Fluid Motive Devices In the typical flow system, such #5 those con- sidered in Chapter 20, it is usually necessary to add energy to the fluid to maintain flow. The energy is added by a fluid motive device, such 2s a pump or 2 compressor. The device, part of the “‘surround- ings," does work on the fluid, which is the “system,” and hence the energy added is equal to Wy" as defined in Chapter 20. According to Equation 20.18, the energy added may compensate for frictional losses or provide for increases in velocity, pressure, or height of the fluid. This chap- ter is concerned with the various devices thet are used to add eneray to the fluid, Fluids involved in chemical processes may be gases, liquids, or combinations of both. It is con ventional to ‘speak of pumping when liquids are involved, and the devices are usually called pumps. It is sometimes necessary to transport slurries (mix- tures of a liquid and a finely divided solid) using specially designed pumps. Gases have lower density and viscosity and greater compressibility, so diffefent devices are used to move them. Depending upon the pressure increase desired, fans, blowers, and compressors are used to add energy to gases, The energy supplied to the fluid-motive devices in chemical processes often is @ major fraction of the energy consumption of the process. To conserve energy, it is important to choose properly sized pumps and compressors in designing the process. Many fluid-motive devices are avail- able; only a few. representative examples of the more commonly used types are discussed in this chapter. PUMPING LIQUIDS Most pumps fall into one of two major classifica- tions, positive-displacement pumps and centrifugal Twenty-One pumps. Positive-displacement pumps deliver a definite quantity of fluid for each stroke or revolution of the device; whereas. centrifugal bumps deliver a volume that is dependent upon the discharge pressure, or energy added. A detailed discussion of pump types and applications is found in Reference 3. Positive_Displacement Pumps The positivedisplacement category may be sub: divided further into reciprocating pumps and rotary pumps. As the names imply, the former involve a back-and-forth motion of @ piston in a cylinder, while the latter depend upon a rotating motion, Reciprocating Pumps. in the reciprocating pump, the rate of liquid delivery is a function of the volume swept out by the piston in the cylinder and the number of strokes the piston makes per unit time, For each stroke of the piston, a fixed volume of liquid is discharged from the pump. The actual delivery may be less than the swept-out volume because of leakage past the piston and failure to fill the cylinder. A volumetric efficiency may be defined as the ratio of actual discharge to that based upon piston displacement. For well maintained pumps, the volumetric efficiency is at least 95 percent, A mechanical efficiency may be defined es the ‘energy supplied to the fluid divided by the energy supplied to the pump. This efficienoy is less than 100 percent because of losses caused by mechanical friction and fluid friction. Two types of reciprocating pump are shown in Figures 21,1 and 21.2. Power-driven pumps, such as that shown in Figure 21.1, are driven by an electric motor, a belt, or a chain, through a driving gear and a crankshaft, to convert the rotary motion to linear motion. Steam-driven pumps use a steam ciconiabioanamsinasicaaeiFLUIDMOTIVE DEVIces S81 Figure 21.1. A power-driven double-acting simplex pump. Power is supplied by a belt on the drive wheel shown behind the driving gear. The driving gear and ‘crankshaft convert the rotary motion of the drive wheel to the back-and-forth linear motion of the piston rod, The inlet and discharge valves open and close as the piston moves back and forth, Thess valves are check valves that allow flow in only ‘one direction. As the piston moves toward the right, the inlet valve is opened, and ‘the discharge valve is closed at the left end of the cylinder; the reverse is true at the right end of the cylinder, Thus, the left end of the cylinder is filing with liquid and ‘the right end is discharging liquid. As the piston then reverses direction and moves ‘toward the let, the valves reverse their positions; the left end discharges as the right end fills. (Courtesy Novo Pump and Engine Co.) cylinder such as shown in Figure 21.2, with the piston on the’ same shaft as the pump pistons, which are most commonly double-acting, The pump in Figure 21.1 employs a single cylinder, but uses the cylinder volume on both sides of the piston to deliver liquid on both the forward and backward stroke. It is therefore called a double- acting simplex pump. The pump of Figure 21.2 employs two cylinders with separate plungers in each. (External tie-rods drive the righthand plunger from the double-acting steam cylinder.) Fluid is pumped only on the forward stroke of each plunger, so this unit is a single-acting duplex pump. The plunger is a variation on the piston used in higher-pressure applications, in which the packing rings are held in the cylinder wall rather than being carried by the piston. ‘The rate of discharge of liquid from a recipro- cating pump varies with time because of the periodic nature of the piston movement, as shown in Figure 21.3, For a single-acting simplex pump, liquid issues from the discharge valve until it closes near the end of the stroke, when the piston stops and reverses. At this point the intake valve opens and the cylinder fills, but there’ is no discharge during intake, and an intermittent flow results, as shown in Figure 21.32. The simplex double-acting pump almost eliminates the periods of zero dis- charge, as shown in Figure 21.36, but the flow still drops to zero just as the piston reverses itself. The air chamber shown in Figure 21.1 provides a surge volume so that the discharge does not drop all the way to zero as the piston reverses itself. A still more uniform flow results from a duplex doubl acting pump, as indicated in Figure 21.3c. In this case, the discharge of’one cylinder is displaced half582 APPLICATIONS T0 EQUIPMENT DESIGN tom ‘oe psn ‘sae Figure 21.2. Steam-driven tandem du ae ‘ee xx plunger pump. The tiexods that drive the right-hand plunger are shown only in part. Both plungers are driven by: the piston rod powered by a steam-driven piston. The high-pressure steam alternately enters and leaves either side of the cylinder, thus driving the piston back and forth + The steam flow is controlled by the si 19 valve, $0 that inlet and discharge occur alternately at either end of the cylinder. (Courtesy Worthington Pump Inc.) a stroke from the other, so the total discharge (the solid curve in the figure) undergoes less fluctua- tion. Reciprocating. pumps have long been used in many applications, including pumping of boiler feed water, oil, and mud. Reciprocating pumps can deliver the highest pressure of any type of pump. On the other hand, their capacities are relatively | | — NN ee Dasher Taare | Simplex double ) GD to aie PPI Tt one 2 Time small compared to centrifugal pumps. Liquids con- taining abrasive solids can damage the machined surfaces of the cylinder and piston. These pumps may be used for metering of moderate flows, because of their positive-displacement character: istic. Rotary Pumps. There are several varieties of rotary positive-displacement pumps, all of which ‘operate on basically the same principle. The rotating elements of the pump create a reduced pressure on the inlet side, thereby allowing ex- ternal pressure to force liquid into the pump, As the elements rotate, the liquid is trapped between the elements and the pump casing. After further rotation, the liquid is forced out of the discharge side of the pump. The flow rate of liquid from a rotary pump is ¢ function of its size and speed of rotation, but it is only slightly dependent upon the discharge pressure, within the limits of pump design. Rotary pumps deliver at nearly constant flow tates, in contrast to the pulsating flow of reciprocating pumps. Rotary pumps are used on liquids of any viscosity, so long as they do not contain abrasive solids, They are particularly effective with high- viscosity liquids, including greases, molasses, and| FLUID MOTIVE DEVICES 583 Figure 21.4. Flow pattern for an external gear pump. The two gears aré rotating in ‘opposite directions, as shown in the figure. A lighter-colored liquid, drawn in from the left, is trapped between the rotating teeth and the pump casing, so that it is drawn toward the pump outlet on the right. (Courtesy Roper Pump Company.) paints, Rotary pumps operate in moderate pressure ranges and have small to medium capacities. They are often used for metering liquids. A few representative rotary pumps ere described below. The simplest rotary pump is the gear pump. ‘An example of an external-gear pump is given in Figure 21.4, and typical performance curves for this type of pump are given in Figure 21.5. An ternal-gear pump is shown in Figure 21.6, Screw pumps may have one, iwu, of three screws turning along their axis, with liquid flowing between the screw threads and the casing. A ouble-screw pump is shown in Figure 21,7. ‘An interesting variation of the screw pump is the “traveling cavity” pump shown in Figure 21.8. oe ed ‘This pump consists of a rotor that revolves within a ischorge pressure, pst stator, executing a compound movement; the rotor Figure 21,5, Performance characteristics of an ekternal is revolved about its axis while the axis itself travels ‘gear pump, Ccapacty, gal/min river Stationary Nyce 4 O @ 6) te @ Figure 21.6, Flow pattern for an internal gear pump. The internal gear pump has & single powered rotor, a stationary erescont, and an idler gear that rotates as required by the main rotor. To illustrate the flow pattern, a dark liquid is shown entering from the left. It fills the space available between the counterclockwise-rotating rmsin rotor, the idler, and the casing, and it moves toward the discharge. At the tischarge, the dark liquid is completely forced out by @ close mesh of the rotor and ‘he idler gear, Discharge is essentially continuous. (Courtesy Viking pump Co.)