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Prophethood & Making of Islamic Historical Identity
Prophethood & Making of Islamic Historical Identity
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khtam al-nabiyyn),
the last prophet in a successive line of prophets.3 In their treatment of prophethood in
Islam, other scholars give attention to the theological and philosophical nature of this
I am using the term prophethood rather than prophecy to show the uniqueness of the term in Islam.
N. A. S
J
I
:F
H
Y
I
D
?A O
The Convergence of Judaism and Islam: Religious, Scientific and Cultural Dimensions, eds. M. M. Laskier
and Y. Lev (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2011, 10-20; F. E. Peters, Jesus & Muhammad:
Parallel Tracks, Parallel Lives (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), 84-123; M. M. Ayoub, Islam
Faith and History (Oxford: Oneworld, 2004), 30-50.
3
D.S. Powers, Muhammad is not the Father of Any of your Men: the Making of the Last Prophet
(Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2009), (especially) 52-54, 68-69; B. M. Wheeler, Prophets
in the Quran: An introduction to Qurn and Muslim Exegesis (London and New York: Continuum,
2002); R. Tottoli, Biblical Prophets in the Qurn and Muslim Literature, trans. M. Robertson (Richmond:
Curzon, 2002); I. B. Hussain, Prophets in the Qurn: the Early Prophets (London: Ta-Ha Publishers,
1994), I; vii-xxiv; F. Donner, Origins of Islamic Narratives, The Beginnings of Islamic Historical Writing
(P
:
D
P
1998) 151 . 16; W. . W
T N
P
prophets. Central
I
:N
Ab
azm). T
)
ul al-
addition to the moral lessons conveyed in these stories. First, however, a few words ought
to be said about the unique concept of prophethood in Islam in comparison with Judaism
and Christianity.
monotheistic religions, especially with regard to the eschatological and the messianic
aspects of this term,6 yet there are some significant differences.7 As the first monotheistic
F. G
A -G z C
P
:
I
A
P
A
T
Arabic Sciences and Philosophy, 14, I (2004), 101-144; B. Ab
R
V
Philosophy, the case of Fakhr al-Din al-R z P
P
Oriente Moderno, 19 (2001), 415425; F. Rahman, Prophecy in Islam; Philosophy and Orthodoxy Prophecy in Islam; Philosophy and
Orthodoxy ( Chicago: Midway Reprint, 1979), 30-91.
5
U. R b
P
C
Methods and Theory in the Study of Islamic Origins, ed. H. Berg
(Leiden and Boston: Brill, 2003), 73-99; idem, Bible and the Quran (Princeton: Darwin Press, 1999), 1135; L.
K
P
U
I
A
L
Studia Islamica
18 (1995), 101-120; P. Crone and M. Hind, Gods Caliph: Religious Authority in the first Centuries of
Islam (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 46-54.
6
F. H. Shahid, Prophecy and the Fundamentalist Quest: An interactive Study of Christian and Muslim
Apocalyptic (Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 2008), 8-12.
the
Jewish people. In Jewish religious texts, the term also refers to an inspired person who
can locate lost things or foresee future events.13 The line of prophets, according to Jewish
literature, ended with the construction of the Second Temple.14 Christianity, which
acknowledges the Jewish scriptures, follows, on the whole, these two meanings of
prophecy in Judaism. Yet the Christian view of prophecy emphasizes the prediction of
the future, because it ties in closely with the eschatological anticipation of the messianic
coming of Christ and the end of this world.15
I
A
L
101-110.
8
II Samuel 24:11; II Kings 17:13.
9
I Samuel 9:9; II Sam. 15:27.
10
Exodus 6:28-7:2; Numbers 12:1-8; Deuteronomy 18:20-22.
11
I Samuel 9:6-10; I Kings 12:22-24; I Kings 17:18-24; II Kings 1:10-13; I Chron. 23:14; II Chron. 30:16.
12
S
.P
P
P
Encyclopaedia Judaica, XIII, 1150-1175, 1154.
13
D. E. Aune, Prophecy in Early Christianity and Early Ancient Mediterranean World (Grand Rapids,
Mich.: Eerdmans, 1983), 81-107.
