Nervous System

Chapter 48
Nervous Systems
PowerPoint Lectures for

Biology, Seventh Edition
Neil Campbell and Jane Reece
Lectures by Chris Romero

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Overview: Command and Control Center

The human brain
Contains an estimated 100 billion nerve cells,
or neurons
Each neuron
May communicate with thousands of other
neurons
Functional magnetic resonance imaging

Is a technology that can reconstruct a threedimensional map of brain activity
Figure 48.1
The results of brain imaging and other research

methods
Reveal that groups of neurons function in
specialized circuits dedicated to different tasks
Concept 48.1: Nervous systems consist of

circuits of neurons and supporting cells
All animals except sponges
Have some type of nervous system
What distinguishes the nervous systems of

different animal groups
Is how the neurons are organized into circuits
Organization of Nervous Systems

The simplest animals with nervous systems,
the cnidarians
Have neurons arranged in nerve nets
Nerve net
Figure 48.2a
(a) Hydra (cnidarian)
Sea stars have a nerve net in each arm

Connected by radial nerves to a central nerve
ring
Radial
nerve
Nerve
ring
Figure 48.2b
(b) Sea star (echinoderm)
In relatively simple cephalized animals, such

as flatworms
A central nervous system (CNS) is evident
Eyespot
Brain
Nerve
cord
Transverse
nerve
Figure 48.2c
(c) Planarian (flatworm)
Annelids and arthropods

Have segmentally arranged clusters of
neurons called ganglia
These ganglia connect to the CNS

And make up a peripheral nervous system
(PNS)
Brain
Brain
Ventral
nerve
cord
Segmental
ganglion
Figure 48.2d, e
Ventral
nerve cord
Segmental
ganglia
(d) Leech (annelid)
(e) Insect (arthropod)
Nervous systems in molluscs

Correlate with the animals lifestyles
Sessile molluscs have simple systems

While more complex molluscs have more
sophisticated systems
Anterior
nerve ring
Ganglia
Brain
Longitudinal
nerve cords
Figure 48.2f, g
(f) Chiton (mollusc)
Ganglia
(g) Squid (mollusc)
In vertebrates
The central nervous system consists of a brain
and dorsal spinal cord
The PNS connects to the CNS
Brain
Spinal
cord
(dorsal
nerve
cord)
Figure 48.2h
Sensory
ganglion
(h) Salamander (chordate)
Information Processing
Nervous systems process information in three
stages
Sensory input, integration, and motor output
Sensory input
Integration
Sensor
Motor output
Effector
Figure 48.3
Peripheral nervous
system (PNS)
Central nervous
system (CNS)
Sensory neurons transmit information from

sensors
That detect external stimuli and internal
conditions
Sensory information is sent to the CNS

Where interneurons integrate the information
Motor output leaves the CNS via motor

neurons
Which communicate with effector cells
The three stages of information processing

Are illustrated in the knee-jerk reflex
2 Sensors detect
a sudden stretch in
the quadriceps.
3 Sensory neurons
convey the information
to the spinal cord.
Cell body of
sensory neuron
in dorsal
root ganglion
Quadriceps
muscle
4 The sensory neurons communicate with

motor neurons that supply the quadriceps. The
motor neurons convey signals to the quadriceps,
causing it to contract and jerking the lower leg forward.
Gray matter
5 Sensory neurons
from the quadriceps
also communicate
with interneurons
in the spinal cord.
White
matter
Hamstring
muscle
Spinal cord
(cross section)
Figure 48.4
1 The reflex is
initiated by tapping
the tendon connected
to the quadriceps
(extensor) muscle.
Sensory neuron
Motor neuron
Interneuron
6 The interneurons
inhibit motor neurons
that supply the
hamstring (flexor)
muscle. This inhibition
prevents the hamstring
from contracting,
which would resist
the action of
the quadriceps.
Neuron Structure
Most of a neurons organelles
Are located in the cell body
Dendrites
Cell body
Nucleus
Synapse
Signal
Axon direction
Axon hillock
Presynaptic cell
Postsynaptic cell
Myelin sheath
Figure 48.5
Synaptic
terminals
Most neurons have dendrites

Highly branched extensions that receive
signals from other neurons
The axon is typically a much longer extension

That transmits signals to other cells at
synapses
That may be covered with a myelin sheath
Neurons have a wide variety of shapes

