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UNIVERSITY OF
MANCHESTER
1st YEAR LECTURE NOTES
MECHANICS OF SOLIDS AND STRUCTURES
SEMESTER 2
11:
12:
13:
14:
11.1.1 Definitions
The Centroid is the geometric centre of an area. Here the area can be said to be concentrated, analogous to
the centre of gravity of a body and its mass. In engineering use the areas that tend to be of interest are cross
sectional areas. As the z axis shall be considered as being along the length of a structure the cross-sectional
area will be defined by the x and y axes.
An axis through the centroid is called the centroidal axis. The centroidal axes define axes along which the
first moment of area is zero.
The First Moment of Area is analogous to a moment created by a Force multiplied by a distance except this
is a moment created by an area multiplied by a distance. The formal definition for the first moment of area
with respect to the x axis (QX):
Q X = ydA
(11.1)
Similarly for the first moment of area with respect to the y axis (QY) is:
QY = xdA
(11.2)
dA
C
y
y
X
Total Area = A
Figure 11.1
The X and Y subscripts are added to indicate the axes about which the moments of area are considered.
11.1.2 Co-ordinates of the Centroid
The centroid of the area A is defined as the point C of co-ordinates x and y which are related to the first
moments of area by:
Q X = ydA = yA
QY = xdA = x A
(11.3)
An area with an axis of symmetry will find its first moment of area with respect to that axis is equal to zero
i.e. the centroid is located somewhere along that axis. Where an area has two axes of symmetry the centroid
is located at the intersection of these two axes
dA
x
^
Y
dx
C
^
X
y
X
b
Figure 11.2
C2
C3
A3
Figure 11.3
Q Y = xdA
= xdA + xdA + xdA
A1
A2
A3
= x 1 A1 + x 2 A 2 + x 3 A 3
= xA
The same method can be used to calculate the y-wise location of the centroid of the composite area.
A1
y=
(b
+ ht
2(b + h )
2
h 2 + t (b + 2h )
2(b + h )
h
C1
C2
A2
t
b
Figure 11.4
11.2
11.2.1 Definitions
The second moment of the area about the x axis (IX) is defined as:
I X = y 2 dA
(11.4)
and the second moment of the area about the y axis (IY) similarly as:
I Y = x 2 dA
(11.5)
Some texts refer to second moment of Area as Moment of Inertia. This is not technically correct and Second
Moment of Area should be preferred.
11.2.2 Example: Rectangle (of dimensions b h)
Derive an expression for the second moments of Area for a rectangle with respect to its centroidal axes (Use
the symbol ^ to indicate centroidal axes and properties with respect to these axes).
The centroid is easily located by using intersecting axes of symmetry.
dy
Y
dA
h/2
y
C
X
h/2
Ans: I X =
bh 3
12
Figure 11.5
I X + I Y = y 2 dA + x 2 dA
= y 2 + x 2 dA
= r 2dA
I X + IY = J Z
(11.6)
I X = y 2 dA = rX2 A
I Y = x 2 dA = rY2 A
(11.7)
J Z = r dA = r A
2
2
Z
As for the First Moment of Area, the X, Y and Z subscripts are added to indicate the axes about which the
second moments of area or radii of gyration are considered.
11.2.5 Parallel Axis Theorem
If the axes system chosen are the centroidal axes the Second Moments of Area calculated are known as the
Second Moments of Area about the centroidal axes. Such axes are often annotated differently to other
axes indicating that they are centroidal axes. In this course the symbol ^ shall be used. If the second moment
of area about another set of axes is required then the Parallel Axis Theorem may be used rather than having
to recalculate the Second Moments of Area.
Y
dA
Y
C
Total Area = A
y
d
Figure 11.6
{ as y = y + d}
= y 2 dA + 2d y dA + d 2dA
= y 2 dA + d 2dA
I X = I X + Ad 2
(11.8)
This demonstrates that if the Second Moment of Area is known around an areas centroidal axis the Second
Moment of Area of that area about another axis distance d from the centroidal axis is simply the sum of the
Centroidal Second Moment of Area and the product Area d2.
This theorem applies to the Second Moments of Area IX and IY as well as to the Polar Second Moment of
Area provided the appropriate centroidal values are used.
11.2.6 Example: Second moment of Area of a Rectangle about its base axis
For the rectangle shown; determine its second moment of area about its base and left edge axes (X and Y).
h/2
C
X
h/2
X
b
Figure 11.7
Ans: I X =
bh3
hb3
, IY =
3
3
A1
Y
d1
C1
A2
d2
C2
d3
A3
C3
X
Figure 11.8
The validity of the above approach can be seen below for determining IY of the area in Figure 11.8:
IY = x 2 dA
= x 2 dA + x 2 dA + x 2 dA
A1
A2
A3
(x + d ) dA + (x
2
A1
(x
2
1
A2
A3
A1
+ d 2 ) dA + (x3 + d 3 ) dA
2
)(
A2
)(
= I Y A + A d + I Y A + A2 d + I Y A + A d
1
2
1 1
2
2
2
3 3
A3
as (2 xd )dA = 2d (x )dA = 0
A3
A3
11.3
Many text books list the locations of standard area centroids and provide the Second Moment of Area around
these centroids. The departmental databook has such a table and will be allowed for use in exams
therefore students should become familiar with the use of this table.
11.4
Units
Y
t
t
t
X
b
Figure 11.9
The I section may be represented as being comprised of a rectangle of dimensions b(2t+a) from which two
smaller rectangles of dimensions (b-t)a have been taken out all of which have the same x-wise centroidal
axis. The total second moment of area is then simply the sum of all the contributions (with the missing areas
being subtracted).
3
1
(b t )a 3
b(a + 2t )
2. 2
12
12
3
b(a + 2t ) (b t )a 3
=
12
I X =
This solution could also have been derived by considering the three rectangles separately and using parallel
axis theorem although there would have required significantly more work.
5cm
Y
3
y3
y2
1.5cm
6cm
1cm
y1
1cm
X
10cm
Figure 11.10
The section above is divided into three rectangular areas, (1), (2), (3). The bottom x-axis is used as datum.
The tabular method of finding the centroid and the second moment of area are demonstrated in the following
Table.
Section
Area (Ai)
yi
(Ay )i
d = y - yi
Ad2
I X i
I X i + A i d i2
(cm2)
10
6
7.5
23.5
(cm)
0.5
4
7.75
(cm3)
5
24
58.125
87.125
(cm)
3.208
-0.292
-4.042
(cm4)
102.913
0.512
122.533
(cm4)
0.833
18
1.406
(cm4)
103.746
18.512
123.939
246.197
1
2
3
Totals
y=
(Ay)
A
= 3.708cm
I X = I X i + A i d i2
= 246.197 cm 4
2
Use first three columns to find y before proceeding to calculate d, Ad etc.
Compression
Shear
Torsion
Bending
V
V
Bending loads cause a straight bar (beam) to become bent (or curved). Any slender structural member on
which the loading is not axial gets bent. Any structure or component that supports the applied forces
(externally applied or those due to self weight) by resisting to bending is called a beam.
