Pressure Measurement

Pressure is the force exerted per unit area

Pressure is the action of one force against another force. Pressure
is force applied to, or distributed over, a surface. The pressure P
of a force F
distributed over an area A is defined as P =
F/A

1#

Pressure Measurement
Pressure Units
psi

100

bar

6.895

mbar

6895

mm of Hg

5171

mm of WC

70358

in of WC

2770

Kg/cm2

7.032

Pascal

689476

kPa

689.5

atm

6.805
2#

Pressure Measurement Terms

Absolute Pressure
Measured above total vacuum or zero absolute. Zero absolute represents
total lack of pressure.
Atmospheric Pressure
The pressure exerted by the earths atmosphere. Atmospheric pressure at
sea level is 14.696 psia. The value of atmospheric pressure decreases with
increasing altitude.
Barometric Pressure
Same as atmospheric pressure.
Gauge Pressure
The pressure above atmospheric pressure. Represents positive difference
between measured pressure and existing atmospheric pressure. Can be
converted to absolute by adding actual atmospheric pressure value.
Differential Pressure

3#

The difference in magnitude between some pressure value and some

reference pressure. In a sense, absolute pressure could be considered as a
differential pressure with total vacuum or zero absolute as the reference.
Likewise, gauge pressure (defined above) could be considered as Differential

Pressure Gauge

4#

PRESSURE GAUGES:
A Pressure Gauge is used for measuring the
pressure of a gas or liquid.
A Vacuum Gauge is used to measure the pressure
in a vacuum.
A Compound Gauge is used for measuring both
Vacuum and Pressure.
Pressure Gauges are used for Indication only.

Pressure Gauge

5#

Pressure Gauge
Measuring Principle
Bourdon tube measuring element is made of a thin-walled C-shape tube or
spirally wound helical or coiled tube. When pressure is applied to the measuring
system through the pressure port (socket), the pressure causes the Bourdon
tube to straighten itself, thus causing the tip to move. The motion of the tip is
transmitted via the link to the movement which converts the linear motion of the
bourdon tube to a rotational motion that in turn causes the pointer to indicate the
measured pressure.

Helical Bourdon

C Type Bourdon
6#

Coiled Bourdon

Pressure Gauge Selection Guideline

When selecting a Pressure Gauge, care should be
given to a number of parameters which have an effect
on the gauges accuracy, safety, and cost.

7#

Accuracy required
Dial size
Operating pressure range
Chemical compatibility with gauge construction
materials
Operating temperature range
Vibration, pulsation, and shock
Pressure fluid composition
Mounting requirement

Pressure Gauge Installation

Top connection preferred for gas installations & side connection preferred
for liquid installations.
The pressure gauge can be connected to the pipe by individual block and
bleed valves or a two way manifold.

Liquid Service

Gas Service
8#

Pressure Transmitter

9#

Pressure Transmitter
A Pressure Transmitter is used where indication and/or
record of pressure is required at a location not adjacent to
the primary element.
A Pressure Transmitter is used for both indication and
control of a process.
A Pressure Transmitter is used where overall high
performance is mandatory.
Both Electronic and Pneumatic Transmitters are used.
These can be either Gauge, Absolute or Differential
Pressure Transmitters.
10#

Transmitter Measuring Principle

11#

The diagram shows an electronic differential

pressure sensor. This particular type utilizes a
two-wire capacitance technique.
Another common measuring technique is a
strain gauge.
Process pressure is transmitted through
isolating diaphragms and silicone oil fill fluid to
a sensing diaphragm.
The sensing diaphragm is a stretched spring
element that deflects in response to the
differential pressure across it.
The displacement of the sensing diaphragm is
proportional to the differential pressure.
The position of the sensing diaphragm is
detected by capacitor plates on both sides of
the sensing diaphragm.
The differential capacitance between the
sensing diaphragm and the capacitor plates is
converted electronically to a 420 mA or 1-5
VDC signal.
For a gauge pressure transmitter, the low
pressure side is referenced to atmospheric
pressure.

Pressure Transmitter
Typical Outputs
4 to 20 milliamp (mA). analog signal
Smart HART digital signal (superimposed on
analog signal)
Fieldbus digital signal
3 to15 psi pneumatic signal

12#

Pressure Transmitter Selection Guideline

When selecting a pressure transmitter care should be
given to a number of parameters which have an effect
on transmitter accuracy, safety, and utility.

13#

Accuracy required
Power supply
Operating pressure range
Operating temperature range
Body Material
Pressure fluid composition and Internal parts
Mounting requirement
Process connection size

Pressure Transmitter installation

Mounting above tap is typical for gas service and mounting below
tap typical for liquid and steam services.
Direct mount is possible for low temperature services.

