Thin-Walled Structures 48 (2010) 946954

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Thin-Walled Structures
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tws

Comparative analysis of energy absorption and deformations of thin walled

tubes with various section geometries
Ali Alavi Nia a,n, Jamal Haddad Hamedani b
a
b

Mechanical Engineering department, Bu-Ali Sina University, Hamedan, Iran

Mechanical Engineering department, Bu-Ali Sina University, Hamedan, Iran

a r t i c l e in f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history:
Received 23 November 2009
Received in revised form
21 July 2010
Accepted 22 July 2010
Available online 4 August 2010

In this paper, deformations and energy absorption capacity of thin walled tubes with various section
shapes (circular, square, rectangular, hexagonal, triangular, pyramidal and conical) are investigated
both experimentally and numerically. The tubes have the same volume, height, average section area,
thickness and material and are subjected under axial quasi static loading. The results of simulations are
in good agreement with the experimental data and show that the section geometry has considerable
effect on the energy absorption. The circular tube has the most energy absorption capacity and the most
average force among all investigated sections. Since the maximum force is concerned in impact events,
pyramidal and conical tubes are recommended, due to their uniform loaddisplacement curves and
therefore, less difference between the maximum and the average forces.
& 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords:
Crushing
Thin-walled tube
Energy absorption
Folding

1. Introduction
Nowadays, vehicles are used extensively and a large number of
horrible accidents related to them occur widely. Increasing the
safety for passengers is a valuable aim and a lot of investigations
are carried out in this region. Using energy absorbers is an
appropriate option for this purpose. These parts have different
shapes and are made from low density materials. In designing
these parts, investigation of their collapse behavior and energy
absorption capacity is necessary and a wide variety of studies is
done about these structures, especially about thin walled tubes.
Alexander [1] accomplished the rst studies on the collapse of
cylindrical tubes under axial loads to access relations for designing
nuclear fuel tanks. Inversion of tubes and inversion specications
were studied by Al-Hassani et al. [2]. Mamalis et al. [3] presented a
new theoretical model for collapse of steel conical tubes based on
experimental observations. Abramowicz and Wierzbicki [4] studied
crushing of thin walled structures with polygon sections considering
xed plastic hinges. Abramowicz and Jones [5] calculated the
average crushing load of square tubes under axial static loads.
Mamalis et al. [6] studied experimentally the effect of circular
grooves around outer surface of cylindrical tubes on the buckling
load, and showed that these grooves can control the maximum load
of collapse. Chirwa [7] investigated the inversion of thin walled
tubes with varying thickness, both analytically and experimentally,
and showed that energy absorption capacity of these tubes is about
50% higher than those of tubes with constant thickness. Aljawi and

Corresponding author. Tel.: +98 811 8245704; fax: + 98 811 8257400.

E-mail address: alavi1338@yahoo.com (A. Alavi Nia).

0263-8231/$ - see front matter & 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.tws.2010.07.003

Alghamdi [8] studied the inversion collapse of frusta using Abaqus

software. They divided inversion of frusta into three types: external
attening, internal attening and folding mode. Alghamdi [9] made
an overview about collapsible energy absorbers. Alavi Nia and
Liaghat [10] investigated different deformation mechanisms of
honeycomb panels and their crushing under axial quasi static loads.
They [11] studied also crushing of short thin walled columns with
square sections under the impact of cylindrical projectiles and
calculated the minimum velocity of impact needed for complete
folding of such columns. Aljawi et al. [12] investigated energy
absorption of steel square tubes both experimentally and numerically and observed that the maximum collapse load reduces about
10% when these tubes are lled with foam. Tarigopula [13] studied
quasi static and dynamic loading of simple and top-hat tubes
experimentally and concluded that energy absorption of top-hat
tubes is bigger. Sedghi and Alavi Nia [14] investigated the effect of
outer grooves with different sections on the crushing and energy
absorption of cylindrical tubes, and showed that the crushing
distance and folding efciency of these tubes are almost the same
and the maximum load in their loaddisplacement curve is reduced
due to grooves.
In this paper, deformation modes and energy absorption capacity
of thin walled tubes with various section geometries are investigated and compared both experimentally and numerically.

2. Test specimens
Since the tubes with desirable sections were not available, we
made them in workshop from sheets by welding. Due to Argon

A. Alavi Nia, J. Haddad Hamedani / Thin-Walled Structures 48 (2010) 946954

947

welding, this process can affect on the results, but we did our best
to reduce these unwanted effects as possible.