12.1.2 Eraser Experiment
What is the basic effect of bending? Mark an eraser on the thickness face with a longitudinal line along the
centre and several equi-spaced transverse lines. Bend it. The centre line has become a curve.
Question:
10
Concentrated or
Point Load
Beam
Moment
WC
wDE
-wFG
MH
B
A
Non-uniform
Distributed Load
RBy
RJy
Reaction Loads
Figure 12.2: Typical representation of a beam
For a schematic diagram (suitable for a FBD), normally only a longitudinal view along the centre line (the
locus of the centroids of all the transverse sections, called the Centroidal Axis) is used to represent the beam
(see Figure 12.2). Vertical (y-direction) forces acting on the beam will be assumed to act at the centre line,
but normal to it. Concentrated forces that act at specific points, such as W at C, are shown as arrows.
Distributed loads are shown as an area (or sometimes as a squiggly line) to represent a load distributed over a
given length of the beam. Distributed loads have dimensions of force per unit length. Moments are
represented by a curved arrow.
Question:
For reference, a Cartesian co-ordinate system (xyz) consistent with the right hand screw rule is always used.
The origin can be located at any convenient point (usually an end or the centre of the beam). The z-axis is
aligned along the axis of the beam, the y-axis in the direction of the depth of the beam and the x-axis in the
direction of the beam width (into the page). When representing a beam on paper the y and z planes are
normally drawn in the plane of the page and the x axis is perpendicular to the page. The bending forces and
moments considered in this 1st year course will only act in the yz-plane (i.e. the plane of the page).
Become accustomed to this axis system as it is common to most analyses in future years.
12.3
12.3.1 Introduction
A beam must be supported and the reactions provided by the supports must balance the applied forces to
maintain equilibrium. Types of support and their symbolic representations are given in the following
sections.
12.3.2 Simple support
A simple support will only produce a reaction force perpendicular to the plane on which it is mounted (see
Figure 12.3). Simple supports may move in the plane on which they are mounted but prevent any motion
perpendicular to this plane. Simple supports do not produce forces in the plane on which they are mounted
and moments are not restrained by a simple support. So for a simply supported beam the axial displacements
and rotations (which cause slope changes) at the supports are unrestrained (i.e. in Figure 12.3 the beam is
11
Beam
z
RAy
Support y-direction
Reaction Load
Beam
RAz
Support z-direction
Reaction Load
RAy
Support y-direction
Reaction Load
Support Reaction
Moment
Beam
RAz
Support z-direction
Reaction Load
z
RAy
Support y-direction
Reaction Load
12.4
Distributed loads
To simplify the analysis of a distributed load it is usually easier to replace the distributed load with a point
load acting at an appropriate location. As the units of distributed loads are load per unit length the equivalent
point load may be determined by statics.
12
w(z)
Area under
w(z) = Aw
We
z
L
L
dAw = w(z).dz
w(z)
dz
z
Figure 12.6: Replacing a distributed load with an equivalent point load
For the two cases to be equivalent the sum of the forces in the y and z directions have to be the same and the
sum of the moments about any point have to be the same. Considering forces in the y direction first:
L
Fy = w( z ) dz = Aw = We
0
That is, the equivalent point force of a distributed load (We) is equal to the area under the w(z)
function (Aw).
Now consider moments about the origin:
L
M o = w( z ).z dz = z dAw = We .e
Note the similarity between this equation and Equation (11.3) for the first moment of area which allows the
previous expressions to be re-written as:
L
z dA
= z Aw
We .e = Aw .e
e = z
That is, the point along the beam at which the effective force (We) must act is at the centroid of the area
(Aw) under the distributed load curve w(z).
13
Consider a beam carrying loads as shown in the figure below. The right hand support at B is a simple support
and can only carry vertical forces. All the horizontal force components have to be supported by the left hand
(hinged) support, at A.
y
c
W
M
w
l1
l2
l3
l4
L
Figure 12.7 A beam hinged at the left and simply supported on the right, loads as shown
Consider a point C where the left and right hand parts of the beam are to be separated into two free body
diagrams. To maintain equilibrium in the separated sections additional forces and moments must be applied
at the new ends to keep both sections of the beam in the same geometry as when the beam was intact. These
forces and moments are known as the axial and shear forces and bending moments at position C. These
forces and moments determine how a beam deforms under loading. To determine these forces and moments
the support reactions must first be obtained from the conditions of equilibrium of forces and moment for the
whole beam. Then the forces at the point C (shear force and bending moment) may be obtained from force
and moment equilibrium of the part of the beam to the left or to the right of the section. The left and right
hand parts and all the possible forces acting the two new ends are shown in the free body diagrams below.
12.5.1 The support reactions
The support forces are obtained from the conditions of equilibrium of forces and moments on the whole
beam so DRAW a FBD of the beam and apply equilibrium conditions.
W
w
B
A
RAz
RAy
We is equivalent
point load to
distributed load w
z
We
RBy
Figure 12.8: FBD of entire beam used to calculate support loads and moments
= 0,
= 0,
M = 0
14
=0
= W .l1 w l3 l 2
RBy =
W .l1 +
) (l
+ l2
M + RBy .L
2
w 2 2
l3 l2 + M
2
L
Equilibrium of forces in the vertical direction, Fy = 0, gives the vertical support force at A:
=0
=0
= R Az
Note: If any of the forces calculated are negative then they act in the opposite sense to that assumed in the
FBD.
12.6
Sign Conventions
The forces and moments that act on a beam at point C (MC, FC and VC) are assigned positive or negative
signs depending on the face that they act on. If the face they act on has a normal in the positive z direction
then positive forces and moments are in the positive y or z directions or as defined by the right hand rule. If
the face has a normal in the negative z direction then a positive force or moment is in the opposite direction.
This sign convention is shown below.
F
AXIAL FORCES
SHEAR FORCES
BENDING MOMENTS
+ve
+ve
+ve
-ve
-ve
-ve
DISTRIBUTED LOADS
+ve
-ve
Figure 12.9 Sign convention for Axial Forces, Shear Forces, Bending Moments and distributed loads
MC = Sum of moments due to all forces to one side of the point C (including support forces) is called
the BENDING MOMENT acting on the vertical face of the beam at position C.
15
FC = Sum of all x-direction (axial) forces to one side of the point C is called the AXIAL FORCE
acting on the vertical face of the beam at position C.