14#

PRESSURE TRANSDUCERS
HOW IT WORKS
Pressure sensors either convert the pressure into mechanical movement or into an
electrical output. Complete gauges not only sense the pressure but indicate them on a
dial or scale.
1) Mechanical movement is produced with the following
elements
1) Bourdon Tube
2) Spring and Piston
3) Bellows and capsules
4) Diaphragm

PRINCIPLE,CONSTRUCTION & WORKING

1.1) BOURDON TUBE

The Bourdon tube is a hollow tube with an elliptical cross section. When a pressure difference exists
between the inside and outside, the tube tends to straighten out and the end moves. The movement is
usually coupled to a needle on a dial to make a complete gauge. It can also be connected to a secondary
device such as an air nozzle to control air pressure or to a suitable transducer to convert it into an
electric signal. This type can be used for measuring pressure difference.

PRINCIPLE,CONSTRUCTION & WORKING

1.2 PISTON TYPE

The pressure acts directly on the piston and compresses

the spring. The position of the piston is directly related to
the pressure. A window in the outer case allows the
pressure to be indicated. This type is usually used in
hydraulics where the ability to withstand shock, vibration
and sudden pressure changes is needed (shock proof
gauge). The piston movement may be connected to a
secondary device to convert movement into an electrical
signal.

1.3 CAPSULES AND BELLOWS

A bellows is made of several capsules. These are

hollow flattened structures made from thin metal
plate. When pressurized the bellows expand and
produce mechanical movement. If the bellows is
encapsulated inside an outer container, then the
movement is proportional to the difference
between the pressure on the inside and outside.
Bellows and single capsules are used in many
instruments. They are very useful for measuring
small pressures.

1.4 DIAPHRAGMS

These are similar in principle to the

capsule but the diaphragm is usually
very thin and perhaps made of
rubber. The diaphragm expands
when very small pressures are
applied.
The
movement
is
transmitted to a pointer on a dial
through a fine mechanical linkage.

ELECTRICAL PRESSURE TRANSDUCERS

There are various ways of converting the mechanical movement of the preceding types into an
electric signal. The following are types that directly produce an electric signal.
1) Strain Gauge types
2) Piezo electric types.
3) Other electric effects

Strain Gauge- The principles of electric strain gauges are covered later. Strain gauges are small
elements that are fixed to a surface that is strained. The change in length of the element produces
changes in the electrical resistance. This is processed and converted into a voltage. A typical pressure
transducer would contain a metal diaphragm which bends under pressure.

Typical DP Transmitter Construction & Installation

A DP transmitter is used to measure the gas pressure (in gauge scale) inside a vessel. In this case, the
low-pressure side of the transmitter is vented to atmosphere and the high-pressure side is connected
to the vessel through an isolating valve. The isolating valve facilitates the removal of the transmitter.
The output of the DP transmitter is proportional to the gauge pressure of the gas, i.e., 4 mA when
pressure is 20 kPa and 20 mA when pressure is 30 kPa.

Differential Pressure Transmitters

Most pressure transmitters are built around the pressure capsule concept. They are usually capable
of measuring differential pressure (that is, the difference between a high pressure input and a low
pressure input) and therefore, are usually called DP transmitters or DP cells.
A typical DP transmitter. A differential pressure capsule is mounted inside a housing. One end of a
force bar is connected to the capsule assembly so that the motion of the capsule can be transmitted
to outside the housing. A sealing mechanism is used where the force bar penetrates the housing
and also acts as the pivot point for the force bar. Provision is made in the housing for highpressure fluid to be applied on one side of the capsule and low-pressure fluid on the other. Any
difference in pressure will cause the capsule to deflect and create motion in the force bar. The top
end of the force bar is then connected to a position detector, which via an electronic system will
produce a 4 - 20 ma signal that is proportional to the force bar movement.

TYPES OF DRAWINGS IN INSTRUMENTATION

Plot Plan It is often helpful to look at the plot plan to get an overview of how a plant is
physically organized. By examining the plot plan, it is possible to get an idea of where a piece of
equipment is located in the plant as well as understanding the physical layout of the
plant and the distances between pieces of equipment can often provide
insight into the expected transport delay associated with material or product
flow between pieces of equipment.

Process flow diagram

Drawing that shows the general process flow between major pieces of equipment of a plant and the
expected operating conditions at the target production rate. Since the purpose of the process flow
diagram is to document the basic process design and assumptions, such as the operating pressure and
temperature of a reactor at normal production rates, it does not include many details concerning piping and
field instrumentation. In some cases, however, the process engineer may include in the PFD an overview of
key measurements and control loops that are needed to achieve and maintain the design operating conditions.
The process engineer then documents the design in a process flow diagram (PFD). The process flow diagram
typically identifies the major pieces of equipment, the flow paths through the process, and the design
operating conditionsthat is, the flow rates, pressures, and temperatures at normal operating conditions and
the target production rate.