That reflect their input and output interactions
Dendrites
Axon
Cell
body
Figure 48.6ac (a) Sensory neuron

(b) Interneurons
(c) Motor neuron
Supporting Cells (Glia)

Glia are supporting cells
That are essential for the structural integrity of
the nervous system and for the normal
functioning of neurons
In the CNS, astrocytes
Figure 48.7
50 m
Provide structural support for neurons and

regulate the extracellular concentrations of
ions and neurotransmitters
Oligodendrocytes (in the CNS) and Schwann

cells (in the PNS)
Are glia that form the myelin sheaths around
the axons of many vertebrate neurons
Node of Ranvier
Layers of myelin
Axon
Schwann
cell
Axon
Myelin sheath
Nodes of
Ranvier
Schwann
cell
Nucleus of
Schwann cell
Figure 48.8
0.1 m
Concept 48.2: Ion pumps and ion channels

maintain the resting potential of a neuron
Across its plasma membrane, every cell has a
voltage
Called a membrane potential
The inside of a cell is negative

Relative to the outside
The membrane potential of a cell can be

measured
APPLICATION Electrophysiologists use intracellular recording to measure the
membrane potential of
neurons and other cells.
TECHNIQUE
A microelectrode is made from a glass capillary tube filled with an electrically conductive
salt solution. One end of the tube tapers to an extremely fine tip (diameter < 1 m). While looking through a
microscope, the experimenter uses a micropositioner to insert the tip of the microelectrode into a cell. A
voltage recorder (usually an oscilloscope or a computer-based system) measures the voltage between the
microelectrode tip inside the cell and a reference electrode placed in the solution outside the cell.
Microelectrode
70 mV
Voltage
recorder
Figure 48.9
Reference
electrode
The Resting Potential

The resting potential
Is the membrane potential of a neuron that is
not transmitting signals
In all neurons, the resting potential

Depends on the ionic gradients that exist
across the plasma membrane
EXTRACELLULAR
FLUID
CYTOSOL
[Na+]
15 mM
[Na+]
150 mM
[K+]
150 mM
[K+]
5 mM
[Cl]
10 mM
[Cl]
+ 120 mM
[A]
100 mM
Plasma
membrane
Figure 48.10
The concentration of Na+ is higher in the

extracellular fluid than in the cytosol
While the opposite is true for K+
By modeling a mammalian neuron with an

artificial membrane
We can gain a better understanding of the
resting potential of a neuron
Outer
chamber
92 mV
150 mM
KCL
5 mM
KCL
Sodium +
channel
15 mM
NaCl
+
Cl
Artificial
membrane
Figure 48.11a, b (a) Membrane selectively permeable to K+

+62 mV
Cl
K+
Potassium
channel
Inner
chamber
Inner
chamber
Outer
chamber
150 mM
NaCl
Na+
(b) Membrane selectively permeable to Na +
A neuron that is not transmitting signals

Contains many open K+ channels and fewer
open Na+ channels in its plasma membrane
The diffusion of K+ and Na+ through these

channels
Leads to a separation of charges across the
membrane, producing the resting potential
Gated Ion Channels

Gated ion channels open or close
In response to membrane stretch or the
binding of a specific ligand
In response to a change in the membrane
potential
Concept 48.3: Action potentials are the signals

conducted by axons
If a cell has gated ion channels
Its membrane potential may change in
response to stimuli that open or close those
channels
Some stimuli trigger a hyperpolarization

An increase in the magnitude of the membrane
Stimuli
potential
Membrane potential (mV)
+50
50
Threshold
Resting
potential Hyperpolarizations
100
0 1 2 3 4 5
Time (msec)
(a) Graded hyperpolarizations
produced by two stimuli that
increase membrane permeability
to K+. The larger stimulus produces
Figure 48.12a a larger hyperpolarization.
Other stimuli trigger a depolarization

A reduction in the magnitude of the membrane
Stimuli
potential
+50
50
Threshold
Resting Depolarizations
potential
100
0 1 2 3 4 5
Time (msec)
(b) Graded depolarizations produced
by two stimuli that increase
membrane permeability to Na+.
The larger stimulus produces a
Figure 48.12b larger depolarization.
Hyperpolarization and depolarization