VC = Sum of all the y-direction (transverse/shear) forces to one side of the point C is called the
SHEAR FORCE acting on the vertical face of the beam at position C.
y
c
W
w
A
VC
MC
MC
FC
RAz
VC
PC
z
l2-c
RBy
RAy
l3-c
c-l1
C
l4-c
L-c
C
Figure 12.10: Left Hand and Right Hand FBDs for beam sectioned at C
Thus, in the above problem, MC, FC and VC can be found by considering the LH end FBD to be:
M C = R Ay .c + W ( c l1 ) = w(l3 l2 )c +
Wl1c wc 2 2 Mc
+
l3 l 2 +
Wl1
L
L
L
Wl
w 2 2 M
VC = R Ay + W = w(l3 l2 ) + 1 +
l3 l2 +
L 2L
L
FC = R Az = 0
Wl c wc 2 2 Mc
(l + l )
M C = w(l3 l2 ) 3 2 c + M RBy (L c ) = w(l3 l2 )c + 1 +
l3 l 2 +
Wl1
L
L
L
2
Wl
w 2 2 M
VC = w(l 3 l2 ) + RBy = w(l3 l2 ) + 1 +
l3 l 2 +
L 2L
L
FC = 0
Note that the numerical quantities of bending moment, axial force and shear forces must be the same in
magnitude and sense (sign) at a section irrespective of whether they are calculated considering the free body
diagrams of the beam to the left or to the right of the section.
The importance of MC, FC and VC are that the beams performance at position C is directly related to these
forces i.e., the stress, the deflection and the local rotation (angle) of the beam are all determined by these
moments and forces.
16
3kN
1m
C
2m
2kN/m
VC
RAz
MC
MA
FC
RAy
2kN
1/3m
1/3m
C
2m
2kN
y
RAz
1kN/m
A
VC
MC
FC
RAy
Figure 12.12: A simply supported beam with concentrated and distributed loads
Answers: RAy = 59/27 kN, RBy = 31/27 kN, FC = 0kN, MC = 7/9 kN.m, VC = -2/27 kN
17
M+ M
y
z
V
V+ V
Consider the moment equilibrium about the left hand end of the element
M = (V + V ).z + M (M + M ) = 0
M = Vz + Vz Vz
In the limit when z approaches zero this reduces to:
dM
=V
dz
or
(12.1)
M = Vdz
Note that the moments are taken about the left hand end of the element and that the second order quantity,
the product of V and z, is neglected because it will be negligibly small.
Equation (12.1) states that the variation of bending moment with z will have a slope/gradient equal to the
value of the shear force.
18
w+ w
z
V
V+ V
1
= V + (V + V ) + w.z + wz = 0
2
1
V = wz wz wz
2
dV
= w
dz
or
(12.2)
V = wdz
Note that the second order quantity, the product of w and z, is neglected because it will be negligibly
small.
Therefore if a small element of a beam has no distributed load on it then w = 0 and the shear force in the
section must be constant. If w is non-uniform (i.e. w = w(z)), this analysis assumes that dz is so small that the
distributed load across dz may be considered uniform at a level defined by w(z). Thus this equations is valid
whether the distributed load is uniform or a function of z (i.e. w may equal w(z)).
Equations (12.1) and (12.2) can be used to check the consistency of predicted shear force and bending
moment variation along a beam.
Combining the previous two equations gives the key relationship:
dV d 2 M
w=
=
dz
dz 2
(12.3)
19
y
A
5kN/m
2m
20
13.1
Introduction
Bending moments cause normal tensile and compressive stresses simultaneously in different parts of a beam
section. Shear forces cause shear stresses that try to cut the beam. The magnitudes of bending moment and
shear forces generally vary from one section to another in a beam. As shown in the previous section, the two
quantities are dependent on each other. Graphs showing the variation of M and V along the length of the
beam are called Bending Moment (BM) and Shear Force (SF) diagrams. The BM and SF diagrams help to
identify the critical sections in beams where bending moments and shear forces are highest.
13.2
MA
A
RAz
RAy
Figure 13.1 Cantilever beam with a concentrated load and its FBD
To draw the SF and BM diagrams first calculate the support reactions by considering force and
moment equilibrium conditions. DRAW the FBD of the beam (see Figure 13.1).
F
F
M
z
RAz = 0
RAy = W
M A = Wc
Determine the shear force and bending moment relationships for each section of the beam - where
sub-length boundaries are defined by point loads, moments and the start/finish of Distributed
Loads. Again use a FBD for each section (see Figure 13.2).
MA
z-c
M
MA
RAy
RAy
In length (A
C):
V (z ) = R Ay = W
M (z ) = M A R Ay z = Wc Wz = W (c z )
In section (C
B):
V (z ) = R Ay -W = 0
M (z ) = M A R Ay z + W (z-c ) = Wc Wz + W (x-c ) = 0
21
Plot the shear force (V) and Bending Moment (M) diagrams along the length of the beam.
M
Wc
V
A
-W
Figure 13.3: Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams for cantilever beam with concentrated load
Check consistency of shear force and bending moment expressions between sections and at locations
where concentrated loads/moments are applied or where UDLs start or finish.
Notice that the magnitudes of the shear force and bending moments at A (i.e. V(0) & M(0)) are equal
to the magnitudes of the end reaction load and moment
Note that the Shear Force (V) is equal to the negative value of the end reaction load (V(0) = -RAy) as
by our definition for shear forces, RAy is acting in the ve direction. That is, in the +ve y direction but
on a face with a normal in the ve z direction.
Whenever there is a concentrated load or bending moment applied to a beam the corresponding Shear
Force and Bending Moment diagrams should show a step of the same magnitude. In this example the
steps at A due to the point load and moment RA and MA are from zero to -W and Wc respectively.
Notice that the shear force and bending moment at a free end are zero.
Note that the bending moment varies linearly from Wc to 0 over the distance of z = c in the region 0
z c; i.e., it has a constant gradient of -W as expected due to V being equal to -W throughout that
section of the beam (see equation (12.1)).
22
MA
z
A
RAz
RAy
L
Figure 13.4 Cantilever beam with a UDL and its FBD
To draw the SF and BM diagrams first calculate the support reactions by considering force and
moment equilibrium conditions. DRAW the FBD of the beam (see Figure 13.4).
F
F
R Az = 0
RAy = wc
c
M A = wc a+
2
Determine shear force and bending moment relationships for each sub-length of the beam. In this
example sub-lengths are defined by the reaction loads/beam ends and the start and finish of the UDL.
Again use a FBD for each sub-length (see Figure 13.5).
z
y
z
z-a-c
a
MA
z
RAy
z-a
z-a
M
MA
MA
x
RAy
z
RAy
In section (A z C):
V (z ) = RAy = wc
c
c
Again M(0) = MA as MA is a concentrated moment input to the beam at the left hand end. This is one
good check to see that derived expression for M is correct.
23
V (z ) = RAy w( z a ) = w( z + a + c )
M (z ) = M A + RAy z
w(z a )
w
w
w
2
= 2 zc-2ac c 2 z 2 2az + a 2 = ( z + a + c )
2
2
2
2
2
Note: that M(z) could have been more easily derived using RHS FBD as it would not have included MA
In section (D z C):
V (z ) = RAy wc = 0
c
M (z ) = M A RAy z wc z a = 0
2
Plot the shear force (V) and Bending Moment (M) diagrams along the length of the beam.
wc
A
z
A
z
-(wc2)/2
-wc(a+c/2)
Figure 13.6: Shear Force and Bending Moment diagrams for a cantilever beam with a UDL
To check consistency of results note that in section C to D, V varies linearly with slope w as expected
from equation (12.2) and in all sections dM/dx = V.
By varying a and c any particular case of a cantilever beam with a uniformly distributed load can be
solved.