$84. * APPLICATIONS TO EQUIPMENT DESIGN Figure 21.7. Double- sew pump. The closaly meshed serow teeth rotate in oppo- site directions. The liquid enters at the bottom and is moved from the ends of the screws to the middle, where it is discharged upward, (Courtesy Division, Gilbarco, Inc.) in a circular path. The rotor is a true helical screw, and the stator has a double internal helical thread pitched opposite to the spiral on the rotor. In each complete revolution of the rotor, the eccentric movement enables the rotor to, contact the entire surface of the stator. The voids between the rotor ‘and stator will have entrapped material that is Discharce Bath Pump continuously moved toward the discharge, This pumping action gives continuous flow with low, smooth, and’ uniform velocities. The pump is capable of handling highly viscous materials. Such materials a3 chocolate, greases, plaster, cake icings, potato salad, and putty are easily pumped. Inet Packing Figure 21.8. Traveting eavity pump. (Courtesy Robbins & Myers Inc.)Example 21.1. It is necessary to pump a = constant fiow of a liquid with density and viscosity * similar to water into a reactor at a rate of gal/min, The pump must operate against: a presure of 200 psi, as determined by an energy balance on the flow system. A pump with the characteristics shown in Figure 21.5 Is available, with @ variable-speed drive. At what speed should the pump be operated? What horsepower would be required to maintain flow? Solution. When plotted on Figure 21.5, the point representing the required flow and pressure falis between the 400 and 600 rpm curves. The variation of capacity with speed seems to be non- linear, as evidenced by compering the change from 200 to 400 rpm with the change from 400 to 600 rpm. With this in mind, interpolation between 400 and 600 rpm yields @ speed of about 250 rpm for the cse at hand. Interpolating on the horse- power curves yields a power of 21 hp at a discharge pressure of 200 psi, Centrifugal Pumps The centrifugal pump is widely used in’ the process industries because of its simplicity of design, low initial cost, low maintenance, and flexibility of application. Centrifuge! pumps have bs2n built to pump as litle as a few gallons per minute against a small head and also as much as several hundred thousand gal/min against @ pressure of sever hundred asi. In its simplest form, the centrifugal pump consists of an impeller rotating within casing, Fluid enters the pump near the center of the rotating impeller and is thrown outward by centrifugal action, The kinetic energy of the fl increeses from the center of the impeller to the tips of the impeller vanes. This velocity energy is con- verted to a pressure as the fluid leaves the impeller and enters the volute or diffuser. Not all centrifugal pumps have the purely redial-flow pattern described above. Detailed description of the modifications and elaboration of the specific advantages and applications are outside the usual activity of chemical engineers, but awars- ness of the variations is needed. The turbine pump usually has rather small straight vanes and is driven at high speed to produce relatively high pressure at moderate flow rates. Axial-flow pumps and com- pressors consist of multibladed propellers, gener- ating 2 purely axial flow of large-volume, relatively low-pressure fluids. For particular balances of flow. rate and pressure, impellers shaped to use some com- FLUID MOTIVE DEVICES 585 bination of the actions of these basic types ere available, characterized as “mixed flow” impellers. Some typical configurations are shown in Figures 21.9 and 21.19. For handling corrosive, abrasive, of shear- sensitive fluids, detailed alterations of materials, clearances, and flow paths are possible but ai usually designed by specialists, For example, it would be an unusual challenge to a chemical engineer to specify a pump to handle blood with- ‘out damaging red corpuscles. The impeller. is the heart of the centrifugal pump. It consists of a number of curved vanes or blades shaped in such away as to give smooth fluid flow between the blades. Common impellers ere ictured in Figure 21.9. In the straight-vane, single-suction, closed impelter (Figure 21.92), the surfaces of the vanes are generated by straight lines parallel to the axis of rotation, The double-suction impeller (Figure 21.96) is, in effect, two single. suction impellers arranged back to back in a single casing. For handling liquids containing stringy materials and soft solids, the impellers of Figures 21.92 end 21.95 are likely to become clogged be- cause of restricted flow passages. A nonclogging impeller (Figure 21.9c) is designed to have large flow passages to lessen the possibility of clogging. Open impellers (Figure'21.9d) have vanes attached to a central hub and are well adapted for pumping abrasive solids. The semiopen impeller (Figure 21.82) has a single shroud, and the closed impeller hhas shrouds on both sides of the vanes. The semi- closed impeller shown has pump-out vanes located ‘on the back of the shroud whose purpose is to reduce the pressure at the back hub of the,impel- ler, The mixed-flow impeller (Figure 21.97 is a design in which there are both a radial component and an axial component of flow. Centrifugal-pump casings may be of several designs, but the main function is to convert the velocity energy imparted to the fluid by the im- peller into useful pressure energy. In addition, the casing serves to contain the fluid and to provide an inlet and outlet for the pump. Casings may be of ither the volute type or the diffuser type, Figure 21,10 shows a volute casing. Here the impeller harges into a continuously expanding flow ‘area, This increase in flow area causes the fluid velocity to dectease oradually, thereby feducing ‘eddy formation. By this means, most of the velo- city energy is converted to pressure energy with low turbulence losses. The diffuser pump casing (Figure 21.11) has stationary guides that offer the liquid a widening$86 APPLICATIONS TO EQUIPMENT DESIGN 4 ] Figure 21.9, Centrifuga-purp impellers. (a) Straight vane singleguction closed Impeller. (b) Double-suction impeller, (c} Noneloaaing impeller. () Open impeler. {@) Semiopen impelier (f) Mixed-flow impeller. (Courtesy Worthington Pur; ine.)reo FLUID MOTIVE DEVICES wears Leal sea ound sate Figure 21.12. Cutaway view of a centrifugal pump. The liquid flows in past an inducer ond into the impeller, where it is thrown outward into the volute, from ‘where it flows out of the pump, The inducer is actually @ small axiallow impeller {hat effectively reduces the required suction pressure to the pump, which is seldom incorporated except in pumps working with a low inlet pressure. The drive shaft, to which a motor would be attached, must be sealed to avoid leakage of the pump fluid. Such seals must be adjusted or replaced from time to time, (Courtery Worthington Pump, Ine.) Figure 21.11. Diffusor centrifugal-pump casing. $87588 APPLICATIONS TO EQUIPMENT DESIGN path from impeller to casing. The diffusers serve the same purpose as the volute, and both types of pumps have about the same efficiency. The major applications of the diffuser centrifugel-pump casing are in multistage high-pressure pumps and with mixed-flow impellers. Because of their high speed, centrifugal pumps must be carefully designed for smooth mechanical operation. Figure 21.12 is a cutaway drawing of a typical centrifugal pump, showing mechanical components as well as the flow path. Historically, the seal around the shaft has consisted of compacted, moderately soft, nonabrasive