Are both called graded potentials because the
magnitude of the change in membrane
potential varies with the strength of the
stimulus
Production of Action Potentials

In most neurons, depolarizations
Are graded only up to a certain membrane
voltage, called the threshold
A stimulus strong enough to produce a

depolarization that reaches the threshold
Triggers a different type of response, called an

Stronger depolarizing stimulus
action potential
+50
Action
potential
0
50
Threshold
Resting
potential
100
Figure 48.12c
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time (msec)
(c) Action potential triggered by a
depolarization that reaches the
threshold.
An action potential
Is a brief all-or-none depolarization of a
neurons plasma membrane
Is the type of signal that carries information
along axons
Both voltage-gated Na+ channels and voltagegated K+ channels

Are involved in the production of an action
potential
When a stimulus depolarizes the membrane

Na+ channels open, allowing Na+ to diffuse into
the cell
As the action potential subsides

K+ channels open, and K+ flows out of the cell
A refractory period follows the action potential

During which a second action potential cannot
be initiated
The generation of an action potential

Na+
Na+
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
K+
Rising phase of the action potential
Depolarization opens the activation
gates on most Na+ channels, while the
K+ channels activation gates remain
closed. Na+ influx makes the inside of
the membrane positive with respect
to the outside.
Na+
+ +
+ +
+50
+ +

K+
50
Depolarization A stimulus opens the

activation gates on some Na+ channels. Na+
influx through those channels depolarizes the
membrane. If the depolarization reaches the
threshold, it triggers an action potential.
Extracellular fluid
Na+
+ + + + + + + +
Action
potential
3
100
2
+ +
Na+
+ +
+ +
Sodium
channel
Figure 48.13
+ +
Falling phase of the action potential

The inactivation gates on
most Na+ channels close,
blocking Na+ influx. The
activation gates on most
K+ channels open,
permitting K+ efflux
which again makes
the inside of the cell
negative.
Threshold
5
Resting potential
Time
Na+
Potassium
channel
Activation
gates
+ +
+ +
+ +
K+
Inactivation
gate
Resting state
The activation gates on the Na+ and K+ channels
are closed, and the membranes resting potential is maintained.
Na+
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
K+
Plasma membrane

Cytosol
+ +
K+
Membrane potential
(mV)
Na+
Na+
Undershoot
Both gates of the Na+ channels
are closed, but the activation gates on some K+
channels are still open. As these gates close on
most K+ channels, and the inactivation gates
open on Na+ channels, the membrane returns to
its resting state.
Conduction of Action Potentials

An action potential can travel long distances
By regenerating itself along the axon
At the site where the action potential is

generated, usually the axon hillock
An electrical current depolarizes the
neighboring region of the axon membrane
Axon
Action
potential

+ ++
Na
+ +

K+
+ +

+ +
K+
Figure 48.14
Action
potential
Na
+
+
+ +
K+
+ +

+ +
K+
Action
potential

+ ++
Na
+ +

+
+
An action potential is generated

as Na+ flows inward across the
membrane at one location.
The depolarization of the action

potential spreads to the neighboring
region of the membrane, re-initiating
the action potential there. To the left
of this region, the membrane is
repolarizing as K+ flows outward.
The depolarization-repolarization process is

repeated in the next region of the
membrane. In this way, local currents
of ions across the plasma membrane
cause the action potential to be propagated
along the length of the axon.
+
+
Conduction Speed
The speed of an action potential
Increases with the diameter of an axon
In vertebrates, axons are myelinated

Also causing the speed of an action potential
to increase
Action potentials in myelinated axons

Jump between the nodes of Ranvier in a
process called saltatory conduction
Schwann cell
Depolarized region
(node of Ranvier)
Myelin
sheath
Cell body
+
++
+
++
+
+
Axon
+
++
Figure 48.15
Concept 48.4: Neurons communicate with

other cells at synapses
In an electrical synapse
Electrical current flows directly from one cell to
another via a gap junction
The vast majority of synapses

Are chemical synapses
In a chemical synapse, a presynaptic neuron

Releases chemical neurotransmitters, which
are stored in the synaptic terminal
Postsynaptic
neuron
5 m
Synaptic
terminal
of presynaptic
neurons
Figure 48.16
When an action potential reaches a terminal