24
wo
y
z
L
Figure 13.7: Non-uniform distributed load on a cantilever
Derive an expression for the variation of shear force and bending moment in a cantilever beam loaded by a
non-uniform distributed load as shown in Figure 13.7. Try this using both the FBD approach and by using
equations (11.1) and (11.2).
Answers:
V (z ) =
wo 2
w
z L2 and M ( z ) = o z 3 3 L2 z + 2 L3
2L
6L
25
c
A
B
C
RAz=0
RBy=
Wc
L
RAy= W-RBy = W
Wc W (L-c )
=
L
L
Derive expressions for Shear Force and Bending Moment in each section:
y
z-c
c
RAy
RAy
In section (A z C):
In section (C z B):
V (z ) = RAy =
V (z ) = RAy + W = RBy =
W (L c )
L
W (L-c )z
M (z ) = RAy z =
L
Wc
L
W (L-c )z
Wc(L-z )
M (z ) = RAy z + W ( z-c ) =
+ W (z-c ) =
L
L
Plot the shear force (V) and Bending Moment (M) diagrams along the length of the beam.
V
Wc
L
-W
(L c )
L
A
B
A
C
z
- Wc
(L c )
L
Figure 13.10: Shear force and Bending Moment diagrams for a simply supported beam with a concentrated load
26
y
w
A
B
D
Figure 13.11 Simply supported beam with a UDL and the beam FBD
RAz = 0
RBy =
wc
c
a +
L
2
RAy =
wc
c
L a +
L
2
Derive expressions for Shear Force and Bending Moment in each section:
z
z
z-a
y
a
z
M
RAy
RAy
RBy
In section (A z C):
V (z ) =
wc
c
L a +
L
2
M (z ) =
In section (C z D):
V (z ) =
wc
c
L a + z
L
2
In section (D z C):
wc
c
L a + + w( z a )
L
2
M (z ) =
V (z ) =
wc
c
w( z a )
L a + z +
L
2
2
wc
c
a +
L
2
M (z ) =
wc
c
a + ( L z )
L
2
Plot the shear force (V) and Bending Moment (M) diagrams along the length of the beam.
wc a + c
( (
- wc
L a+c
2
L
))
z
Mmax
Figure 13.13: Shear force and Bending Moment diagrams for a simply supported beam with a UDL
27
Principle of Superposition
13.3.1 Theory
The support reactions and fixing moments as well as shear forces and bending moments (and all other
mechanical entities such as stresses and displacements) at a given section (or point) due to the individual
loads can be calculated separately and summed up algebraically to obtain the total effect of all the loads
acting simultaneously. This is applicable to conservative (i.e. linearly elastic) systems only.
13.3.2 Example: Cantilever beam with a concentrated load and UDL
Consider a cantilever beam with a concentrated load (N) and a UDL (w) as shown in Figure 13.14. This can
be separated into two more simple to analyse cantilever loading cases: a single concentrated load and a single
UDL. The separate results for these two loading cases may be added together to obtain the results for the
complete beam (provided the beam remains in the linear elastic region of its stress-strain curve). This can
greatly simplify analysis as separate, simple expressions for SF and BM may be obtained for each of the
loading cases and then be added together to obtain the SF and BM expressions for the overall beam.
d
e
y
N
z
A
L
d
y
N
z
A
z
A
The results of sections 13.2.1 and 13.2.2 may be used to quickly write the SF and BM expressions for the
combined load case:
In section (A z C):
V (z ) = V( CL ) + V( UDL ) = N + we
M (z ) = M ( CL ) + M ( UDL ) = N ( z c ) + we z-d
2
In section (C z D):
V (z ) = V( CL ) + V( UDL ) = we
e
M (z ) = M ( CL ) + M ( UDL ) = we z-d
2
28
V (z ) = V( CL ) + V( UDL ) = w( z + d + e )
M (z ) = M ( CL ) + M ( UDL ) =
w
( z + d + e )2
2
In section (E z B):
V (z ) = V( CL ) + V( UDL ) = 0
M (z ) = M ( CL ) + M ( UDL ) = 0
Note that there are more sections in the overall beam than in either of the individual beams. Simply add the
appropriate expressions from each separated load case to determine the overall expression for each section.
This method may also be used to determine the support loads and moments for the beam. In the example
above:
M A = M A( CL ) + M A( UDL ) = Nc we d +
2
13.4
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
13.5
Macauley1 Notation
13.5.1 Introduction
Frequently it is beneficial to use a single expression for the shear force and bending moment distributions
along a beam rather than the collection of sub-length expressions.
Consider a cantilever beam on which two concentrated forces and a UDL are acting.
W1
W2
W1
w
a
A
MA
B
W2
RAz
RAy
L
Figure 13.15: Beam for which Macauley expression is to be derived
Macauley W.H. Note on the deflection of beams, Messenger of Mathematics, Vol 48 pp 129-130. 1919.
29
0 za
a zb
M = M A R Ay z
M = M A R Ay z W1 ( z a )
b z L M = M A R Ay z W1 (z a ) W2 (z b )
w(z b )
2
Clearly the expression for the length b z L contains the terms in the other two lengths. To reduce the
tedium of working with three separate equations and sub-lengths, the following notation (due to Macauley)
may be used:
w{z b}
M = M A R Ay z W1 {z a} W2 {z b}
2
In this version of the bending moment equation the terms within { } should be set to zero if the value
within these brackets become -ve.
In the general case:
0 for z < a
{z a}n =
n
(z a ) for z a
Thus the last two terms become zero if z < b and the last three terms are zero if z < a.
13.5.2 Derivation of Macauley Shear Force and Bending Moment expressions
Using Macauley parentheses the distributed loading on the beam may be written as:
w = w{z b}
The term in the parentheses is equal to zero if z < b and if z b the term in the parentheses raised to the
power of zero equals 1. This is essentially an on switch for the distributed load that says that when z < b
there is no distributed load and when z b the distributed load equals w.
Integrating2 the Macauley expression for distributed load gives an expression for the shear force along the
beam (from Equation 11.3):
w = w{z b}
= w{z b} + C1 = V
1
The constant however, has to be evaluated for each sub-length of the beam. This is made fairly straightforward
by recalling that the shear force only has a step change when a point load is applied and that the step change is
equal to the value of the point load. So for the example of Figure 13.15 the constant C1 represents a Macauley
expression for all point loads along the beam:
C1 = RAy + W1 {z a} + W2 {z b}
0
V = w{z b} C1 = w{z b} R Ay W1 {z a} W2 {z b}
0
When integrating a Macauley expression, the whole term within the brackets should be treated as a variable. This is
justified by recognising that only the integration constant varies if the term is expanded out, for example:
{x a}
{x a}dx =
x2
a2
ax + + c1
2
2
2
2
x
{x a}dx = xdx adx = 2 ax + c2
a2
c2 = c1 +
but both expressions are constant
2
+ c1 =
30
M = Vdz =
w
{z b}2 R Ay z W1 {z a} 1 W2 {z b}1 + C2
2
Similar to the relationship between the shear force constant and point loads, the constant C2 represents a
Macauley expression for all point moments along the length of the beam. Note: that anti-clockwise moments
applied to the beam are considered positive as they introduce a +ve step in the variation of M along the beam.