Process flow diagram

Piping and Instrumentation Diagram

The instrumentation department of an engineering firm is responsible for the selection of field devices
that best matches the process design requirements. This includes the selection of the transmitters that fit
the operating conditions, the type and sizing of valves, and other implementation details. An
instrumentation engineer selects field devices that are designed to work under the normal operating
conditions specified in the process flow diagram. Tag numbers are assigned to the field devices so they
may be easily identified when ordering and shipping, as well as installing in the plant.
Tag number Unique identifier that is assigned to a field device.
The decisions that are made concerning field instrumentation, the assignment of device tags, and piping
details are documented using a piping and instrumentation diagram (P&ID). A piping and
instrumentation diagram is similar to a process flow diagram in that it includes an illustration of the
major equipment. However, the P&ID includes much more detail about the piping associated with the
process, to include manually operated blocking valves.
Closed loop control - Automatic regulation of a process inputs based on a measurement of process
output.
Manual control Plant operator adjustment of a process input.

Piping and Instrumentation Diagram

P & ID Drawing that shows the instrumentation and piping details for plant equipment.
The P&ID acts as a directory to all field instrumentation and control that will be installed on a
process and thus is a key document to the control engineer. Since the instrument tag (tag number)
assigned to field devices is shown on this document, the instrument tag associated with, for example,
a measurement device or actuator of interest may be quickly found.

Loop Diagram
The piping and instrumentation diagram identifies, but does not describe in detail, the field instrumentation that is used by
the process control system, as well as field devices such as manual blocking valves that are needed in plant operations.
Many of the installation details associated with field instrumentation, such as the field devices, measurement elements,
wiring, junction block termination, and other installation details are documented using a loop diagram. ISA has defined the
ISA-5.4 standard for Instrument Loop Diagrams. This standard does not mandate the style and content of instrument loop
diagrams, but rather it is a consensus concerning their generation. A loop diagram, also commonly known as a loop sheet,
is created for each field device that has been given a unique tag number. The loop diagrams for a process area are normally
bound into a book and are used to install and support checkout of newly installed field devices. After plant commissioning,
the loop Diagrams provide the wiring details that a maintenance person needs to find and troubleshoot wiring to the
control system.
Loop Diagram Drawing that shows field device installation details including wiring
and the junction box (if one is used) that connects the field device to the control
system.
The loop diagram is a critical piece of documentation associated with the installation of the control system. As has been
mentioned, the engineering company that is designing a process normally has standards that they follow in the creation of
a loop diagram. These standards may be documented by the creation of a master template that illustrates how field devices
and nomenclature are used on the drawing.

LOOP DIAGRAM

Tagging Conventions

Tagging Conventions

The ISA-5.1 standard defines a standard tag number convention for valves, transmitters, other field devices,
and calculation and control functions. In addition, the standard defines expanded tag number conventions that
may better meet the documentation requirements of large installations that consist of many process areas or
multiple measurements that serve similar functions.
TYPICAL TAG NUMBERTIC 103 - Instrument Identification or Tag Number
T 103 - Loop Identifier
103 - Loop Number
TIC - Function Identification
T - First-letter
IC - Succeeding-Letters
EXPANDED TAG NUMBER- 10-PAH-5A - Tag Number
10 - Optional Prefix
A - Optional Suffix

Line and Function Symbols

Different types of lines are used in process flow diagrams, piping and instrumentation diagrams, and
loop diagrams to indicate the type of connection between field devices and the control system. The
ISA-5.1 standard defines the instrument line symbols that are commonly used in control system
documentation. As illustrated in Figure 7-10, a solid line is used to represent a physical connection to
the process. Two slashes shown as points along a line are used to indicate a pneumatic signal. One of
the most common ways to indicate an electric signal is a dashed line as defined in ISA-5.1.
Communication links between devices and functions of a distributed control system are indicated by
small bubbles along the line as in figure..
1. Instrument supply2. Pneumatic Signal3. Electric Variable or Binary - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4. Communication Link

 The previous examples of the process flow diagram, piping and instrumentation diagram, and loop
diagram contained one or more circle symbols. In these drawings, a circle is used to indicate a
discrete instrumentation or control function. A horizontal line drawn through the middle of the
circle indicates the function may be accessed by the plant operator. There are many functions, such
as those performed by an I/P transducer or valve positioner, that are typically not directly
accessible by the operator. Also, some field devices for measurement and actuation may only be
accessed by control or calculation functions in the control system and thus would not be shown in
the documentation as being directly accessed by the operator. However, the associated control or
calculation function that is accessed by the operator would include a horizontal line.
one of the conventions advocated in ISA-5.1 is to include a square around the circle if the associated
function is accessed by an operator through a video display of a distributed control system (DCS).
However, in practice, this convention is often not followed.

TAIWAC GAUGES
DRY GAUGE
SPECIFICATION-