The final result is the release of
neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft
Postsynaptic cell
Presynaptic
cell
Synaptic vesicles
containing
neurotransmitter
5
Presynaptic
membrane
Neurotransmitter
Postsynaptic
membrane
Ligandgated
ion channel
Voltage-gated
Ca2+ channel
1 Ca2+
2
3
Synaptic cleft
Figure 48.17
Na+
K+
Ligand-gated
ion channels
Postsynaptic
membrane
Direct Synaptic Transmission

The process of direct synaptic transmission
Involves the binding of neurotransmitters to
ligand-gated ion channels
Neurotransmitter binding
Causes the ion channels to open, generating a
postsynaptic potential
Postsynaptic potentials fall into two categories

Excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs)
Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs)
After its release, the neurotransmitter

Diffuses out of the synaptic cleft
May be taken up by surrounding cells and
degraded by enzymes
Summation of Postsynaptic Potentials

Unlike action potentials
Postsynaptic potentials are graded and do not
regenerate themselves
Since most neurons have many synapses on

their dendrites and cell body
A single EPSP is usually too small to trigger an
action potential in a postsynaptic neuron
Terminal branch of
presynaptic neuron
Postsynaptic
neuron
Figure 48.18a
E1
Threshold of axon of
postsynaptic neuron
Resting
potential
70
E1
E1
(a) Subthreshold, no
summation
If two EPSPs are produced in rapid succession

An effect called temporal summation occurs
E1
Axon
hillock
Action
potential
E1
E1
(b) Temporal summation
Figure 48.18b
In spatial summation
EPSPs produced nearly simultaneously by
different synapses on the same postsynaptic
neuron add together
E
E2
Action
potential
E1 + E2
(c) Spatial summation
Figure 48.18c
Through summation
An IPSP can counter the effect of an EPSP
E1
E1
Figure 48.18d
E1 + I
(d) Spatial summation

of EPSP and IPSP
Indirect Synaptic Transmission

In indirect synaptic transmission
A neurotransmitter binds to a receptor that is
not part of an ion channel
This binding activates a signal transduction

pathway
Involving a second messenger in the
postsynaptic cell, producing a slowly
developing but long-lasting effect
Neurotransmitters
The same neurotransmitter
Can produce different effects in different types
of cells
Major neurotransmitters
Table 48.1
Acetylcholine
Acetylcholine
Is one of the most common neurotransmitters
in both vertebrates and invertebrates
Can be inhibitory or excitatory
Biogenic Amines
Biogenic amines
Include epinephrine, norepinephrine,
dopamine, and serotonin
Are active in the CNS and PNS
Amino Acids and Peptides

Various amino acids and peptides
Are active in the brain
Gases
Gases such as nitric oxide and carbon
monoxide
Are local regulators in the PNS
Concept 48.5: The vertebrate nervous system

is regionally specialized
In all vertebrates, the nervous system
Shows a high degree of cephalization and
distinct CNS and PNS components
Central nervous
system (CNS)
Brain
Spinal cord
Peripheral nervous
system (PNS)
Cranial
nerves
Ganglia
outside
CNS
Spinal
nerves
Figure 48.19
The brain provides the integrative power

That underlies the complex behavior of
vertebrates
The spinal cord integrates simple responses to

certain kinds of stimuli
And conveys information to and from the brain
The central canal of the spinal cord and the

four ventricles of the brain
Are hollow, since they are derived from the
dorsal embryonic nerve cord
Gray matter
White
matter
Ventricles
Figure 48.20
The Peripheral Nervous System

The PNS transmits information to and from the
CNS
And plays a large role in regulating a
vertebrates movement and internal
environment
The cranial nerves originate in the brain

And terminate mostly in organs of the head
and upper body
The spinal nerves originate in the spinal cord

And extend to parts of the body below the
head
The PNS can be divided into two functional

components
The somatic nervous system and the
autonomic nervous system
Peripheral
nervous system
Somatic
nervous
system
Autonomic
nervous
system
Sympathetic
division
Figure 48.21
Parasympathetic
division
Enteric
division
The somatic nervous system

Carries signals to skeletal muscles
The autonomic nervous system

Regulates the internal environment, in an
involuntary manner
Is divided into the sympathetic,
parasympathetic, and enteric divisions
The sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions

Have antagonistic effects on target organs
Parasympathetic division
Sympathetic division
Action on target organs:

Location of
preganglionic neurons:
brainstem and sacral
segments of spinal cord
Neurotransmitter
released by
acetylcholine
Location of
postganglionic neurons:
in ganglia close to or
within target organs
Action on target organs:

Dilates pupil
of eye
Constricts pupil
of eye
Inhibits salivary
gland secretion
Stimulates salivary
gland secretion
Constricts
bronchi in lungs
Sympathetic
ganglia
Cervical
Accelerates heart
Slows heart
Stimulates activity
of stomach and
intestines
Inhibits activity of
stomach and intestines
Thoracic
Inhibits activity
of pancreas
Stimulates activity
of pancreas
Neurotransmitter
released by
acetylcholine
Stimulates
gallbladder
Stimulates glucose
release from liver;
inhibits gallbladder
Lumbar
Stimulates
adrenal medulla
Promotes emptying
of bladder
Figure 48.22
Promotes erection
of genitalia
Relaxes bronchi
in lungs
Inhibits emptying
of bladder
Synapse
Sacral
Promotes ejaculation and

vaginal contractions
Location of
thoracic and lumbar
segments of spinal cord
Neurotransmitter
released by
acetylcholine
Location of
some in ganglia close to
target organs; others in
a chain of ganglia near
spinal cord
Neurotransmitter
released by
norepinephrine
The sympathetic division

Correlates with the fight-or-flight response
The parasympathetic division

Promotes a return to self-maintenance
functions
The enteric division

Controls the activity of the digestive tract,
pancreas, and gallbladder
Embryonic Development of the Brain

In all vertebrates
The brain develops from three embryonic
regions: the forebrain, the midbrain, and the
hindbrain
Embryonic brain regions
Forebrain
Midbrain
Hindbrain
Midbrain
Hindbrain
Forebrain
Figure 48.23a
(a) Embryo at one month
By the fifth week of human embryonic

development
Five brain regions have formed from the three
embryonic regions
Embryonic brain regions
Telencephalon
Diencephalon
Mesencephalon
Metencephalon
Myelencephalon
Mesencephalon
Metencephalon
Diencephalon
Myelencephalon
Spinal cord
Telencephalon
Figure 48.23b
(b) Embryo at five weeks
As a human brain develops further

The most profound change occurs in the
forebrain, which gives rise to the cerebrum
Brain structures present in adult
Cerebrum (cerebral hemispheres; includes cerebral

cortex, white matter, basal nuclei)
Diencephalon (thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus)
Midbrain (part of brainstem)
Pons (part of brainstem),
cerebellum
Medulla oblongata (part of brainstem)

Cerebral hemisphere
Diencephalon:
Hypothalamus
Thalamus
Pineal gland
(part of epithalamus)
Brainstem:
Midbrain
Pons
Pituitary
gland
Spinal cord
Figure 48.23c
(c) Adult
Cerebellum
Central canal
Medulla
oblongata
The Brainstem
The brainstem consists of three parts
The medulla oblongata, the pons, and the
midbrain
The medulla oblongata

Contains centers that control several visceral
functions
The pons
Also participates in visceral functions
The midbrain
Contains centers for the receipt and integration
of several types of sensory information
Arousal and Sleep

A diffuse network of neurons called the reticular
formation
Is present in the core of the brainstem
Eye
Reticular formation
Figure 48.24
Input from touch,

pain, and temperature
receptors
Input from ears
A part of the reticular formation, the reticular

activating system (RAS)
Regulates sleep and arousal
The Cerebellum
The cerebellum
Is important for coordination and error
checking during motor, perceptual, and
cognitive functions
The cerebellum
Is also involved in learning and remembering
motor skills
The Diencephalon
The embryonic diencephalon develops into
three adult brain regions
The epithalamus, thalamus, and hypothalamus
The epithalamus
Includes the pineal gland and the choroid
plexus
The thalamus
Is the main input center for sensory information
going to the cerebrum and the main output
center for motor information leaving the
cerebrum
The hypothalamus regulates

Homeostasis
Basic survival behaviors such as feeding,
fighting, fleeing, and reproducing
Circadian Rhythms
The hypothalamus also regulates circadian
rhythms
Such as the sleep/wake cycle
Animals usually have a biological clock