C2 = M A
Combining these last two expressions gives the full Macauley expression for bending moment along the
beam as:
M = M A R Ay z W1 {z a} W2 {z b}
w{z b}
2
a
w
4a
Answers: V = w{z a} +
3 wa 15 wa
{z 2a}0
4
4
M =
w
{z a}2 + 3wa z 15 wa {z 2a}1
2
4
4
31
z
A
L/2
L/2
L/2
L/2
z
L/2
L/2
Figure 13.17: A cantilever beam with a UDL over part of the beam
For the cantilever beam shown in Figure 13.17 the closed end distributed load may be replaced by two open
ended distributed loads. The net combination of these two new load cases is equivalent to the original load
case.
To derive the Macauley expression simply add the expressions for both cases together.
w( z ) = wUDL1 + wUDL 2
= w{z 0} + w{z L2 }
( )
C1 = R Ay
UDL1
+ w{z L2 } + C1
1
( )
+ R Ay
UDL 2
wL
2
wL
2
w
{z L2 }2 wL z + C2
2
2
wL2
C 2 = (M A )UDL1 + (M A )UDL 2 =
8
w
w
wL
wL2
2
2
M = V ( z ) dz = {z 0} {z L2 }
z+
2
2
2
8
V (z ) dz = 2 {z 0}
w
32
BENDING THEORY
14.1
Introduction
Bending causes tensile and compressive stresses in different parts of the same cross-section of a beam. These
stresses vary from a maximum tension on one surface to a maximum compression on the other passing
through a point where the stress is zero (known as the neutral point). The maximum stresses are
proportional to the bending moment at the cross-section. As the magnitude of the maximum stress dictates
the load bearing capacity of the beam (i.e. for most engineering applications the stresses should be kept
below yield), it is important to find out how the stresses the bending moments are related. The relationship
between stresses and bending moments will be developed in this section. The analysis is restricted by the
assumptions stated in section 14.2. The assumptions can be relaxed and improved analysis can be made but
this is beyond the scope of the first year course and will be covered in future years.
14.2
Assumptions
The beam is made of linear-elastic material.
The cross section of the beam is symmetrical about the plane in which the forces and moments act (i.e.
the YZ plane).
A transverse section of the beam which is plane before bending remains plane after bending.
The lateral surface stresses (in the y-direction) are negligible. The lateral stress within the beam and
the shear stresses between adjacent "layers" throughout the depth of the beam are ignored (until next
year).
It is possible to do the analysis without these assumptions. But the algebra becomes very complicated.
14.3
e'f' = dz = ef = R
Consider the line gh at a distance y from the neutral axis. The original length of gh was the same as for all
other layers within the element i.e dz. The new length of gh may is related to its bend radius (R+y) and bend
angle ( ) so that the new length may be written as (R+y). Therefore as strain is the ratio of change in length
to original length and stress ( ) = strain ( ) modulus of elasticity (E):
gh g' h' (R + y ) dz (R + y ) R y y
=
=
=
=
g' h'
dz
R
R R
and
33
Ey
R
y
z
dz
a'
y1
d'
d
h
g
e'
f'
f
y2
b'
M
c'
b
c
R
Therefore as E and R are constants for a given position z and bending moment M the variation of stress through
a beam is linear as shown in Figure 14.2. Note in Figure 14.2 positive stress is defined using the convention for
the right hand end of beam.
z = Ey1/R
y1
y2
M
z = Ey2/R
34
y
dA
dy
y
b(y)
Figure 14.3: Cross-section of beam at z
The total axial load (F) on the cross-sectional face may then be related to the beam cross sectional dimensions
and radius of curvature by integrating across the face:
y2
y2
bEy
E 2
E
F = dF = .bdy =
dy = bydy =
R
R y1
R
y1
y1
y2
ydA
y1
As Figure 14.2 shows, the beam is not actually subjected to any axial load so the total axial load on the beam
must equal zero i.e., F = 0 and with E and R both non-zero the only way this relationship can equal zero is for y
dA to equal zero.
E
F=
R
y2
ydA = 0
y1
E 0&R0
y2
ydA = ydA = Q X = 0
y1
y dA is by definition, the first moment of area of the cross section (QX) and only equals zero if the axis from
which y is measured (i.e. the X axis) passes through the centroid of the cross-section.
Therefore the neutral axis of a simple beam must pass through the beam cross-section centroid. When
analysing beams the z axis is therefore located along the neutral axis.
14.3.2 The bending equation
Consider now the elemental moments (dM) caused by the elemental loads (dF) about the neutral axis; dM =
dF.y = .b.dy.y. The total applied moment (M) may then be found by integrating across the surface:
y2
y2
Ey
E 2 2
E
M = dM = .b.dy.y = b
dy = by dy =
R
R y1
R
y1
y1
y2
dA
y1
as IX (the second moment of area about the neutral axis for the cross section) = y2 dA, the bending moment at
point z may be related to the radius of curvature (R), the Youngs Modulus of the beam (E) and the second
moment of Area of the beam cross-section (IX):
35
EI X
R
The bending moment may then be combined with the expression for axial stress to provide the general bending
equation (also known as the Engineers bending equation or bending theory):
(y) =
Ey My
=
R
IX
(14.1)
14.4
The bending equation may be used to calculate the maximum tensile and compressive stresses in a beam.
Maximum tensile stress occurs where My is maximum positive and maximum compressive stress is where
My is maximum negative, i.e. on the outer edges of the beam. For a positive bending moment his
corresponds to:
z ( max. tensile ) =
M y1
IX
M y2
IX
z = My1/IX
tension
Neutral Axis
x
y1
z = My2/IX
z
y2
compression
36
D
A
B
C
D
b
L
Section DD
Constant along length
The Macauley expression for beam bending moment (check with Example 13.2.4) is:
M (z ) =
W (L-c )z
+ W {z c}
L
The Bending Moment (M) diagrams is shown below with a maximum magnitude of
|M|(max) = -Wc(L-c)/L occurring at z = c.
z
- Wc
(L c )
L
Figure 14.6 Bending Moment diagrams for a simply supported beam with a concentrated load
The second moment of area of the beam cross section about the neutral axis is equal to the second
moment of area about the centroidal x-axis (IX) = bh3/12
The maximum tensile stress (which will occur where M is a maximum) is found using the bending
equation (Equation (14.1))
z (max . tensile )
- Wc(L - c) h
.
h M y
L
2 = 6Wc(L - c)h
= z
=
=
3
bh
bh 3 L
2 IX
12
h
2
x (max . compr .) = x =
6Wc(L - c)h
bh 3 L
37
Deflection of Beams
Whilst the beam bending equation is useful for calculating the maximum stress at a point along a beam, its
real strength is in how it helps to determine the deflection of a beam at any point along its length. The
deflection of a beam at any point on the beam shall be denoted by v. Note that v is defined as being positive
upwards in the same direction as the y axis.