14
Deuteronomy 13, 18:20; bat kol. The Talmud refers to seven female prophets and forty eight male
prophets. See Megillah 14. The last prophet mentioned in the Bible was a woman named Noahdia.
Nehemiah 6:14. S
P
Historical Dictionary of Prophets in Islam and Judaism, Historical
Dictionaries of Religions, Philosophies, and Movements, 43, eds. S. B. Noegel and B. M. Wheeler,
(Lanham, MD and London, 2002).
15
Matthew 16, 3; John 4: 18-19, 7: 40. See also D. E. Aune, Apocalypticism Prophecy, and Magic in Early
Christianity (Michigan, Baker Academic, 2008), 299-302; W.
W
T N
P
77-78.
Judaism,16 but it introduces five new significant elements. Prior to the discussion of these
Islamic perceptions of prophethood, one should bear in mind that a belief in previous
A
.T
.A
revelations.
revealed to
Q ic
of previous prophets to whom God entrusted the same mission. These divine messages
P
f revelations
.P
role in conveying the message of God, implementing His commandments, and fighting
16
U. R b
I
R
Bb
H
Adaptations and Innovations: Studies on the
Interaction between Jewish and Islamic Thought and Literature from the Early Middle Ages to the Late
Twentieth Century, Dedicated to Professor Joel L. Kraemer, ed. Y. Tzvi Langermann and Josef Stern,
Collection del la Revue des tudes Juives (Paris-Louvain-Dudley, MA: Peeters, 2007), 299-313.
17
Ibid., 79.
25 b
names. Some later Islamic traditions list the number of rasls as 315, whereas the number
1000 is given for nabs. Still other Muslim scholars mention the total number of prophets
as 224,000. 19 The fifth and final meaning of prophethood in Islam revolves around the
miraculous abilities that God grants each prophet-messenger as a way to demonstrate His
divine signs to humans. Before discussing these meanings of prophethood, we should
touch on the sources of Islamic prophetic narratives.
T
tafsr
.W
these sources proved insufficient to construct the stories of previous prophets, Muslim
scholars began to search for new sources. These inquiries formed the basis for the genre
know
narratives, later known as the isrilyyt,21 were the earliest materials upon which
Muslim scholars relied to construct the prophetic stories.
18
. Z. Ib
AP
:H B
F
Q '
C
? American Journal of
Islamic Social Sciences 26:1 (2009): 20- 46; M. M. Ayoub, Islam Faith and History, 30-40.
19
B. Wheeler, Prophets in the Quran: An Introduction to the Quran and the Muslim Exegesis (London,
New York, Continuum, 2002), 8.
20
On the early authors of this genre see Aris al-majlis f qisas al-anbiy or Lives of the Prophets, as
Recounted by Ab Ishq A mad ibn Mu ammad ibn Ibrhm al- halab, trans. by William M. Brinner
(Leiden: Brill, 2002), xviii-xxiv.
21
A good discussion on the Isriliyyt can be found in the studies of Jane D. McAuliffe, "Assessing the
I
: an Exegetical Conundrum," in Story-telling in the Framework of non-Fictional Arabic
Literature, ed. S. Leder (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1998), 345-369; "The Qur'anic Context of Muslim
Biblical Scholarship," Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations, 7, ii (1996), 141-158.
bey Him
would be punished.23 I
G
.H
tradition
.G
22
A- b
arkh, I, 133-136 (de Goeje, I, 133-137);
Historical Dictionary of Prophets in
Islam and Judaism.
23
Srat al-Arf 7): 172; - b
arkh al-rusul wa al-mulk, .
Ab -F Ib m
(Cairo: Dar al-Ma b 1960) I, 133-136 (de Goeje, I, 133-137); alKitb al-Bad a alarkh B
:
k b K
. .) III 10.