Which is a pair of suprachiasmatic nuclei
(SCN) found in the hypothalamus
Biological clocks usually require external cues

To remain synchronized with environmental cycles
EXPERIMENT
In the northern flying squirrel (Glaucomys sabrinus), activity normally begins with the onset of darkness and ends
at dawn, which suggests that light is an important external cue for the squirrel. To test this idea, researchers monitored the activity of captive
squirrels for 23 days under two sets of conditions: (a) a regular cycle of 12 hours of light and 12 hours of darkness and (b) constant darkness.
The squirrels were given free access to an exercise wheel and a rest cage. A recorder automatically noted when the wheel was rotating and
when it was still.
(a) 12 hr light-12 hr dark cycle
Light
Dark
Light
Dark
1
Days of experiment
RESULTS
When the squirrels

were exposed to a regular light/dark
cycle, their wheel-turning activity
(indicated by the dark bars) occurred
at roughly the same time every day.
However, when they were kept in
constant darkness, their activity phase
began about 21 minutes later each day.
(b) Constant darkness
10
15
20
Figure 48.25
12
16
20
24
Time of day (hr)
12
12
16
20
24
Time of day (hr)
CONCLUSION
The northern flying squirrels internal clock can run in constant darkness, but it does so on
its own cycle, which lasts about 24 hours and 21 minutes. External (light) cues keep the clock running on a 24-hour cycle.
12
The Cerebrum
The cerebrum
Develops from the embryonic telencephalon
The cerebrum has right and left cerebral

hemispheres
That each consist of cerebral cortex overlying
white matter and basal nuclei
Left cerebral
hemisphere
Right cerebral
hemisphere
Corpus
callosum
Neocortex
Figure 48.26
Basal
nuclei
The basal nuclei

Are important centers for planning and learning
movement sequences
In mammals
The cerebral cortex has a convoluted surface
called the neocortex
In humans, the largest and most complex part

of the brain
Is the cerebral cortex, where sensory
information is analyzed, motor commands are
issued, and language is generated
A thick band of axons, the corpus callosum

Provides communication between the right and
left cerebral cortices
Concept 48.6: The cerebral cortex controls

voluntary movement and cognitive functions
Each side of the cerebral cortex has four lobes
Frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital
Speech
Smell
Figure 48.27
Temporal lobe
Parietal lobe
co
rte
x
So
ma
tos
Frontal
association
area
en
so
ry
Mo
tor
co
rte
x
Frontal lobe
Speech
Taste
Somatosensory
association
area
Reading
Hearing
Auditory
association
area
Visual
association
area
Vision
Occipital lobe
Each of the lobes

Contains primary sensory areas and
association areas
Information Processing in the Cerebral Cortex

Specific types of sensory input
Enter the primary sensory areas
Adjacent association areas

Process particular features in the sensory input
and integrate information from different
sensory areas
In the somatosensory cortex and motor cortex

Neurons are distributed according to the part
of the body that generates sensory input or
receives motor input
Frontal lobe
Parietal lobe
Lips
Jaw
Tongue
Genitalia
Tongue
Pharynx
Primary
motor cortex
Figure 48.28
Abdominal
organs
Primary
somatosensory
cortex
Leg
Hip
Fac
Trunk
Neck
Fin
ge
rs
Th
um
b
Ey
e
No
Fa s e
c
Lip e
s
Toes T
ee
Gu th
m
J aw s
Th
um
b
Ne
Bro ck
Ey w
e
Head
r arm
Uppe
ow
Elb
rm
rea
Fo
nd
Ha
Knee
Hip
t
ris
nd
Ha
Trunk
lder
Shou
ow
Elb
rm
rea
Fo
Fin
ge
rs
Lateralization of Cortical Function

During brain development, in a process called
lateralization
Competing functions segregate and displace
each other in the cortex of the left and right
cerebral hemispheres
The left hemisphere

Becomes more adept at language, math,
logical operations, and the processing of serial
sequences
The right hemisphere

Is stronger at pattern recognition, nonverbal
thinking, and emotional processing
Language and Speech

Studies of brain activity
Have mapped specific areas of the brain
responsible for language and speech
Max
Hearing
words
Seeing
words
Min
Figure 48.29
Speaking
words
Generating
words
Portions of the frontal lobe, Brocas area and