material that can be formed into rings in an annu- jar chamber where the shaft leaves the pump body. A follower ring of one of several designs has been provided to exert a controllable pressure on the packing rings. Asbestos, impregnated with graphite, was probably. the favorite packing material. An experienced mechanic could quickly and effectively repack @ pump when the packing was worn. In recent years, mechenical seals have been developed in which two, nonabrasive and nongalling surfaces, ground extremely smooth and mating precisely, provide @ seal that has some. advantages over the classical packing gland. Replacernent of mechanical seals cannot always be done as a field repair, which is the major disadvantage of their use. ‘There are unbalanced forces on the impeller, hence, adequate bearings must be used so that the shaft can rotate evenly and with minimal strain and vibration. ‘A. centrifugal pump with one impeller is referred to asa. single-stage pump. If the total hhead-capacity combination to be developed is Greater than. cen be developed from a single impeller, multistage operation may be used. Multi- stage pumps may be thought of ag severel single- stage pumps on one shaft, with flow in series. In effect, discharge from a single-stage pump is ted into the suction side of a second stage where the discharge pressure of the first stage is preserved. The fluid efter entering the second stage will have added to it the pressure energy developed in the stage, and so on. ‘A cutaway view of a two-stage turbine pump is given in Figure 21.13. This unit employs verti- cally mounted impellers and is installed with the impeller casings submerged in the liquid to be pumped, Figure 21.14 illustrates a six-stage centri- fugal pump with a relatively low capacity anda high discharge pressure. A centrifugal pump usually operates at constant speed, and the cepacity of the pump depends only upon the total head, the Figure 21.13 Two-stage turbine pump for submerged service. This type of pump is Used in water wells, among various other applications, The length of the drive shaft ‘would depend upon the death of the wal. (Courtesy Worthington Pump, Inc.) design, and the suction conditions, The best way to deseribe the operating characteristics of @ centri fugal pump is through the use of characteristic curves (Figure 21.15). This figure shows the inter relation of discharge pressure or head (4), capacity {Q), efficiency (n), and power input {P} for a given pump at a particular speed. The H—Q curve shows the relation between total head and capacity. The pressure increase crested by a centrifugal pump is,FLUID MOTIVE DEVICES 589 nee cei, impetin Figure 21.14, Sixstage centrifugal pump. This pump delivers a relatively low flow Fate at 3 high pressure, as is needed in the case of boiler feed water. It can be seen ‘that the outflow from one impeller becomes the inflow for the next impeller, (Courtesy Worthington Pump, Inc.) commonly expressed in terms of feet of the fluid flowing. The discharge head, when reported as feet of fluid flowing, is independent of the density of the fluid. In Figure 21.15, the head incteases con- tinuously as the capacity is decreased; this type of curve is referred to as a rising characteristic curv AA stable head-capacity characteristic curve is ont which only one capacity can be obtained at any one head. Pump selection should be made such 0 kis ee fi p-8 that stable operating characteristics are available, ‘The P—Q curve of Figure 21.15 shows the relation between power input and pump capacity. The n—Q. curve relates pump efficiency to capacity. For a pump having the characteristics of Figure 21.15, maximum efficiency would occur at capacity of 2500 gal/min and a total head of 80 ft. When the pump is capable of being operated ‘at variable speeds, characteristic curves such as Seer cand ' 1 is 3115 26 5 35 capac in 100 get min Figure 21.15. Characteristic curves for a centrifugal pump. (Courtesy Worthington Pump, Ine.) L os 105s 2 capacity in 100 l/min Figure 21.16. Effects of speed change on pump ‘characteristics. (Courtesy Worthington Pump, Ine.)$90 APPLICATIONS TO EQUIPMENT DESIGN Figure 21.16 are obtained. A higher speed of rota tion gives a higher capacity at the same pressure and requires more horsepower to supply this increased flow of liquid. Usually a given pump casing can accommo- date impellers of several different diameters, Figure 21.17 shows the effect of changing impeller dia- meter on the pump characteristics. Example 21.2. A pump with the character- istics given Figure. 21.17 is to. deliver 350 gal/min at a head of 80 ft. What size impeller should be used? What power will be required? Solution. The 1750-rpm pump is appropriate. When the required heed and capacity are plotted, the point falls between the curves for the 9-in, and the 10-in, impeller. The 9-in, impeller can deliver ‘only 178 gal/min against @ head of 80 ft, so it is necessary to use the 10-in. impeller. A control valve in the system would dissipate the excess pressure energy. The required power for the 10-in. impeller would be 11 hp, by extrepolation. Cavitation. When a centrifugal pump. is operating at a high capacity, low pressures may develop at the impeller eye or vane tips. When this pressure falls below the liquid vapor. pressure, vaporization may occur at these points. The bubbles of vapor formed move to a region of high pressure and collapse. This formation and. collapse of vapor bubbles is called cavitation. The bubble collapse is likely to be s0 quick that the liq hit the vane with extreme force and is likely to gouge out small pieces of the impeller. In addition to this pitting of the impeller, noise and vibration will be created. Cavitation may be reduced or eliminated by reducing the pumping rete. If cavita- tion is not reduced or eliminated, serious mechani- ‘cal damage to the pump is likely to result. ‘Net Positive Suetion Head. Cavitation may be minimized by paying attention to the design of ‘the pump installation on the suction side. In Figure 21.18, P, is the pressure acting on the surface of liquid’ inside the tank, and z,~is the height of the liquid surface above the pump center line at the suction inlet. If ZF is the totel friction loss in the piping system, application of the energy balance for a unit mass gives (21.4) {f the datum plane is taken at zp and Vj is negli- gible compared: with 7, the total head at the suction inlet (point 2) is Po ty? _ Py” Fah Lar e % Pp Ge From Equation 21.2; the pressure at the suction inlet is (21.2) pia? g Pas Py per) —pEF— (21.3) At the eye of the impeller, it is reasonable to assume that the pressure will be less than at the suction inlet. This pressure difference can be assumed to, be related to the velocity at the eye by the cxpression AP=9737/2gc, where @ is a pressure-drop coefficient characteristic of pump ‘geometry and 73 is the fluid velocity at the eye. The net positive suction head (NPSH) is de- fined a5 the difference between the static head at the suction inlet and the head corresponding to the vapor pressure of the liquid at the pump inlet. Thus combining this definition with Equation 212, nes = (= of) fe (B+2 2-2") -% (21.4) Cavitation is probable if the total head at the suction minus the acceleration head from there to the eye of the impeller is equal to or less than the vapor pressure; that is, DB a? 2 _ 42,4 -ep- 2-52 2" (1.5) a % 29. 29. ~ P Equation 21.6 may be rearranged to express incipient cavitation, Ag Pea? a3? Aya faap) 2 21.6 ( “Ge 2a 2g, (181 and from the definition of the net positive suction head, NPSH (21.7) Therefore, to avoid cavitation, the NPSH must be greater than the maximum possible value of (v2?