Consider a beam deflected under a combination of loading (may be point loads, moments, DLs etc) as shown
in Figure 14.7.
Y,v
ds
dv
dz
90-
z
d
R
Here R is the radius of curvature of the neutral axis (NA) at point z. A new axis (s) is introduced which is
located on the neutral axis of the beam. Figure 14.7 shows that the angle between s and the z axis (the initial
location of the neutral axis) at any given value of z may be written as and can be seen to equal the angle
that the radius of curvature makes with the vertical. The magnified portion of the beam in Figure 14.7 shows
a small length ds defined by a small angle in the radius of curvature d. The corresponding change in is
defined as d and is equal to d.
As ds = -R d = -R d the variation of along s (d/ds) may be written as:
d 1
= =
ds R
This is known as the curvature of the beam at z. The Greek letter (capital Kappa) is used to indicate this
parameter and has units of L-1. To determine the curvature in terms of the z and v co-ordinates of the beam
some mathematical manipulation is required.
38
= dds
tan =
dv
dz
dv
dz
2
d v
d
dz 2
=
2
dz
dv
1+
dz
= tan 1
ds = dz + dv
2
&
d dz
.
dz ds
d ds
=
dz dz
2
d v
2
dz
=
3/2
dv 2
1 +
dz
=
ds
dv
= 1+
dz
dz
ds
dv
= 1+
dz
dz
This is the relationship between curvature and the deflection curve of the beams neutral axis.
Introduce the common nomenclature v' = dv/dz = slope of the neutral axis at point z and v'' = d2v/dz2. For
beams with small deflections dv/dz is small and (dv/dz)2 is very small such that Equation (14.2) may be
simplified to:
2
1
d v
= = 2 = v' '
R
dz
(14.2)
EI X v' ' = M
(14.3)
M may be expressed in terms of applied loading and distances along the beam so that equation (14.3) may be
integrated to derive the slope and integrate again to find the deflection of the beam at any point z. Deriving
expressions for beam deflection using this approach is known as the beam deflection by integration
method. There are many other techniques that may be used for determining beam deflections but this is the
only one covered in this course.
14.6
Y,v
W1
W2
w
a
A
b
L
Section 13.5 showed that the Macauley expression for this beam and loading is:
M = M A R Ay z W1 {z a} W2 {z b}
w{z b}
2
39
w{z b}
2
3
R Ay 2 W1
W
w{z b}
2
2
EI X v' = M A z +
z + {z a} + 2 {z b} +
+ c1
2
2
2
6
4
R Ay 3 W1
M
W
w{z b}
3
3
EI X v = A z 2 +
z + {z a} + 2 {z b} +
+ c1 z + c 2
2
6
6
6
24
at z = 0 v' = 0 c1 = 0 & at z = 0 v = 0 c2 = 0
With the constants obtained the final beam deflection equation may be written as:
v=
1
EI X
4
M A 2 R Ay 3 W1
W2
w{z b}
3
3
z
+
z
+
{
z
a
}
+
{
z
b
}
+
6
6
6
24
2
v' =
3
RAy 2 W1
1
W
w{z b}
2
2
z + {z a} + 2 {z b} +
M A z +
EI X
2
2
2
6
40
14.7.1
Y, v
z
L
M = M A R Ay z = W (z L )
EI X v' ' = W ( z L )
W
(z L )2 + c1
2
W
3
EI X v = ( z L ) + c1 z + c2
6
EI X v' =
WL2
2
WL3
at z = 0 v = 0 c2 =
6
at z = 0 v' = 0 c1 =
Therefore deflection and slope at the end of the beam (z = L) may be determined to be:
W
WL2
WL2
(L L )2
=
2
2 EI X
2
1 W
WL2
WL3
WL3
( L L )3
=
v (L ) =
L+
6
3 EI X
EI X 6
2
v' (L ) =
1
EI X
41
Y, v
w
L
Figure 14.10: Cantilever with uniformly distributed load
Determine the deflection and slope at the end of the beam (z = L).
Answers:
1
v' (L ) =
EI X
1
v (L ) =
EI X
2
wL
L wL3 wL3
wL3
2
2
6
8
6 EI X
3
wL
L wL4 wL3
wL4
wL4
L+
=
6
2
24
8
48
8 EI X
42
Y, v
W
B
Figure 14.11: Simply supported beam of length L with a central load (-W)
L
W
L
M = R Ay z + W z = z + W z
2
2
2
EI X v' ' =
W
L
z W z
2
2
EI X v' =
W 2 W L
z z + c1
4
2
2
EI X v =
W 3 W L
z z + c1 z + c2
12
6
2
Identify and apply the boundary conditions. In this case three boundary conditions exist any two of them
could be used to determine c1 and c2:
at z = 0 v = 0 c2 = 0
WL2
16
or use symmetry with slope in centre of beam being equal to zero to get
at z = L v = 0 c1 =
at z =
L
2
v' = 0 c1 =
WL2
16
By observation, maximum deflection will occur in centre of beam and maximum slope will occur at the ends
of the beam (z = 0,L):
W 2 WL2 WL2
0
=
16 16 EI X
4
2
1 W 2 W
L WL2
WL2
v' (L ) =
L L
=
EI X 4
2
2
16 16 EI X
3
3
1 W L W L L WL2 L
WL3
vmax = v( L2 ) =
EI X 12 2
6 2 2
16 2
48 EI X
v' (L ) =
1
EI X
43
Determine the slope at either ends of the beam and the maximum deflection of the beam.
Answers:
wL 2 w 3 wL3
=
0 0
6
24
4
1 wL 2 w 3 wL3
=
v' (L ) =
L L
EI X 4
6
24
v' (L ) =
1
EI X
vmax = v( L2 ) =
1
EI X
wL3
24 EI X
WL2
24 EI X
4
wL L 3 w L 4 wL3 L
= 5 wL
12 2 24 2
24 2
384 EI X
44
Example: Simply supported beam load (-W) acting at a distance a from the right end.
Y, v
B
C
Figure 14.13: Simply supported beam load (-W) acting at a distance a from the right end
M = RAy z RBy {z L} =
Wa
W (L + a )
z
{z L}
L
L
Wa
W (L + a )
{z L}
z+
L
L
Wa 2 W (L + a )
{z L}2 + c1
EI X v' =
z +
2L
2L
Wa 3 W ( L + a )
EI X v =
z +
{z L}3 + c1 z + c2
6L
6L
EI X v' ' =
at z = 0 v = 0 c2 = 0
WaL
at z = L v = 0 c1 =
6
Maximum magnitude of deflection may occur at point in length AB or BC. In AB the maximum deflection
will occur at a value of z where dv/dz = 0 i.e. where v' = 0.
Wa 2 WaL
z +
=0
2L
6
L
L
z=
but only valid solution is : z =
3
3
EI X v' =
The deflections at this value of z and at z = L+a may now be evaluated to see which is the maximum.