Wernickes area
Are essential for the generation and
understanding of language
Emotions
The limbic system
Is a ring of structures around the brainstem
Thalamus
Hypothalamus
Prefrontal cortex
Olfactory
bulb
Amygdala
Figure 48.30
Hippocampus
This limbic system includes three parts of the

cerebral cortex
The amygdala, hippocampus, and olfactory
bulb
These structures interact with the neocortex to

mediate primary emotions
And attach emotional feelings to survivalrelated functions
Structures of the limbic system form in early

development
And provide a foundation for emotional
memory, associating emotions with particular
events or experiences
Memory and Learning

The frontal lobes
Are a site of short-term memory
Interact with the hippocampus and amygdala
to consolidate long-term memory
Many sensory and motor association areas of

the cerebral cortex
Are involved in storing and retrieving words
and images
Cellular Mechanisms of Learning

Experiments on invertebrates
Have revealed the cellular basis of some types
of learning
(a) Touching the siphon triggers a reflex that
causes the gill to withdraw. If the tail is
shocked just before the siphon is touched,
the withdrawal reflex is stronger. This
strengthening of the reflex is a simple form
of learning called sensitization.
Siphon
Mantle
Gill
Tail
Head
Figure 48.31a, b
(b) Sensitization involves interneurons that

make synapses on the synaptic terminals of
the siphon sensory neurons. When the tail
is shocked, the interneurons release
serotonin, which activates a signal
transduction pathway that closes K+
channels in the synaptic terminals of
the siphon sensory neurons. As a result,
action potentials in the siphon sensory
neurons produce a prolonged
depolarization of the terminals. That allows
more Ca2+ to diffuse into the terminals,
which causes the terminals to release more
of their excitatory neurotransmitter onto the gill
motor neurons. In response, the motor neurons
generate action potentials at a higher frequency,
producing a more forceful gill withdrawal.
Gill withdrawal pathway

Touching
the siphon
Siphon sensory
neuron
Gill motor
neuron
Sensitization pathway
Shocking
the tail
Interneuron
Tail sensory
neuron
Gill
In the vertebrate brain, a form of learning called

long-term potentiation (LTP)
Involves an increase in the strength of synaptic
transmission
1 The presynaptic
neuron releases glutamate.
2 Glutamate binds to AMPA

receptors, opening the AMPAreceptor channel and depolarizing
the postsynaptic membrane.
PRESYNAPTIC NEURON
7 NO diffuses into the

presynaptic neuron, causing
it to release more glutamate.
NO
6 Ca2+ stimulates the

postsynaptic neuron to
produce nitric oxide (NO).
Glutamate
AMPA receptor
NO
Figure 48.32
5 Ca2+ initiates the phosphorylation of AMPA receptors,

making them more responsive.
Ca2+ also causes more AMPA
receptors to appear in the
postsynaptic membrane.
NMDA
receptor
3 Glutamate also binds to NMDA

receptors. If the postsynaptic
membrane is simultaneously
depolarized, the NMDA-receptor
channel opens.
P
Ca2+
Signal transduction pathways

POSTSYNAPTIC NEURON
4 Ca2+ diffuses into the

postsynaptic neuron.
Consciousness
Modern brain-imaging techniques
Suggest that consciousness may be an
emergent property of the brain that is based on
activity in many areas of the cortex
Concept 48.7: CNS injuries and diseases are

the focus of much research
Unlike the PNS, the mammalian CNS
Cannot repair itself when damaged or
assaulted by disease
Current research on nerve cell development

and stem cells
May one day make it possible for physicians to
repair or replace damaged neurons
Nerve Cell Development

Signal molecules direct an axons growth
By binding to receptors on the plasma
membrane of the growth cone
This receptor binding triggers a signal