/2gc) + (0737/2gc). The values of 7 and 73 will depend upon the flow rate so that some con- trol over cavitation may be achieved by variation in flow rates, as previously mentioned. The value of the required NPSH for the particular pump being used may. be obtained from the pump manu facturer.FLUID MOTIVE DEVICES : } o 10 a » « ao a 0 » 0 100° m/e 7 COOO {ff bes 19 sx Ht ryt 1D date fig peer =| + 120 : i 100 3 < 2 lei ws molt © © 10) a 0 1 Ro 300 800 G00 BT 500 galrn a ee naan il; Raman Mss ee Rs ic ow 40 10012014060 18200 ne o Figure 21.17. Centrifugal pump characteristics, The pump has an inlet diameter of |n, and an outlet diameter of 3 in. Its 10n. easing can contain impellers of 6,7, 8, 9, of 10 in, as shown. The pump is normally operated at one of two speeds, thereby producing two different characteristic curves: (e) 1750rpm. or (0) 3550 rpm. (Courtesy Goulds Pumps, Ine.) 591$92’ APPLICATIONS TO EQUIPMENT DESIGN anys craps 2 At paler ene Taso ‘niet Figure 21.18. Suction conditions for a cen- ‘rifugal pump. Specific Speed. Specific speed is the speed in revolutions per minute at which a theoretical pump geometrically similar to the actual pump would run at its best efficiency if proportioned to deliver 1 gal/min against a total head of 1 ft. The specific speed serves es a convenient index of the actual pump type, using the capacity and head ‘obtained at the maximum efficiency point. Specific speed may be determined from Equation 21.8 for a single-stage pump or one stage of a multistage pump. This equation results from model theory and dimensional analysis. Figure 21.19 shows that the normal range in specific speeds encountered in single-suction pumps for various impeller designs is between 500 and 15,000. On the same figure is shown the type ‘of pump characteristic that is associated with pumps of various specific speeds. Example 21.3. It is necessary to pump ‘2500 gal/min against a head of 60 ft. What type of pump might be used? Solution. This relatively high rate and low head suggests some type of centrifugal pump. A reasonable operating speed for such a pump might be assumed to be around 1800 rpm. Equation 21.8, ‘then gives nV@ _ 1800/2500 le 0.78" ggp7s This value of specific speed falls within the range of mixed-flow pumps in Figure 21.10. Therefore, a % ve (21.8). Tixéd-flow contrifugal pump might be used. Other Pump Types N, = specific speed, rom Only a few of the more important pump types ‘n= actual pump speed, rpm have -been covered in the previous paragraphs. H = total head per stage, ‘Some other types are discussed briefly below. Q= pump capacity in gal/min at speed ‘The diaphragm pump is a positive-displace- and total head z ment pump thet depends upon the movement of a ie Head, H a Scenainas # IE enna i ne Ine Capes @ ad j Pais T T T TT TTT T 1 8 88 & & 8 € € ER BEE § 8 ates of specie soe oes a8 ‘Trout pte. suds Padialow fet ah bac ~~ Ee Maed-fon fd ‘aa-ow tld Figure 21.19. Characteristic curves and specific speeds for various impellers, Impel- lers that tend to promote radial flow, as in 2 standard cen gal pup, operate at the lowest specific speed (up to 4200). Mixed-flow impellers, which produce both impellers operate at the highest specific speeds (above 9000). Worhtington Pumps, Ine.) ial and radial flow, operate at higher specific speeds (4200 to $000). Axial flow (CourtesyFLUID MOTIVE DEVICES $93 Figure 21.20, A diaphragm pump. This model of diaphragm pumo employs two diaphragms connected by a shaft. There are air chambers behind each diaphragm, Air is alternately charged to and then exhaus ted from each chamber, so that the shaft has a back-and-forth move- iment, and one liquid chamber is filling while the other is being dis charged. Appropriately placed check valves are used to prevent discharge during the filling cycle, and vice versa, The flow from the Pump is pulsating, but it can be smoothed by using @ surge tank, (Courtesy Warten Rupp Company.) diaphragm to achieve fluid flow. The diaphragm may be actuated mechanically or pneumatically. The back-and-forth movement of the Giephragm produces a pulsating flow typical of a reciprocating pump. Figure 21.20 shows one type of pneumati cally operated diaphragm pump, The diaphragm pump eliminates all packing and seals exposed to the liquid being pumped. The diaphragmitsetf can be of any flexible material (metal, rubber, or plastic) that is resistant to the liquid, Diaphragm pumps are used to pump abrasive slurries and very viscous liguids, although they will handle tiquids of all viscosities, The jet pump uses the momentum of a high- velocity fluid stream to impart momentum to a seoond stream, by actually mixing the two. An example of a jet pump is shown in Figure 21.21. Jets, or ejectors, have low efficiencies and can prodyce only smalll pressures. Mixing the propelling fluid and the fluid being purnped may be disadvan- tageous, but one advantage is the complete lack of moving parts in jet pumps, An example of applica- tion is the use of steam as the motive fluid to pump boiler feed water. It is also used to pump mixtures of solids.and liquids. The acid e99, an inexpensive pump involving ‘no moving parts, consists of a tank from which liquid can be forced by gas pressure. Typically, compressed air is used to force the liquid out of ‘the tank into a pipeline, The operation of a single tank would be intermittent, but several could be combined to give a more nearly continuous flow. ‘The electromagnetic pump works on the same Menge wars ses Diving his ot \nin te Mae Figure 21.21. Jet pump principle, The driving fluid enters {rom the left through a nozzle that impWts high velocity. ‘This jet penetrates into a stagnant of slow-moving fluid, so that it transfers its momentum by entraining and acceler- ating the fluid. The diffuser at outlet converts kinetic energy into pressure energy, after mixing is complete (2)594 "APPLICATIONS TO EQUIPMENT DESIGN Figure 21.22. Electromagnetic pump. This schomatic representation shows the principle Of the electromagnetic pump. The conduct- ing liquid carries a current that is at right angle to an imposed magnetic field. This results in a°force that causes the liquid to flow. principle as the induction motor, as shown in Figure 21.22. It is useful only with liquids of high electrical conductivity, such as liquid metals. It has no moving parts and hence no seals. Pump Selection With the large variety of pump types available, the selection ‘of a pump for a specific task might appear to be a complex endeavor. In fact, many pump selections for routine, previously encoun- tered situations are quite straightforward. In such cases, the design engineer can select the appro- priate pump. for a specified task from manu- fecturers’ catalogs. In unusual cases, such as highly viscous or abrasive liquids or extreme pressures, the engineer should consult with the manufacturer, perhaps asking for a recommendation (and quaran- tee) of a pump for the application. Whether the design engineer solects the pump. or asks for a manufacturer's recommendation, detailed information on the capacity and head required and on the properties of the liquid to be pumped must be immediately at hand. A general consideration of these factors is given below. The flow rate required by the process itself determines the capacity of the pump needed. Not only steady-state flow, but also expected. surges must be considered. Some safety factor for uncertainties in design’ should be cluded. Possible increase in flow rate because of Process expansion might be taken into. account. Gare should be taken not to overestimate needed capacity by putting in: too large a safety factor. Oversized pumps cost more ii tially and consume more energy than necessary during operation. Head. The head (or pressure) a pump must develop is determined by a careful analysis of the piping system using the methods of Chapter 20. Friction losses and changes in the velocity, pres- sure, and static heads must be taken into account. ‘The energy balance of Chapter 20 makes it possible to calculate the pump work (~W) with reasonable accuracy. Nevertheless, some safety factor for un- certainties should be included. Possible fluctu- ations in suction or discharge, pressures required should be considered. If a temperature variation is, anticipated, its effect on liquid properties should be taken into eccount. Here again, care should be taken to avoid an overly cautious design that spect: fies too great 2 work delivery, because of the resulting unnecessarily higher equipment and ‘operating costs. Liquid Properties. All types of pumps result in more or less frictional dissipation of mechanical energy; this means that for a viscous fluid more energy must be supplied. For a perfect positive: displacement pump, there would be no other effect. For a real pump, flows are more sluggish, resulting in partially filled cylinders or velocities from the tip of an impeller element lower than would be attained by a nonviscous fluid. The pres sure developed in a centrifugal pump is a function of the kinetic energy of the fluid leaving the im- peller. {ncreasing viscosities result in decreased velocities and therefore lowered pressure energy; inereasing density results in higher pressure energy, leading to the convenient fact that discharge pres: sure is independent of density of the fluid if itis expressed in terms of the height of a column of fluid it will support — the head. For example, an oil of 200 cp viscosity reduces pressure and ca- pacity about 10 percent and increases power by about 26 percent relative to water. If high-viscosity liquids are to be pumped, appropriate performance data should be obtained from the manufacturer. Corrections for high viscosity are available in Reference 3. If the liquid contains solids in suspension, as in sewage, paper stock, slurries, and some foods, special pump designs may be necessary. For example, one of the major problems encountered in the development of the artificial heart (which is a small, soecialized pump) is the destruction of red blood corpuscles, The corpuscles are suspended ii the liquid plasma, and many conventional pump designs lead to corpuscle attrition; hence, special, very gentle pumps had to be developed. If veryabrasive solids are suspended, centrifugal pumps lined with rubber, plastic, or hard metal may be required, Selection of materials of construction must take into account the corrosive properties of the pumped liquid. 