( ) = Wa
6L
L WaL L WaL2
+
=
6 3 9 3
3
Wa
EI X v(L + a ) =
(L + a )3 + W (L + a ) {L + a L}3 + WaL ( L + a ) = Wa( L + a ) ( L3 2aL a 2 )
6L
6L
6
6L
EI X v
L
3
45
Y, v
M
z
L
Determine the slope at the free end of the beam and the maximum deflection of the beam.
Answers:
v' (L ) =
1
(ML ) = ML
EI X
EI X
v (L ) =
1 M 2 ML2
L =
EI X 2
2 EI X
46
Example: Cantilever beam with load applied at distance a < L from supported end
W
a
Y, v
z
A
Figure 14.15: Cantilever beam with load applied at distance a < L from supported end
M = M A RAy z + W { z a } = Wa Wz + W { z a } = W ( z a ) + W { z a }
Using equation (14.3) and integrating gives:
EI X v' ' = W ( z a ) W {z a}
W
(z a )2 W {z a}2 + c1
2
2
W
W
3
3
EI X v = ( z a ) {z a} + c1 z + c2
6
6
EI X v' =
Wa 2
2
Wa 3
at z = 0 v = 0 c2 =
6
at z = 0 v' = 0 c1 =
Therefore deflection and slope at the end of the beam (z = L) may be determined to be:
W
W
Wa 2
WL2
(L a )2 {L a}2
=
2
2
2 EI X
2
1 W
W
Wa 2
Wa 3
Wa 2
a
(L a )3 {L a}3
=
v (L ) =
L+
L
EI X 6
6
2
6
2 EI X
3
v' (L ) =
1
EI X
47
14.8.1 Description
Superposition may be used to determine the slope and deflections at a point in a complex loaded beam by
adding the results for more simple load cases.
The advantage of superposition is that numerous text-books give solutions (i.e. max-slopes and deflections)
for simple loading cases. A complex load case may then be built up from these simple cases and the slopes
and deflections of a complex load case determined.
Section 15 lists some simple beam deflection and slope results.
14.8.2 Example: A cantilever beam with combined UDL and point loading
Determine the deflection and slope at the end of the cantilever beam shown in Figure 14.16:
N
Y, v
Y, v
Y, v
z
z
A
L/2
L/2
L/2
L/2
z
L/2
L/2
Figure 14.16: A cantilever beam with combined UDL and point loading
wL4
WL3
+
8 EI X 3 EI X
L3 (8W 3 wL )
=
24 EI X
wL3
WL2
+
6 EI X 2 EI X
L2 (3W wL )
6 EI X
48
Y, v
z
L/2
L/2
2wo
2wo
Y, v
Y, v
z
L/2
L/2
L/2
L/2
DL2 load case
Figure 14.17 A simply supported beam with multiple DLs over the beam
The Macauley expression for bending moment is obtained by combining the appropriate expressions for the
separate load cases:
= ( R Ay )DL z + 0 z 3 + ( R Ay )DL z 0
1
2
3 L
3L
w0 L
w
2w
z + 0 z3 0
4
3L
3L
L
z
2
Using equation (14.3) and integrating and utilising two of the three boundary conditions that exist exist (v =
0 at both ends and v = 0 at L/2) the slope and deflection may be found to be:
v' (0 ) = v' (L ) =
vmax = v( L2 ) =
5 w0 L3
192 EI X
w0 L4
120 EI X
49
W
b
MB
Y, v
z
A
RBz
RAy
RBy
The only reaction force or moment that may be determined by use of statics (i.e. Fz, Fy and M equal to zero)
is RBz = 0. That leaves three unknowns (RAy, RBy and MB) and two equations (from Fy or M being equal to
zero).
F R =0
F R + R
M M R
z
Bz
Ay
By
=W
Ay
L = Wb
This is referred to as being statically indeterminate to the first degree. If there were two more unknowns than
static equations available to solve them then the problem would be statically indeterminate to the second
degree. As with all preceding statically indeterminate problems the method to solve them is to consider the
geometric compatibility (in this case the deflections and slope) of the structure.
The general approach is determine the value of one of the reaction forces using the knowledge that the deflection
of the beam at the support is equal to zero.
The Macauley expression for bending moment is:
M = RAy z + W { z a }
Using equation (14.3) and integrating gives:
RAy
W
{z a}2 + c1
2
2
RAy 3 W
3
EI X v =
z {z a} + c1 z + c2
6
6
EI X v' =
z2
This provides another two equations and two more unknowns bringing the total unknowns to five and the
total number of equations to four. The number of equations may be increased by using the deflection and
slope expressions at different points on the beam (each new boundary condition produces a new equation).
Thus the process is simply a matter of identifying and applying the boundary conditions to eliminate
unknowns:
50
v = 0 c2 = 0
R Ay
W
{L a}2 + c1 = 0
2
2
RAy 3 W
3
at z = L v = 0
L {L a} + c1 L = 0
6
6
at z = L v' = 0
L2
c1 may be eliminated from the last two expressions by multiplying the second by L and then subtracting the
second from the first to get:
RAy
L3
RAy
L3
WL
{L a}2 + c1 L = 0
2
2
RAy 3 W
3
L {L a} + c1 L = 0
6
6
subtract first from second
3
R Ay =
W
(L a )2 (3L (L a )) = 0
6
W (2 L + a )
a
1
2L
L
The problem is now reduced to two unknowns and two equations (the statics equations Fy and MB) so RBy
and MB may be determined, the bending moment and shear force diagrams drawn, the beam axial stresses
calculated or the deflections and slopes at any point found.
14.9.2 Second degree static indeterminacy
Figure 14.19 shows an example of a beam with second order indeterminacy. The same method as used for
solving the first order indeterminate beam above is used to solve this problem. The extra equation required to
solve the problem comes from the extra boundary condition of v' = 0 at z = 0 thus giving four boundary
condition equations and three static equilibrium equations (total 7) to solve for the five support
loads/moments and the two constants of integration.
Frictionless
Surface
W
MA
MB
z
A
RBz
B
RAy
RBy
51
RBy
Y, v
Y, v
z
2L/3
2L/3
L
Superposition may also be used to solve statically indeterminate problems. Consider the statically
indeterminate beam shown in Figure 14.20 which may be considered as being equivalent to the two
simplified loading cases. Note that as there are one too many reaction loads to solve the problem statically
RBy is considered as a separate load and is solved for using geometric compatibility.
Section 14.7.4 showed that the equation for the deflected beam under the UDL is:
v( UDL ) =
w
2 Lz 3 z 4 L3 z
24 EI X
UDL : v( 23L ) =
w
24 EI X
2L 3 2 L 4
wL4
2 L
2 L
L3
= 0.01132
3 3
EI X
3
The deflection of the beam at B due to the point load may be found from Section 15 to be:
2
2L L
RBy
2 2
3
RBy a b
3 3 = 0.01646 RBy L
Point Load : v( 23L ) =
=
3 EI X L
3 EI X L
EI X
as the deflection at B must be zero the sum of these two deflections must equal zero. Thus RBy may be
calculated to be:
v( 23L ) = 0 = 0.01646
RBy L3
EI X
0.01132
wL4
EI X
RBy = 0.688 wL
Now with RBy known the problem is no longer statically indeterminate and may be solved as for a standard
statically determinate beam.