transduction pathway
Which may cause an axon to grow toward or
away from the source of the signal
Midline of
spinal cord
Developing axon
of interneuron
Developing axon
of motor neuron
Growth
cone
Netrin-1
receptor
Netrin-1
receptor
Slit
receptor
Netrin-1
Floor
plate
1 Growth toward the floor plate.
2
Cells in the floor plate of the
spinal cord release Netrin-1, which
diffuses away from the floor plate
and binds to receptors on the
growth cone of a developing
interneuron axon. Binding stimulates
axon growth toward the floor plate.
Figure 48.33a, b
Cell
adhesion
molecules
Growth across the mid-line.
3
Once the axon reaches the
floor plate, cell adhesion molecules
on the axon bind to complementary
molecules on floor plate cells,
directing the growth of the axon
across the midline.
Slit
No turning back.
Now the axon synthesizes
receptors that bind to Slit,
a repulsion protein released by floor plate cells.
This prevents the axon
from growing back across
the midline.
(a) Growth of an interneuron axon toward and across the midline of the spinal cord
(diagrammed here in cross section)
Slit
receptor
Slit
Netrin-1
Netrin-1 and Slit, produced by cells

of the floor plate, bind to receptors
on the axons of motor neurons. In
this case, both proteins act to repel
the axon, directing the motor neuron
to grow away from the spinal cord.
(b) Growth of a motor neuron axon away

from the midline of the spinal cord
The genes and basic events involved in axon

guidance
Are similar in invertebrates and vertebrates
Knowledge of these events may be applied one

day
To stimulate axonal regrowth following CNS
damage
Neural Stem Cells

The adult human brain
10 m
Contains stem cells that can differentiate into

mature neurons
Figure 48.34
The induction of stem cell differentiation and

the transplantation of cultured stem cells
Are potential methods for replacing neurons
lost to trauma or disease
Diseases and Disorders of the Nervous System

Mental illnesses and neurological disorders
Take an enormous toll on society, in both the
patients loss of a productive life and the high
cost of long-term health care
Schizophrenia
About 1% of the worlds population
Suffers from schizophrenia
Schizophrenia is characterized by
Hallucinations, delusions, blunted emotions,
and many other symptoms
Available treatments have focused on

Brain pathways that use dopamine as a
neurotransmitter
Depression
Two broad forms of depressive illness are
known
Bipolar disorder and major depression
Bipolar disorder is characterized by

Manic (high-mood) and depressive (low-mood)
phases
In major depression
Patients have a persistent low mood
Treatments for these types of depression

include
A variety of drugs such as Prozac and lithium
Alzheimers Disease
Alzheimers disease (AD)
Is a mental deterioration characterized by
confusion, memory loss, and other symptoms
AD is caused by the formation of

Neurofibrillary tangles and senile plaques in
the brain
20 m
Senile plaque
Figure 48.35
Neurofibrillary tangle
A successful treatment for AD in humans

May hinge on early detection of senile plaques
Parkinsons Disease
Parkinsons disease is a motor disorder
Caused by the death of dopamine-secreting
neurons in the substantia nigra
Characterized by difficulty in initiating
movements, slowness of movement, and
rigidity
There is no cure for Parkinsons disease

Although various approaches are used to
manage the symptoms

Nervous System

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Chapter 48

PowerPoint Lectures for

Lectures by Chris Romero

Overview: Command and Control Center

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Functional magnetic resonance imaging

The results of brain imaging and other research

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Concept 48.1: Nervous systems consist of

What distinguishes the nervous systems of

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Organization of Nervous Systems

(a) Hydra (cnidarian)

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Sea stars have a nerve net in each arm

(b) Sea star (echinoderm)

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

In relatively simple cephalized animals, such

(c) Planarian (flatworm)

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Annelids and arthropods

These ganglia connect to the CNS

(d) Leech (annelid)

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(e) Insect (arthropod)

Nervous systems in molluscs

Sessile molluscs have simple systems

(f) Chiton (mollusc)

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(g) Squid (mollusc)

(h) Salamander (chordate)

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Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Sensory neurons transmit information from

Sensory information is sent to the CNS

Motor output leaves the CNS via motor

The three stages of information processing

4 The sensory neurons communicate with

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Most neurons have dendrites

The axon is typically a much longer extension

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Neurons have a wide variety of shapes

Figure 48.6ac (a) Sensory neuron

(c) Motor neuron

Supporting Cells (Glia)

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In the CNS, astrocytes

Provide structural support for neurons and

Oligodendrocytes (in the CNS) and Schwann

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Concept 48.2: Ion pumps and ion channels

The inside of a cell is negative

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The membrane potential of a cell can be

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The Resting Potential

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In all neurons, the resting potential

The concentration of Na+ is higher in the

Copyright 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

By modeling a mammalian neuron with an

Figure 48.11a, b (a) Membrane selectively permeable to K+