1f the liquid is unusually volatile at the temperature of operation, care must be taken 10 avoid cavitation or vaporization on the suction side of the pump. Pumps in chemical. processes sometimes must operate at extremes of tempera ture and pressure, so special designs may be re- quired, Type of Pump.. Once the pamping job is fully specified, the type of pump can be selected. For example, a high-pressure, low-flow application may suggest a reciprocating pump. A low-pressure, high-capacity job may suggest an axial-flow pump. General pump characteristics discussed earlier are summarized in Table 21.1, The numerical values are intended to be only representative; exceptions can be found. There is not always a clear-cut basis for choice among pump types. It is necessary to balance capa- bilities and limitations, including durability and previous experience with a given manufacturer's pumps. Centrifugal pumps, in all their varieties, are so versatile that they are more widely used than other types, but they have limitations. Because flow varies with discharge pressure, they are not used for direct metering or constant flow rates under conditions of variable input or output pres- FLUID MOTIVE Devices 595 sures without a flow controller, Instead, a positive- displacement pump of the rotary or reciprocating type would be used. The seal problems of centri: fugal pumps sometimes dictate use of seal-less pump types. Pump Sizing. The pump size is determined by pressure developed and capacity requirements. Once the type of pump is.chosen, the final selec- tion of the size may be accomplished by referring to manufacturers’ catalogs. Usually, each model of pump is available in a range of sizes for which the performance characteristics overlap somewhat, For example, Figure 21.23 shows the operating ranges of a family of centrifugal pumps. A diagram of this type would be used to choose the pump size appro- priate for the capacity and head required by the job to be done. Then the detailed head-capacity efficiency curves would be examined for that pump size to choose the best impeller diameter. Figure 21.17b gives the detailed curves for one of the pump sizes of Figure 21.23. Where the required head and cepacity fall on the border between two pump sizes, it may be desirable to examine the detailed curves for both before making a final choice. Reference 4 deals with pump sizing in piping systems. Example 21.4. It “is necessary to pump a liquid with properties similar to water at a rate of 300 gal/min against a head of 70 ft, Recommend a pump type and size. : Table21.1 PUMP CHARACTERISTICS Centrifugal Standard Turbine Propeller Rotary Reciprocating (Radial Flow) (Mixed Flow) (Axial Flow) (Gear or Screw) {Piston or Plunger) Head High, single stage — Intermediate, up to Low, up to 60 ft Highest evailable (or discharge up to 600 ft; 200°tt ‘up to 100,000 pressure) multistage — a up to 6000 psi Cepacity Low (190.gal/min) 1p to High, up to 100,000 Low (1 gal/min) Intermediate up {or delivered to very hi 16,000 gal/ ‘gal/min ‘to intermediate to 500 gal/min flow rate) (200,000 gal/ min (500 gal/min) Liquids handled Clean or dirty High solids Abrasive Up to high Clean; no solids ‘contents, viscosity; nonabrasive Metering or flow- No No Yes Yes control capability596 APPLICATIONS TO EQUIPMENT DESIGN a0 160 10) 120) “otal hea, # “3. 8 3 L L siya 700 BO 8001000 1105- $200 1300 1400" 1500 1600 1700 capaci, gain Figure 21.23, Operating fanges of a series of centrifugal pumps, Each labeled atta vaarrcents the head/eapacity region 0 which a specific size pump can operate. The fo i¢ given for each size, where the first number is the " the second is the diameter of-the suction line, and the qhird is the eter of the dee evruen diameter of impeller that will fit in'the pump casing. All diameters are in sae Figure 21-172 gives datailed operating characteristic of one size pump in this cores, This pump’s range overlaps the ranges of several smallersize purmpe in {hs sores, as can by seen by comparing the figures, (Courtesy Goulds Pumps, Inc:) Solution, The type of pump can be suggested by checking the specific speed. No pump speed is given, so 2 reasonable value of 1800 rpm will be used. 1800-300 Ne“ aop7s 8 Examination of Figure-21.19 shows this specific ‘peed to be at the upper. end of the range for the Standard centrifugal. pumps, so the catalog of @ manufacturer of this type of pump is consulted (Figure. 21.332). The actual soged of 1750 for these pumps would’ lower the calculated specific speed somewhat. Examination of the figure shows that size 3x 4 — 10 can do the job. This isa pump with a in, discharge Jine, a.4-In. suction line, and ‘a maximurn impeller size of 10 in, Figure 21.230 is now consulted to choose the proper impeller size: The required head and capacity give a point that falls slightly above the curve for the 9-in. impelle hence, that size could not quite handle the job. ‘The 10-in. impeller is selected, even though it can deliver a head of 90 ft at 300 gal/min. It may be necessary to use a throttling Valve in the line to use Up this extra head. This is, of course, wasteful of energy. ‘COMPRESSING GASES Gases are. frequently involved in chemical pro- ‘cesses; they must be moved through pipelines and process equipment using appropriate fluid motive Gevices, just as process liquids must be pumped. Fans, blowers, and compressors are used to impel ‘gases. Fans produce a small pressure increase (up to 0.4 psi); blowers produce a larger increase (up to 4.0 psi), and compressors produce the largest in- crease (from 4.0 psi up to 60,000 psi in routine applications). The distinction among these three terms is not always clear, nor should the pressures given above be viewed as rigid boundaries among the three types of equipment, Fans are sometimes called blowers, and vice versa. Higher-pressure blowers are frequently called compressors, In this book, the term compressing gases refer to the action of any ges motive device, regardless of the pressure increase involved.The equipment used in compre gases often bears @ sUperficial resemblance to liquid pumps, because the designs are based upon the same physical principles. Hence, there are recipro- cating, rotary, and centrifugal compressors, paral- leling pump types. One type of gas mative device is actually called 4 pump; the vacuum pump com- presses a gas that is, below atmospheric pressure so that it can be discharged to the atmosphere, The compression of gases differs from the pumping of liquids in a number of ways. Gases have lower viscosities and densities than liquids, but gases are much more compressible, According to the perfect-gas law, the density of a gas’is inversely proportional to the pressure’ at constant temperature. Hence, as a gas is compressed, its volume decreases substantially, in contrast to that of a pumped liquid. When a gas is compressed in @ typical compressor, its temperature rises signifi cantly, @s predicted by thermodynamic. laws. Hence, the gas must be cooled to maintain reasonable temperature. Although frictional losses in pumps cause a small increase in liquid tempera: ture, the effect is usually negligible compared to the temperature rise in gases. Fans and Blowers, Fans operate at pressures low enough’ thet the compressibility of the gas méy be neglected. tn other words, inlet and outlet volumes of gases are essentially equal, and fans are simply movers of gas. Fans are classified’as either radial or axial flow. Radial-flow fans depend upon centrifugal force for propelling the gas; whereas axial-flow fans impart energy to the gas as it flows parallel with the central axis of the fan, Figure 21.24. shows an axial-flow fan, and Figure 21.25 illustrates a centri- fugal fan. Exact fan performance can be determined ‘only through testing, but-a number of general ‘statements can be made. For a specific fan and ‘operating conditions, the volume of gas moved varies directly with fan speed; the static pressure varies as the square of the fan speed; the power consumption varies as the cube of the fan speed. Fan operating characteristics. obviously depend upon design. For axial-flow fans, the propeller design is a prime variable, For centrifugal fans, the blading design .has primary influence on perfor- mance, 7 Typical performance characterisi< curves for centrifugal and radial fans are given: in’ Figure 21.26. Fan sizes range from small portable models used for circulating air’ in an. automobile to very FLUIDMOTIVE DEVICES 97 Figure 21.24. Inlet. end of axial-flow fan, showing propeller. (Courtesy. Buffalo Forge Co.) large ventilating and -industrial fans, Ventilating ‘fans are designed for targe volume and low pressure increase (up. to 130,000 ft?