52
=
=
Q
A
Lo
T =
T
Lo
= T
= G
= E
transverse
longitudinal
x =
y =
z =
G=
x
E
y
E
z
E
y
E
x
E
z
E
z
E
y
E
E
E
K =
2( 1 + )
3(1 2 )
Gr
L
TL
GJ
Tr
J
J=
( Ro Ri )
4
P = T
QX = ydA = yA
QY = xdA = x A
I X = y 2 dA
I Y = x 2 dA
I X + IY = J Z
EI X v' ' = M
53
W
a
Y,v
v (z ) =
W
3
z 2 (3a z ) {z a}
6 EI X
v( z ) =
Y,v
Y,v
W
a
wz 2
6 L2 4 Lz + z 2
24 EI X
v( z ) =
v (z ) =
Maximum deflection
and location
vmax (L ) =
Mz 2
2 EI X
[ (
W
3
bz L2 b 2 z 2 + L{z a}
6 LEI X
vmax
Wa 2 (3L a )
6 EI X
vmax (L ) =
wL4
8 EI X
vmax ( L ) =
ML2
2 EI X
b )
) = Wb9 (L3 LEI
2
L2 b 2
3
ab
Y,v
v (z ) =
Z
L
Y,v
wz
L3 2 Lz 2 + z 3
24 EI X
v( z ) =
Z
L
vmax ( L2 ) =
ML2
(
z 3 L2 z )
6 LEI X
5 wL4
384 EI X
( ) = 9 ML
3 EI
2
vmax
L
3
Pt B (y , xy)
1
xy
p
x
xy
y
2p
xy
min
x+ y
ave =
2
x y
ave
2
R=
x -y
+ 2xy
2
Pt A (x ,
max
54
All dimensions in mm
20
100
40
30
25
Ref
20
100
Ref
80
Ref
100
20
80
20
55
M(kNm)
5
10
1.5
2.0
0.5
0.5
1.5
-10
3.5
For the beam loaded by the distributed load w shown in below, calculate the reactions at A and B, derive an
expression for the shear force variation along the beam and determine the magnitude and location of the
maximum magnitude of bending moment in the beam.
w = wo sin
z
L
B
w L2
Answers: ( R Ay = R By = w o L , V = w o L cos z , M
= M ( L2 ) = o 2 )
max
L
3.6
Calculate the support reactions and maximum bending moment magnitude and draw the SF and BM
diagrams for the beam AB shown below. Treat the bracket CE as rigid (i.e. it transfers the applied load from
E to C with an accompanying moment).
5m
A
5m
5m
E
3T
2T
5
10
-T
15
-5T
10
15
5
-20T
56
L w0 L2
,
)
3 9 3
3.8
Calculate the applied load at C and reaction loads at B (parallel and perpendicular to the beam axis) for the
beam AB which is pinned at B and supported by a strut CD. The member CD is pin-ended. Then draw the
SF, BM and axial force diagrams for beam AB.
y
1.5m
10kN
1.5m
60
30
M(kN.m)
V(kN)
5
3
1.5
z
-5 3
1.5
z
-7.5
-5
3.9
Draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams for the beam and loading shown below. Determine the
location and magnitude of the maximum bending moment.
20kN/m
3m
6m
A
M(kNm)
40
4
4
-80
-120
-160
57
3W
{z 3 L}0 + W {z 2 L}1 13W {z 3L}0 W {z 3L}1
4
L
4
L
Answers (
)
3W
W
13W
W
2
2
{
}
{
}
{
}
{
}
M = Wz
zL +
z 2L
z 3L
z 3L
4
2L
4
2L
V =W
3.11
The overhanging beam ACDB shown below is simply supported at B and pinned at A. Write the Macauley
expression for the variation of bending moment along the beam using superposition to assist in the
development of the expression
A
1.2m
Answers ( M = 2.4 z +
1.2m
1.2m
w = 12kN/m
kNm )
3.12
Write the Macauley expression for the variation of bending moment along the beam shown below. Assume
bar CE is rigid.
0.4m
A
0.4m
0.4m
E
14kN
14kN
kNm )
58
Flange
3.15
What is the allowable bending moment about the X axis passing through the centroid for the T-section
shown if the maximum allowable stress is 150MNm-2 ?
100mm
10mm
90mm
10mm
Answers (3.78kNm)
3.16
A beam of length 1m and cross-section as shown is subjected to a pure bending moment. A measuring device
records a vertical deflection at mid-span of 5mm. What is the strain at the top surface of the beam?
M
1m
10mm
M
10mm
10mm
60mm
Answer (542.8)
3.17 (Combination of bending, torsion and Mohrs circle good exam question!)
A 150mm shaft is subjected to a torque of 14kNm and simultaneously to a bending moment of 11kNm. Find
the maximum principal stress and the maximum shear stress in the shaft.
Answers: (434MPa, -10.2MPa, 25.9)
3.18 (Combination of bending, torsion, axial stress and Mohrs circle really good exam question!)
An element on the periphery of a propeller shaft is subjected simultaneously to a torsional shear of 28MPa, a
bending stress of 7MPa caused by its own weight and a compressive stress of 3.5MPa due to propeller thrust.
Use Mohrs circle to determine the principal stresses and the planes on which they act.
Answers: (23.2MPa, -33.7MPa, 38.67)
59
2kN
0.5m
4kN
0.5m
5kN
1.5m
1kN
1.5m
1m
Answer (0.0315m)
3.19
Find the required flexural rigidity (EI) of the beam shown below so that the end deflection of the beam does
not exceed 20mm.
20kN
3m
5m
Answer (18MPa)
3.20
For the steel beam shown in figure below, find the second moment of area of section if the maximum
deflection must not exceed 5mm. Take E = 200Gpa:
10kN
10kN
0.5m
0.5m
1m
1m
A
1m
B
60
3m
2m
100mm
Prop of
cross-sectional
area A
50mm
Cross-section of beam
Answer (L/A<34224m-1 )
3.23
A simply supported rectangular cross-section beam ABCD carries two equal loads of 60kN at points B and C
as shown. The flexural rigidity of the beam is 200 MNm2, the beam is made from steel with a Youngs
modulus of 200MPa and the height of the beam cross-section is 200mm:
(a) What is the deflection at the point under the load C?
(b) What is the position at which the maximum deflection is produced?
(c) What is the magnitude of the deflection?
(d) What is the maximum axial stress in the beam?
(e) What is the position of the maximum axial stress in the beam?
60kN
A
2m
60kN
C
1m
3m
61
Answers ( R = W 1 +
3a
Wa 2
(3L + 4 a ) )
, =
2L
12 EI X
3.25
Assume one end of the beam shown below is mounted in a frictionless slot. Write the general expression for
the bending moment at any cross-section along the length of the beam shown below using Macauley
notation. Determine the deflection at B and determine the forces and moments exerted at A and C. Sketch the
shear force and bending moment diagrams.
100kN
3m
2m
40mm
1m
50mm
Cross-section of beam
62