 0} a Back 0 at “a cS vel ah 4s ts 23458 Figure 2.1 System