(rasls),
b
.T
.I I
b
Ab
these prophets from the others. First is the universality of their prophetic mission, that is,
God sent them to propagate His message not only to a certain group of people, but to all
mankind. Second, these prophets were sent as reminders at crucial stages when humans
G
G
.T
difficulties, and, consequently, God granted them the ability to perform miracles,
G
enab
.T
miracles were in line with the common supernatural forces or beliefs that dominated their
societies. Finally, throughout their prophetic mission, these prophets demonstrated
extraordinary endurance for dealing with great challenges and risks that no mere human
.T
unyielding and determined ones (ul al-azm).25 In addition to the major events in these
narratives, Islam has an interest in calculating the number of years between Muhammad
and previous prophets, as I have discussed elsewhere. Our undertaking here is limited to
certain events in prophetic history and their role in shaping Islamic religious and
24
A b
on the whole, the story in the book of Genesis,26 where it is considered a turning point in
prophetic history. Since A
Islamic
k
narrative signifies the second beginning of human history.28 Some Muslim historians,
N
in
the form of the flood. The flood episode brought about a new beginning in human
G
:
mission, 31 N
26
33
N h to
build the Ark, and the flood as the final punishment. 34 A similar representation of the
Noah story can be found in the prophetic tradition.35 N
G
guided
people and rewards the righteous. Both the flood, which led to a second beginning in
human history, and extended life spans were the miraculous signs of Noah. His prophetic
mission became the symbol of forbearance and resoluteness due to the difficulties and
suffering he faced throughout his time. 36 L k
serves,
G
.T
owing
.H
H .D
b
.T
G ? T
: T
consider him better than you. If God had wanted he could have sent angels. We
. H
b
. N
. W
J
L
: B
Ak
inspiration. When our command comes and the pits gush forth, take on board
32
Ab
:
-B
(Cairo: D
-Bb
. W
Ak
. S
allow me to disembark in a blessed landing place. You are the best to allow us to
b k.37
become the basis upon which later Islamic accounts of the story build. Uniquely, later
Muslim scholars, particularly historians, emphasize aspects of the Noah story that serve
I
.S
.I
considered a
parallel between the Noah story and the prophetic mission of Islam and highlighting the
N
.I b
(d. 923) offers the most detailed account, which serves as a
37
Srat al-Muminn (23): 23-29. I rely here on the translation of B. Wheeler. See Prophets in the
Quran, 51.
38
Al-K Bad al-khalq wa qisas al-anbiy . - b S
T
:D N A b
1998), 156-164; al-T b Qisas al-anbiy, 54-61.
10
.H
.A-
b
b
flood narrative and the rise of Islam, showing that both events represent significant
conjunctions in the history of mankind. This conjunction is evident in the following
adth
: T
to the Ark of Noah; whoever boarded it was rescued and whoever failed to do so
(takhallafa anh)
b
N
b G
.Lk
s message
.D
N
k:
:S
I
.T
A
b
.A
39
Al-D
al-Akhbr al- i l, . A.
J. -S
C
: D I -Kutub al-A b
1960), 1-2; Ibn Qutayba, al-Marif, 26; al-Y b arkh, I, 13-15; al Murj I, 44-46 (secs.
66-72).
40
A -T b
Jmi al-bayn, xii, 26-56.
41
Alal-Bad, III, 22.
42
Genesis 10.
11
Of relevance to our discussion here is that in Islamic sources, as in the biblical story,
Shem enjoys a superior place among his brothers for being the forefather of prophets and
the best among nations.44 Among the prophets descend
z
Ab
S
.W
Islamic presentations of the next link in the prophetic history and its significance to
Islamic narratives of origins.
Ib
of the religious origins of Judaism,45 Christianity,46 and Islam.47 More than any other
prophet, Abraham occupies a central place in the making of Islamic religious and
historical identity. Islamic traditions emphasize, therefore, that Abraham, whose epitaph
is khall al-ra mn
b
Q
43
A- b
arkh I, 155 (de Goeje, I, 156); al Murj, I, 36 (secs.45-46), 40 (sec. 56), 41 (sec.
58) 42
. 60) 43
. 6; Ib S al- abaqt al-kubr, I B
: D
D B
1960)
54-55; alal-Bad, II, 150-154.
44
Ibn Qutayba, al-Marif, 27-28; al-Y b arkh, I, 17; a - b
arkh, I, 191 (de Goeje, I, 199),
201-204 (de Goeje, I, 210- 216); Jmi al-bayn, xxiii, 67-68.
45
Genesis 17:5.
46
The significance of Abraham in Christianity appears in the book of Matthew (1: 1-18) where he portrays
Jesus as a descendant of Abraham. But it was St. Paul who established the connection between Abraham
and Christianity. Galatians 3:29.