/min. at 6 in. of water (0.2 psi). Ventilating tans. may be either axial or centrifugal, with the latter giving ‘the higher pressure increase. Pressures up! to.12 in. of water (0.4 psi) are attainable with centrifugal fans, Blowers provide higher pressures, up to 10 ft of Fgura 21.26. Gecifopal fan, (Courtesy buna Forge Ca!598 APPLICATIONS TO EQUIPMENT DESIGN Sas eee ge ire 21.26. Typical performance characteristics for fans at conétant speed, (a) Centrifugal ventitating fan. (b) Vane axial fan, (Courtesy Butfalo Forge Company.) water (4 psi), and 200,000 ft?/min for various industrial applications, in ‘Compressors. Compression. of gases to high pressures is fre- quently encountered in the chemical process industry. Many chemical reactions require high pressures for favorable yields. For example, nitro- gen and hydrogen have been compressed to 16,000 psi in the syrithesis of ammonia. Recent practice in the ammonia industry tends strongly ‘toward centrifugal compressors, even though the ‘top pressure in their optimum range is lower than for reciprocating machines. The disadvantages of the reciprocating masses are avoided if possible. Higher pressures promote the liquefaction of gases for a variety of purposes. For example, the basic refrigeration process. involves the compression, cooling, and subsequent expansion and heating of the refrigerant. The separation of air into pure ‘oxygen and nitrogen is eccomplished by distillation of liquefied air produced by a refrigeration process involving the compression of air. ‘As with pumps, compressors may be classed as positive displacement or centrifugal. The positivedisplacement category can be further divided into reciprocating or rotary. The centri fugal category involves radial-flow and axial-flow designs, Reciprocating Compressors. The reciprocating compressor can furnish gas at pressures of a few pounds or at extremely high pressures, such as 35,000 psig, The characteristic features of reciprocating compressors are the same as those of reciprocating pumps—a piston, a cylinder with suitable intake and exhaust valves, and @ crankshaft with drive. Single-stage or mul stage operation is common, with double-acting ‘eylinder usage being general. Gas being compressed enters and leaves the cylinder through valves set to be actuated when the pressure difference between cylinder contents and outside conditions is that desired. If multistage compression is used, it is general practice to cool the gas between stages. Multistage compression with cooling between stages saves power, compared to the seme compression accomplished in a single stage. Figure 21.27 shows a double-acting single- stage. piston compressor; Figure 21.28 shows a double-acting two-stage compressor. Discharge characteristics of reciprocating compressors are similar to those for reciprocating pumps. Compressor operation is ideally thought of as being reversible and adiabatic, and efficiencies | are reported relative to this basis. Thermodynamic losses and fluid friction are grouped together as a compression inefficiency. Mechanical friction losses are termed mechanical inefficiency. An over- § all compressor efficiency will be the product of the compression and mechanical efficiencies. The over. all efficiency of most reciprocating compressors is 65-80 percent. Rotary Compressors. Rotary blowers and compressors come in a variety of types. The Jobe blower is shown in Figure 21,29. It can deliver up to 15,000 ft3/min at 12\psi, so itis @ high-volume, intermediate pressure device for gases. The helical screw compressor is available over a wide range of pressures and capaci ties, ranging from low-pressure units of 16 psi andp—Drive whee FLUID MOTIVE DEVICES $99 ‘ic Figure 21.27. A single-stage, doubling: scting piston air compressor. This particular model can be obtained in a number of sizes, up to a 14-in, bore and an 11-in, stroke, which dalivers 521 ft?/min at 100 psi, the maximum pressure attainable, The cylinder is wat belt driven from an el Co) ctr 12,000 f3/min to high-pressure units of 170 psi and 25,000 ft?/min delivered. Helical screw com: pressors in some cases use injected oil as a sealant and coolant. An example of the screws used in this type compressor is pictured in Figure 21.30. The sliding-vane compressor is used for a variety of applications, delivering 3000 ft2/min, at 126 psi in a two-stage model. Centrifugal Compressors Centrifugal compressors are widely used in petro- leur refineries and chemical plants. For example, radial and axial compressors are used to deliver air to the regenerators of catalytic crackers at flow rates of 170,000 ft?/min at a pressure of 40 psi above atmospheric, Nitric acid planes use radial compressors with airflows up to 80,000 ft? /min at pressures of 130 psi. Radial-flow centrifugal compressors bear superficial resemblance to centrifugal pumps, and the physical principles of operation are similar, but there are distinct differences in construction. Com: pressor impellers are narrower and rotate at higher speeds, Multistage compressors usually include some provision for cooling, whereas multistage scketed to remove heat cf compression. The unit would bo ic motor in most applications, (Courtesy Ingersoll-Rand pumps do not. An impeller for a high-pressure com: pressor is shown in Figure 21.31, and a cutaway drawing of a multistage centrifugal compressor is, shown in Figure 21.32. In the compressor of Figure 21.32, gas flows into the eye of the im- policr, where it is accelerated radially, leaving at high velocity at the outer edge, and flowing into a diffuser that converts the velocity energy to pres- sure energy. The gas is then directed into the eye of the next impeller. Figure 21.33 shows a multi stage centrifugal compressor using impellers of an open type in an unusual design. The axial-flow compressor bears little resem: blance to the axial-flow pump, although it is closely related to the gas turbine used in power generation, Most aircraft turbine engines include an axial-flow compressor for the entering air. Each stage of an axial-flow compressor consists of a row of blades attached to the rotating shaft and a row of blades attached to the stator. In addition to the axial-flow stages, a compressor may include centri fugal compressor stages, as illustrated in Figure 21.34, Axial-flow compressors are higher in « ciency than comparable centrifugal comoressc600 APPLICATIONS 70 EQUIPMENT DESIGN Figive 21.26; Doubleactna, two-sage compressor. In its laroest size, tis model ; eee gaiver 650 "8/min et 100 ia, with cylinders ot 14) and Sf in. diameter, A driven by 4 128hp moter. To remove the heat of compression, both oylinders are rater lacketed andl an infercocler is used between stages. (Courtesy Ingersoll-Rand Co.) Figure 21.29. Lobe blower with two-lobe rotors. The or emers at the bottom and s forced out the top by the rotating lobes, Precision design and manufacture enaure clos toleandis and minimize leakage between Figure:21.90. The heact of a helicalscrew com. thw discharge and il | presor. (Courtesy of Ingersoll-Rand Co.)FLUIDMOTIVE DEVICES 601 compressor. They are fully shrouded and are pr 12 (Courtesy Dresser Industries.) a ie Figure 21.32. A multistage centrifugal compressor. (Courtesy Dri602. APPLICATIONS TO EQUIPMENT DESIGN Figure 21.33. Multistage integrated centrifugal compréssor. This unique design cormbines up to’ five-stago compression with interstage cooling in a compact ‘configuration, The smallest unit delivers 1170 f° /min at 126 Ib/in.?, whereas the -o largest unit delivers 12,500 ft?/min at 326 Ib/in?. The smallest unit has @ power rating of 300hp, the largest 4000. The smallest unit weighs 10,360 Ib, the largest 100,000. Figure 21.332 shows the flow pattern for a four-impeller model. The gob flows {iret through the love prossure impeller, then through a cooler, then back through en intermadiate-prossure impeller, then through a cooler, a second intermediate impel- ler, a cooler, and finally through the high-pressure impeller, cooler, and discharge. ‘The two intermediate-stage impellers and coolers are hidden from view: only the first and last stage impellers and coolers are exposed in the cutaway. Figure 21.336 shows the four impellers, driven by a common bull gear. The lovepressure impeller is the largest, because it has the greatest volume of gas to process, while the high-pressure Impeller is the smellest, because it has the least Yolumme’ to process. The mass flow rate is, of course, constant through each impeller. ‘Advantages of simplicity of construction — and hence ruggedness — and compact: _ness make this a very popular compressor type. (Courtesy Ingersoll-Rand Co.)Figure 21.34. Multistage axi PLUIDMOTIVE DEVICES 603 flow compressor, This axialfiow comprestor has nine axial stages and one centrifugal in the low-pressure (right-hend) side and two centrifugal stages in the high-pressure (leftchand) side. This particular machine and they are available in sizes that. deliver higher flow rates (up to 860,000 ft°/min). They are smaller and lighter than centrifugal compressors, but they may cost more for 2 comparable job. Moreover, axial compressors have a more limi operating range and are more subject to corrosion. Typical operating characteristics for centri- fugel and axial compressors are given in Figure 21.38. Other Compressors. Many other types of compressors are available for various applications. A few are mentioned here. ‘A rotary compressor employing a liquid ring is shown in Figure 21.36. It is used primerily in vacuum service, but it ean be used for other low- pressure applications. ‘Another device used primarily in vacuum service is the jet ejector, a variation on the jet pump discussed earlier. The basic principle is illus- trated in Figure 21.21, and a two-stage version is shown in Figure 21.37. In this application, steam is Used to evacuate air. As many 35 six ejector stages may be used to obtain absolute pressures as low as 0.1 mm Hg. develops 100 pia air from atmospheric suction and has one intercooler between low-pressure and high-pressure sections. (Courtesy Dresser Industries, Inc.) ‘Vacuum Service In addition to the two devites desoribed immedi- ately. above, other positivedisplacement com- pressors cari be used to achieve vacuums. A vacuum is any systom pressure below atmospheric pressure (29.92:in, Hg). Pressures of 0.5 in, Hg can. be obtained using the rotary or reciprocating com: pressors already discussed. Of particular use are the sliding-vane compressor and the rotary-piston com- pressor, which are capable of producing pressures of 0,001 mm Hg (with a lubricant having a vapor pressure equal or loss than that value). For applica tions requiring very low absolute pressures, on the order of 1012 mm Hg, a multistage diffusion pump is used. Table 21.2 lists the operating ranges for various vacuurn pumps. Compressor Selection Selection of the proper gas motivating device for a Particular application is. a complex process, re- quiring a thorough knowledge of the advantages and disadvantages of each type of compressor. Key factors include the gas flow rate, inlet and dis charge pressures, gas properties, and compressor power consumption” and eost. The complex604 ges 10} 5 Seay ¥ 109) 7 +t +g 110--—+- E oo] KE 2g} f § hoa tps] r © 70} stable 60g fat § i i ‘al ‘operation al Lt | $ | 50) 5 } if i § x a j ‘a 0 ‘ fa + § i £ 80) s aa 3 I | 20| 5 o 10 “40 50 60.70 8 90 100110 8 0 10 20°30 40 50 60 70 8 90 100110 Sonera ve Seg a orcs Figure 21.35. Operating characteristics for centrifugal and exial comprestors. (a) ‘Centrifugal, single and multistage. (6) Axial @ BSA SECTOR, aU Moves, @ IN THB SECTOR, LAUD Moves SUTRAS" DHAWS GaSierom © inwano—Combresses eas Nera INT ROTOR INTROTOR CHAMBERS: tau EOMPRESSANT: IN THIS SECTOR, CoupresseD chs ESCAPES AT DISCHARGE PORTS KEY REE £2107 ane moving pare ‘RERERE cAsT non B00y ( uoue conpneseanr a Figure 21.36. Liquid ring vacuum pump and compressor. {a} Principle of operation. (6) Disassembled view of rotor and casing, (Courtesy of Nash Engineering Co.)tio MOTIVE Devices 605 feces oe eee ‘ond stage. ht Beet a oe : SS aa | (SS oa l na be conknna rai +N | . A a om wo ee Se a ‘Steam strainer a oe Pe ee ema ne Figure 21.37, Two-stage jet ejector. (Courtesy Croll-Reynolds Co., Inc.) Tible21.2 OPERATING RANGES OF SOME ‘Table 21.2 (continued) COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE VACUUM. s PUMPS (5) ‘Operating Range, i Type of Pump mmHg Type of Pump: > 3 Racgrocatng piston — ‘760-10 aoe pace en eles eet Oil ejector (1-stego) jotary piston oil-seale om Diffusion-ajector ‘stage 700-1077 ‘Mercury diffusion with trap 2stage 730-10-9 ‘stage 10-!-<10-* Cntrfugal multistage (dryl liquid jet 760-200 ues 1—<10-6 scr Sree 780-10-9 zoe 10-<10-8 irator (18°C) Oil diffusion if Two: oe rotary blower (Roots type) ‘Vater 10-15 x 10-8 Turbomolecular Zealite sorption (liquid nitrogen cooled) ‘Vapor et pumps ‘Steam siector o ttage 760-100 2stage 760-10 3stage 760=1 ‘Astage frectionating (untrapped) 5 x 10-"=10-9 4-stageFractlonating (trapped) 8x 10-10-17 Getter-ion (sputter-ion) Sublimation (titanium) Cryopumps (20 K) Cryosorption (15 K)606 APPLICATIONS TO.EQUIPMENT DESIGN thermodynamic relationships of gases make com- pressor selection: more difficult than pump selec- tion. Consultation with compressor manufacturers is usually required. No detailed consideration of compressor selection will be attempted here. An introduction to, the subject is given in Reference 6, and References 7 and 8 give information on com- pressor types. ‘A preliminary selection of compressor type can be made using the concepts of specific speed and specific diameter, as shown in Figure 21.38. ‘The specific speed defined in the figure uses some- what different units for flow rate than did the earlier definition for pumps. Use of the figure requires some knowledge of the speed and dia- meter of the compressor motivating element. For the reciprocating compressors, piston diameter is typically in the range of 3-16 in. and speeds range 300-1000 rpm. Rotary compressors operate at speeds from a few Hundred revolutions per minute for blowers to-12,000 rpm for screw-type compres- sors. The motivating elements vary in diameter from fa few inches (screws) to a few feet (lobe blowers) Centrifugal compressors operate from 3600~12,000 tpm, although some applications as high as ‘30,000 rpm are known. Impellers vary from a few inches to saveral feet. The turbine shown in Figure 21.32 isa high-speed: centrifugal compressor with short blades at the outer extremity of the impeller imparting kinetic energy to the gas. SET A Centrifugal compressors are the most widely used type in the chemical process industry because of the great variety of simple, low-maintenance designs: that provide ong periods of continuous operation. They are. used at low-pressure rises {8 psi) as blowers and at vary high-pressure rises {5000 psi). Reciprocating compressors are exten- sively used at low to intermediate flow rates, and at intermediate to high pressures. Axial com: pressors are limited to use at high flow rates at pressures up to 125 psi. Rotary compressors are ued for vacuum service and for low-flow, low. pressure rise applications. Example 21.5. Suggest a compressor type for moving 100,000 ft?/min of. air originally at 14.7 psia and 70°F, with a discharge pressure of 40 psig Solution. Some assumption must be about the speed. Since centrifugal compressors are widely used, use of 3500 rpm seems appropriate. Air at the stated conditions has 2 density of 29 492 pots, M2. it 360" g30 7 0.075 bit So the'head is 40 x 144 DO7E 7 76800 ft Ibr/Ib my T SJSTAr ode oe é LUT LLOM ‘Drag pump Padial emission pump y T ty il generate |» ml | Tone” | Mi | a “Mine flow te 4 rit T te holy j ee ost HEE 6 : = paar ‘NEN QE et irasoatiet 03} D, = DHA -Ve 4 { ir urns) ‘Radial pump. il guy "N= spead, rpm 4 it 4 oe Hh er ee He const < | Bonet f me | asl Daimon tanee, | ue 1 a H tes 4:11] or os ee Sea @ 1) xO Goo low suo 10000 ste ae. Figure 21:38. Operating ranges of various types of single-stage pumps and comorés s0fs {1}, (Courtesy of ASME, copyright © 1962.)‘The specific speed is then - 3500-V 700,000/60 (76800078 = 3 Ne This value falls in the radial-flow region of Figure 21.38. A reasonable radial compressor diameter might be 2 ft, so the specific diameter would be 1p, = 2176,800)9.28 V100,000760 ‘These values fall out of the ranges of all com- ressors shown. Perhaps the assumed values were inappropriate. Centrifugal compressors can be operated at higher speeds to increase head and capacity. If the speed is 12,000 rpm and the di meter 3 ft, then Al, = 108 and D, = 1.23. This falls well within the region of radial-flow centrifugal compressors, = 0.82 REFERENCES 1. Balje, 0. E., Trans. ASME, J. Engr. Power, 84, p. 103 (1962). 2, Bonnington, S.., and A.L. King, Jet Pumps and Electors, British Hydraulic Research Association, Fluid Engineering, Cranfield, England (1972), 3. Hicks, T.G., and T.W. Edwards, Pump Application Engineering, McGraw-Hill, New York (1871). 