47
B. Feiler, Abraham: A Journey to the Heart of Three Faiths (New York: Harper Collins Publishers), 3135; S. Lowin, The Making of A Forefather: Abraham in Islamic and Jewish Exegetical Narratives (Leiden:
Brill, 2006), 39-70.
48
R. Firestone, Journeys in Holy Lands: the Evolution of the Abraham-Ishmael Legend in Islamic Exegesis
(Albany: SUNY Press, 1990), 11-15. B. Feiler, Abraham, 113-185.
12
Ab
.T
narrative consists of the following main themes: the pre-prophetic life of Abraham, his
G
49
52
Ab
Ab
b
b
.H
.N
religion. Nimrod made tremendous efforts to prevent the fulfillment of this prophecy, but
to no avail. When Abraham was born, his mother hid him in a cave until it was safe to
49
13
.W
Ab
G
G
Ab
am confronted his
people showing them the worthlessness of their pagan belief and finally clashed with
Nimrod.60 E
b Ab
Ab
into a furnace, but God miraculously saved him, demonstrating the divine triumphing
over evil. Abraham left his country to establish a righteous society elsewhere, where a
new stage of his prophetic mission began.61
Islamic traditions underscore, as previously mentioned, that Islam is the true
religion, founded by Abraham. Hence, Islamic sources highlight similarities and parallels
Ab
bet
b
Ab
I
.T
.T
z
57
b. S
afsr muqtil, . A. . S C
: -H -
-K b
1979-1989), I 569-70; - b
Jmi al-bayn, VII, 249-250; al-T b Qisas al-anbiy, 73; alK Bad al-khalq, 200-205; alal-Bad, III, 46-47.
58
Al-Y b arkh, I, 23-24; al Murj, I, 48-49 (sec. 75-76).
59
A- b
Jmi al-bayn, I, 308; arkh, I, 236-237 (de Goeje, I, 254-255); al-T b , Qisas alanbiya, 74-75.
60
A- b
arkh, I, 237 (de Goeje, I, 256).
61
Al-T b Qisas al-anbiy, 75-78. It is worth noting that there is no mention of the furnace scene in
the Bible, but this story appears in the midrashic literature. See S. Lowin, The Making of A Forefather,
183ff.
14
B k! W
Ab
and the Gospel were not revealed until after him? Have you no sense? There, you
have disputed in matters about which you have some knowledge! Why are you,
then, debating about things in which you have no knowledge? And God knows,
whereas you do not know. Abraham was neither a Jew nor a Christian; but he was
an upright ( anf) Muslim and he was not a polytheist (min al-mushrikn). V
Ab
b
of
. 62
Ab
Ab
religion and to succeed him. This view constitutes the axis around which the Abraham
story revolves in the prophetic tradition. For example, in his tafsir, adth
: V
.63 Another
: I
.64 E
saying not only that Muslims are the true inheritors of the Abrahamic religion, but also
that Islam is a universal religion surpassing both Judaism and Christianity.65 A number of
62
: D
-Kutub al-I
1997) I
15
.S
story of the Islamic delegation sent to Constantinople to meet the Roman emperor.
Exchanging information with his Muslim guests, the emperor showed them a small coffer
that consisted of several compartments with small do
.E
.F
depiction most resembles Abraham.66 Another story, in which the king of China showed
a group of Muslims a similar casket,67 similarly highlights the unique status of
Muhammad, as well as his closeness to Abraham.
Islamic sources emphasize the role of Abraham in establishing his Islamic
I
H
. A
bb
Ab
S b
the behest of his wife, Sarah).68 Islamic sources identify this place with Mecca. This part
of the Abraham story is very significant in the development of Islamic religious identity
Ab
K b
k H
66
Al-D
al-Akhbr, 18-19; al-H
Kitb al-buldn, Bibliotheca Geographorum Arabicorum,
ed. de Goeje (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1967), V, 140-143.
67
Al Murj, I, 168-169 (secs. 342-344).
68
Genesis 16:7; 21:14; L. Ginzberg, The Legends of the Jews, I, 265-66
69
Ib S al- abaqt al-kubr, I, 46-46; al-T b Qisas al-anbiy, 80-81.