4, Kern, R., Chemical Engineering, 82, No. 11, pp. 113-120 (1975), 5. Kirk, R. E,, and D. Othmer, Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, 2nd ed., John’ Wiley & Sons, New York (1963), 6. Neerken, R.F., Chemical Enginsering, 62, No. 2, pp. 78-94 (1978), Perry, R.H., and C.H, Chilton, Chemical Engineers’ Handbook, 5th ed., McGraw-Hill, New York (1973), 8 Rollins, J. P., ed, Compressed Air and Gas Handbook, 4th od., Compressed Air and Gas Institute, New York (1973), r PROBLEMS 21.1. From the data in Figure 21,5, plot the pump. officioney as a function of capacity at 400 rpm. 21.2. A rotary pump with the characteristies shown in Figure 21.5 is to be used to pump and meter 25 gal/min (Of 8 liquid of 2 ¢p viscosity and 0.8 specific gravity through 8 piping system equivalent to 100 ft of 1:in, sch.40 steel pipe. The suction pressure is 25 psig. Velocity head and static energies are negligible. Gan the pump be used? At what speed? What power is required? FLUID MOTIVE DEVICES 607 21.3. Contrast: the. results of closing @ valve just downstream of a positivedisplacememt pump with the cose ‘of a centrifugal pump, assuming pawer to the pump con- ‘inues, 21.4. Check a point on the afficiency curve of Figure 21.15 by calculating the efficiency using head and horse- power curves. 4 21.5. A pimp with the characteristics given in Figure 20.17 and 2 10-in. irmpeller aro available in’ the storage. ‘warehouse. Can. it be used to pumip-400 gal/min: against a head of 900 ft? What will be the speed and power consump: tion? 1s there any disadvantage in using this pump? 21.8, A centrifugal purmp must be selected to deliver '50.m3/hr of water against e head of 20 m. Can any of the urnps of Figure 20.17 be used? What power (watts) must AA centrifugal pump with characteristics shown, in Figure 20.16 is opetating at 1600-pm, delivering 2500 gal/min of water at a head of 61 ft. Over a period of months, scale buildup in the line increases the head to, Ot. What happens: to the delivery rate of water if no ‘other changes are made? Suggest a modification to. restore the original delivery rate. 21.8. A plastic intermediate is to be pumped froma storage tank into a'batch reactor. Pumping time is to, be held to @ minimum, Preliminary plans call for placing the storage tank on the: second floor, the pump being on the ‘round floor. Systum specifications are: Fluid properties: Cy = 0.65 Btulib °F 500-9 p= 4516/3 : 0.36 Btulhe #2 (Fite) Mw. = 3000 Vapor presture at 80°F = 100 mm Hp System geometry: See the accompanying tustration Pump: Any one of « line of centrifugal pumps of from 10 to 1000 gal/min capacity cen be purchased. All of these Pumps specify a minimum NPSH of 10 ft of water, and develop ample head. What pump capacity should be speci fied (use a friction factor of 0.033)? 21,8. Figure 21.17 gives the characteristics of a series Of centrifugal pumps: Caleulate the specific-speed tor the 6, 7, and 8 in. impeller sizes,608 APPLICATIONS 10 EQUIPMENT DESIGN 21.10. The pump of 10in, impeller diameter, for which characteristics are given in Figure 21.176 is used ina piping system taking cooling water from a tiver and deliver- ing it to a standpipe. The required lift is 30 ft, and flow is through 100 ft of 3:n. sch. 40 steel pipe (equivalent length, including fittings) (a) Whattthe maximum flow the pump can deliver? (b) What flow rate is attained when a gate valve in the line-is half-closed, to add to the equivalent length of fittings given above? 21.11. Recommend a pump, and defend this recom: imendation, for {a}. Pumping curting oll to @ machine tool, (b) Delivering water from the Hudion River above ‘Albany to New York City (c}_ Delivering Hz gas et 15,000 psi to an ammonia converter. (d) Pumping. concentrated’ tomato soup to. the ‘canning machines {100 gal/min) (e} Metering eaustic solution into a reaction stream in response to a pH controller. (f) Feeding liquid oxygen to the first stage engine of ani Atlas rocket, (@) Pumping detergent slurry to a spray dryer nozzle (1500 psig, 6 gal/min.) th) Recirculsting water for a laboratory constant- temperature bath. (i). Transferring sugar solution from stage to stage of an. evaporator system. Feed. temp = 120°F; flow = 30 gal/min, ‘Water pumping system. Gi) Recirculating molten salt between a storage tank and a heat exchanger. T= 1000°F. u = 10 con oie; flow = 60 gain. (k) Recirculating molten Nak alloy from » nuclear reactor ‘0.4 steam generator in a nuclear power plant. 21.12. Suggest @ centrifugal pump of the type of Figure 21.23 to supply at 1760 rpm: (2) 20,000 galienin against a 20 ft heed. (b} 3000 gal/min of water against a pressure rise of 500 psi. {c) 100 m3/hw at ahead of 100m, (4) 100 m3/hr at'a head of 10m. 21-13. Water is to be pumped from a river to a large storage tank for plant service. The piping system shown below consists of 180 ft of 3:n. sch.-40 pipe on the suction side of the pump and 700 ft of the seme pipe in the discherge fine. When the level in the storage tank falls below the control point, water is pumped into the tank until the control level is reestablished, A centrifugal pump having the characteristics indicated below is used far this intermittent steady-state pumping assignment, Determine the flow rate through the piping system in gallons per minute and the power required. Centrifugal Purp Characteristies Capacity, Total Head, Efficiency, gallmin ftof water percent 0 280 0 20 260 45 40 220 60 60. 160 80 80 110 56 100 3 50 120 28 43 140 10 a 160 5 30 ate Vert (open) é 7 z= wu | feo t Tank Pine 21.14 A hydraulic cylinder, consisting of a 4:in, diameter piston that travels at arate of 9 fe/min, is actuated, by a rotary-gear pump which supplies hydraulic fluid to the cylinder. The length of the stroke is 20 in., and the load on. ‘the cylinder is 4 tons. The piping system consists of 30 ft of ein, ach.£0 pipe {total equivalent length), and there is a ‘negligible change in elevation from the fluid reservoir to the cylinder. The hydraulic fluid used has a specific gravity of 0.9 and a kinematic viscosity of 100 cantistakes. LOS eR EET‘A manufacturer's catalog ists the following 92 ‘pumps, which are judged satisfactory to meet hydraulic: ‘uid pumping assignments: Minimum Capacity, gal/min” Pump Pipe 150 300 490 800 1000 Sice Sie,in psi psi pall sl, 1 We oo ter nes ee eee 3012-338 3B be 2 ba? BIZ 5 12 - ~ 873 618 585 0 34 = = 007 82-876 ide 318 10.05 10.4 *Courtesy Roper Purp Company. From this information, select the pump that will accomplish the required specifications. 21.18, A tank car is to be emptied of 10,000 gal of banzene at 80°F in 3 hr (seo figure below). The plant piping system is a indicated below. Available to do the pumping is 2 cantrtugal pump having the following characteristics: Cepacity, Total Efficioncy, l/min Head, ft percent | 0 10 0 | 2» 106 292 40 90 40.0 60 83 450 = a 470 100 22 433 120 1275 48.5 140 7 40.0 {a} Isthis pump stisfactory for the job? {b) How long will it take to “empty” the tank car? (ec) How much work is necessary? 25 Rh 40-39 pipe Vet pus 3-90" es and 1 gate vale FLUID MOTIVE DEVICES 609 ‘Note: This problem may be-solved by (1) considering the effect of time dependent heads or (2) the use of an ‘average head over the pumping cycle. 21.16 A centrifugal pump with the characteristics siven below is to be used to sipoly water to a house from a nearby lake, The water surface in the vented storoge tank in ‘the house is 2.m higher than the lake surface. There fs 60m {equivalent length) of 60mm nominal-size steel pipe (medium weight) connecting the lake, pump, and house. What flow rate of water at 20°C can be delivered to the house? What size motor (watts) is needed? Capacity, Etficienoy, me Head, m percent 10 150 38 20 147 52 30 143 60 40 135 64 50 120 eS 60 97 6 7 60 5 21.17. By examination of Figite 21.23, indicate the ‘general trends in pump capacity and head that result from: (e) An increase in maximum impeller size. (b) An increase in suction and discharge line size. 21.18. Given’ the choice between pumps in two adjacent and: overlapping regions of Figure 21.33, explain what criteris could be used to make the choice. 21.18. Select a pump size from Figure 21.23 for each of the following cases, if appropriate, If the pump is in the ‘proper region, use Figure 21.17 to select an impeller size, {) 1000 gal/min, 120-F head. {b) 750 gol/min, 140-Ft heed, (e) 300 gal/min, 804 heed. [d) 250 gal/min, €0-F heed. {e) 100.goi/min, 160-¢ hood: ert * Pie | | submerted oe j aon x fon \ I }— 1083 9 ae | ple 1 gate va | ss" es eee610 APPLICATIONS TO EQUIPMENT DESIGN 21.20. The centrifugal fan of Figure 21.26@ is to be used for ventilating a room. The expected total pressure drop through the ducts is 1.8 in, of water. What ventilation rate is possible and what power would be required? Could a ventilation rate 10 percent higher be obtained with this fan? (Take into account the concomitant increase in head because of greater pressure drop.) 21.21. Compare the specific speeds and specific die meters of the fans of Figure 21.26 with those character istles for the compressors of Figure 21.38. Can any general ‘conclusions be drew about head, capacity, and position on that figure? 21.22. It is necessary to compress 600 ft2/min of air at 70°F and-14,7 psi to a final pressure of 2000 psi. Suggest a compressor type. 21.23 Suggest 2 compressor type, rpm, and impeller size to compress 1000 mi /hr under # 10-m head.