16
Ab
K b
.71 No wonder that
the pilgrimage rituals in Islam revolve entirely around the arrival of Abraham, Hagar, and
I
.T
centrality of the Abraham story to the establishment of Islamic origin makes his
prophethood unique to Islam, and, in a religious sense, disassociates Judaism and
Christianity from Abrahamic traditions. To further enhance this direction, Islamic
traditions include under the ul al-azm frame, discussions of the founding fathers of the
other two monotheistic religions: Moses and Jesus.
4. T
I
P
I
narrative contains the most detailed description. There are a number of reasons for this
Islamic interest. First, Islamic traditions consider Moses the founding father of the first
monotheistic religionJudaismwhose scripture influenced later religions. Second,
Islamic sources attribute to Moses unique prophetic qualities. For example, he is
considered the first prophet to speak directly to God and, hence, has been given the
G
supernatural acts and miracles. Third, Islamic traditions associate Moses with Judaism,
the main religious contender with Islam. In so doing, Muslim scholars disassociate
70
17
.F
that they fell from His favor after they went astray. Muslims became, therefore, the new
C
.
Islamic presentations of the Moses story, which generally follow the biblical
story,73 have many features in common with the prophetic stories of Noah and Abraham.
Such are the themes of corruption and godlessness, warning signs through prophetic
.F
we learn that Moses was the messenger-prophet sent by God to Egypt to guide people to
G
Q
b
75
74
Egyptian,76 Moses in Midian,77 his prophetic mission and miracles,78 the return to Egypt
and confrontation with Pharaoh,79 G
of the Israelites from their slavery,80 Moses parting the sea and the destruction of
P
81
Moses and the Israelites in the wilderness,82 the revelation and the
73
Most of the representations of the story of Moses in the bible can be found in the books of Exodus,
Numbers, and Deuteronomy.
74
Srat al-Anbiy ( 21): 1-6. The same theme appears in the bible. See Exodus 1: 7-22.
75
Srat a-Ha (20): 38-41; Srat al-Qasas (28): 7-12; Exodus 2:1-10.
76
Srat al-Qasas (28): 22-28; Exodus 2:11-15.
77
Srat al-Qasas (28): 14-21; Exodus 2: 16-22.
78
Srat a-Ha (20): 9-24; Srat al-Naml (27): 7-12; Srat al-Qasas (28): 29-35; Srat al-Nazit (79): 1519; Exodus 2-23-25; 3:1-31.
79
Srat al-Arf (7): 103-126; Srat Ynus (10): 75-83; Srat Ban Isrl (17):101-103: Srat a-Ha (20):
49-69; Srat al-Shuar (26):10-5: Srat al-Nazit (79): 20-26; Srat al-Qasas (28): 36-42; Srat alMumin (40): 36-37; Exodus 4:1-24; 5: 10-13; 6: 1-16.
80
Srat al-Naml (7): 127-136; Exodus 6: 17-25; 7: 1-27.
81
Srat al-Shuar (26): 52-68; Srat al-Dukhkhn (44): 17- 33; Srat Ynus (10): 90-92.
82
Srat al-Baqara (2): 47-61; 67-73; Srat al-Arf (7): 148-158; Srat a-Ha (20): 80-98.
18
.84 Similarly,
through Moses.86 Muslim scholars begin their description of the Moses story, as in the
case of the Abraham story, with a prophecy foretelling his coming. The Pharaoh learned
from soothsayers that a boy born among the Israelites would defy his religious authority
and put an end to his rule. Attempting to prevent this prophecy, the Pharaoh ordered the
killing of all Israelite male babies. Nevertheless, Moses was born, and his mother was
divinely inspired to place her infant in a small ark and cast him in the Nile. The baby was
b
.87
family.88
T
Egyptian who was fighting with an Israelite and fled to Midian.89 In Midian, he met a
83
.E
2: 5.
88
A- b
Jmi al-bayn, I, 271-275; xxvi, 26-43; arkh, I, 386-395 (de Goeje, I, 444-456); alBad, III, 83-84; al-T b Qisas al-anbiy, 166-172; Ib K
Qisas al-Anbiy, . . .
C
: D -Haytham, 2002), 230-235.
89
A- b
Jmi al-bayn, xxvi, 43-61; arkh, I, 395-398 (de Goeje, I, 457-460); alBad, III,
84-85; al-T b Qisas al-anbiy, 172-174.
84
19
completion of eight years of service as a shepherd. At this stage, God appeared to Moses
and entrusted him with the prophetic mission. Islamic sources, as in the bible, offer
detailed descriptions of the miracles which God granted Moses. Examples include the
striking of his hand with light and turning his rod into a frightening snake. Now his main
E
magic-practicing priests. Moses had the upper hand in that contest when his snake
P
swallowed theirs,
I
k
b
.I
b
defiant and continued in his attempts to punish Moses and his followers.94
90
Bb
J
. E
18. I
.S
- b
arkh, I, 400 (de Goeje, I, 452).
91
A- b
Jmi al-bayn, xxvi, 61-76; arkh, I, 400-403 (de Goeje, I, 463-467; al-T b Qisas alanbiy, 174-181.
92
Another part of the Moses story that is unique to Islamic sources is the description of a tower built by
Pharaoh in order to challenge God. Srat al-Qasas (28): 38; al-T b Qisas al-anbiy, 189-190;
93
Al-T b Qisas al-anbiy, 188-189.
94
A- b
arkh, I, 403-413 (de Goeje, I, 466-478); al-T b Qisas al-anbiy,182-187.
The n
20
.97 Indeed,
Islamic sources acknowledge that God selected the Israelites as His chosen people by
protecting them, performing miracles on their behalf, and providing them with food.
Nevertheless, the Israelites were ungrateful, rebellious, and disobedient. 98 For example,
when Moses returned to the Israelites with the tablets, he found most of them
worshipping a golden calf. Moses was enraged, and God commanded him to have
everyone that worshipped the calf be killed. God also punished the Israelites by
abandoning them in the wilderness for forty years before they entered the Holy Land (alAr al-muqaddasa).99
The story of Moses and the Israelites plays an important role in the making of
Islamic religious identity and historical legitimacy. Although God took the Israelites as
H
.T
95
While in the Bible the number of these plagues is 10, Islamic sources mention only nine.
A- b
arkh, I, 413-421 (de Goeje, I, 478-488); al-T b Qisas al-anbiy, 190-200; Ib K
Qisas al-anbiy, 268-275.
97
Exodus, 15: 22-34, 35: 1-40.
98
Srat al-Baqara (2): 41, 47; Srat al-Mida (5): 12.
99
Srat al-Mida 5): 20-26; - b
arkh, I, 421-431 (de Goeje, I, 489-501); al-T b Qisas alanbiy, 204-213; Ib K
Qisas al-anbiy, 278-302.
96
21
. T
adth
Ib Abb
. 680)
: O L
bestowed upon me a great blessing that you never honored anyone with before
. H
: I
messages and revelations, so follow what I gave you thankfully, i.e. with force,
;
diligence, and
b
? H
: H
: O L
: T
peace be upon him, over other nations is comparable to My superiority over all
.100
To sum up, the Moses story constitutes a significant link in Islamic accounts of
prophetic history in general and the ul al-azm framework in particular. To construct
their religious self-identity, Muslim scholars use the Moses story to contrast the grace
G
J
.F
100
H
b
22
A b
Islamic presentations of the ul al-azm narratives. The Jesus story recurs frequently in
Q ;
103
101
topics, yet with more details, can be found in the prophetic tradition.105 The influence of
the New Testament is, as we shall see, noticeable in Islamic accounts. However, one has
to bear in mind two fundamental differences between Islam and Christianity, regarding
the questions of the Trinity and the Crucifixion.106 These issues generated the theological
polemic between Muslims and Christians in the Middle Ages. However, the examination
of these differences is beyond the scope of this article.
T
adition
served as a model for later Muslim scholars. However, as time passed, they sought nonIslamic materials, such as the New Testament, to provide more coherence. The plot of the
101
23
.G
G b
in the form of a human who breathed into an opening in her clothing, and from this breath
Jesus was conceived. Giving birth to Jesus, Mary had to confront her people and
convince them about this miraculous sign of God.110 It was Jesus who, as an infant, spoke
to them, presenting himself as the messenger of God and defending his mother for giving
birth to a fatherless child.111 The birth of Jesus is portrayed in Islamic traditions as a
significant event in prophetic history. The day Jesus was born, all idols, therefore,
toppled on their heads, and demons were terrified and confused.112 As part of the
b
bility to
heal the blind and the leper and bring forth the dead.113
I
geographical locations associated with his story, such as Nazareth, Bethlehem, Egypt,
and Jerusalem. A central theme in Islamic accounts of the Jesus story is the Jewish
opposition to his new prophetic mission. Such is the case with Herod, the governor of
Judea, who attempted to kill the newborn baby, but God prevented him from achieving
107
al-
24
important theme in the Islamic tradition. Interestingly, in Islamic texts, the term disciples
appears as the a riyyn, deriving from the root -w-r, associated with whiteness. They
were given this title because they were pure-hearted and their faces were radiant with
light due to their deep devotion to God.116 Muslim scholars refer to the twelve apostles
and their role in conveying the message of God to other peoples.117 No doubt, Islamic
J
who played an indispensable role in the transmission of the prophetic tradition to the
following generations.
The Jesus story plays a significant role in Islamic religious legitimacy and
historical identity. To achieve this objective, Islamic traditions place an emphasis on
three themes of the Jesus narrative. First, Jesus is the last prophet-messenger (rasl)
I
.S
b
. F
114
A- b
arkh, I, 605 (de Goeje, I, 740-741); T b Qisas al-anbiy 385.
Al-Y b arkh, I 146; - b
arkh, I, 604-605 (de Goeje, I, 740); alsec. 719).
116
Al-T b Qisas al-anbiy, 391.
117
Al-T b Qisas al-anbiy, 390-39; Ib K
Qisas al-anbiy, 465-470.
115
Murj, II, 34
25
: I
fulfilling that which is in my hands of the Torah, good news of the messenger to
come after me, his name being Ahmad.118 W
.119
: T
b J
The theme of th
number of adths According to one such adth,
: I
my father Abraham and the good tiding of Jesus; when my mother was pregnant with me
B
stresses three significant aspects of Islamic religious identity and historical legitimacy:
Abraham is the founder of Islam, Jesus announced the coming of Muhammad, and Islam
is the last revealed religion.
Jesus also figures prominently in Islamic apocalyptic literature, where he plays, as
we shall see, a pivotal role in the struggle against the Antichrist.121 Thus, according to
Islamic sources, Jesus will come back to lead the Islamic community, along with the
Mahdi, and defeat the Antichrist. References to the eschatological role of Jesus can be
found in the prophetic tradition. Such is the case with the two following adths In the
P
118
T .
119
307-310.
26
J
the Prophet says:
All the prophets are brothers. Their mothers are different but their religion is one.
I am the worthiest among all people of Jesus, son of Mary, May peace be upon
them, for there was no prophet between him and me. The son of Mary is about to
appear as a just judge among you living among the community as my vicegerent.
When you see him, you will recognize him to be a man of medium size, with skin
. H
non-Muslims until all other religious sects, but Islam, perish. In this time, God
A
J
40
b
. H
b
.123
ummad. I
b
.H
A
lead and protect the
Islamic community against the Antichrist. Thus, Islamic traditions apply the Jesus
narrative to both the past and future in Islamic religious and historical identity.
Conclusion
122
123
27
ul al-azm. A
I
b
the long line of prophets originating with Adam. Hence, the concept of khtam al-anbiy
(seal of the prophets)
k
.
Hence, Islam is deemed superior to other religions, and Muslims are the new and only
chosen people. Islamic portraits of the prophetic stories of Noah, Abraham, Moses, and
Jesus recount parallel tracks of the same divine message that confirms the authenticity
Abraham, Moses, and Jesus. In Islam, Moses and Jesus are considered the founding
fathers of the other two competing monotheistic religions--Judaism and Christianity,
respectively. However, Abraham is believed to be neither Jewish nor Christian, but rather
the founding father of Islam, and Muhammad is the true and final restorer of the
Abrahamic tradition. This construction of prophetic history, therefore, demonstrates the
historical legitimacy of Islam and its distinctive religious identity.
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