Table 1
Mechanical properties of samples based on tension test results.
Thickness of
specimen (mm)

Ultimate
strength (MPa)

Elongation at
break (mm)

Stress at
0.2% yield

1.5
1.5
1.5
1
1
1

131.9
134.0
147.8
140.0
135.0
138.0

6.5
7.3
6.8
6.5
6.4
6.6

129.5
127.2
131.0
132.0
129.0
130.5

2.1. Material selection

Energy absorbers are made mainly from aluminum alloys, due
to their light weights. In this research, we used 1 and 1.5 mm
thicknesses Al 3003 H12 plates.
2.2. Tension test
Mechanical properties of plates are determined based on ASTM
E 8M-98 standard using an Instron 8305 apparatus. Results of
these tests are listed in Table 1 and stressstrain curve of one of
the samples is shown in Fig. 1. Average values of yield and
ultimate stresses are 130 and 137.8 MPa, respectively.
2.3. Material composition
The composition of plates materials are determined and listed
in Table 2.
2.4. Samples specications
The samples are made from the same materials with 1 and
1.5 mm thicknesses and have the same length, average section
area and volume. Specications of all samples are listed in Table 3.
Some samples are tested in both values of thicknesses.
2.5. Coding of the specimens

Fig. 1. Stressstrain curve of one of the samples.

In order to indentify the samples, they are coded. Each code

includes two parts. The rst part constitutes two letters which

Table 2
Material composition of samples.

Table 4
Abbreviations for samples and their number.

Composition Percentage (1.5 mm thickness Percentage (1 mm thickness

plate)
plate)
Al
Si
Zn
Mn
Sn
Fe
Cu
Sum

97.82
0.41
0.05
1.03
0.00015
0.52
0.17
100

97.81
0.38
0.05
1.06
0.00017
0.55
0.15
100

Specimen shape

Cylindrical
Hexagonal prism
Square prism
Rectangular prism
Triangular prism
Frusta
Pyramidal

Code

Cr
He
Sq
Re
Tr
Fr
Pr

Number of tested specimens

1.5 mm thickness

1 mm Thickness

5
4
5
5
5
5
5

3
3
3
3

Table 3
Specications of the samples (dimensions in millimeters).
Specimen shape

Dimensions )mm)

Cylindrical

Length
100
Length
100
Length
100
Length
100
Length
100
Length
100
Length
100

Hexagonal prism
Square prism
Rectangular prism
Triangular prism
Frusta
Pyramidal

Diameter
60
Rib
31.4
Rib
47.1
Cross section
31.4  62.8
Rib
62.8
Minimum diameter
43.32
Minimum cross section
40  41.37

Maximum diameter
76.67
Maximum cross section
40  66.91

Thickness
1 and 1.5
Thickness
1 and 1.5
Thickness
1 and 1.5
Thickness
1 and 1.5
Thickness
1 and 1.5
Thickness
1 and 1.5
Thickness
1 and 1.5

948

A. Alavi Nia, J. Haddad Hamedani / Thin-Walled Structures 48 (2010) 946954

refer to the section geometric shape and one number,

which shows its thickness. The second part which is separated
from the rst part by a hyphen refers to the number of the sample
between the samples with the same section geometry. For
example, Tr 1.5-1 refers to the rst sample of thin walled tubes
with triangle section and a thickness of 1.5 mm. The abbreviations
used for different samples and the number of tested samples are
listed in Table 4.

3. Experiment
Axial quasi static loading of samples is carried out using
Instron 8503 apparatus (Fig. 2). This apparatus has two jaws: the
upper one is stationary and the lower one is moveable. The
sample is set between two jaws vertically and is compressed
axially. Since the upper and the lower jaws of the apparatus are
stationary and moveable, respectively, the upper and the lower
ends of the specimen are named xed end and moving end,
respectively. The rate of loading is 100 mm/s and the stroke is
considered equal to 90 mm. This stroke is given so that all of the
samples can absorb the maximum energy. During the test, the
loaddisplacement curve is drawn for the sample.
In Table 5 values of the maximum and the average forces in
tests are listed, the samples crushing length at the end of loading,

Fig. 2. Instron 8305 apparatus.

Table 5
Results of experiments for all of the specimens.
Specimen code

Absorbed energy (Nm) Mean force (kN) Maximum force (kN) Crushing length D (mm) Collapse mode

Cr1.5-1
Cr1.5-2
Cr1.5-3
Cr1.5-4
Cr1.5-5
Cr1-1
Cr1-2
Cr1-3
Sq1.5-1
Sq1.5-2
Sq1.5-3
Sq1.5-4
Sq1.5-5
Sq1-1
Sq1-2
Sq1-3
Fr1.5-1
Fr1.5-2
Fr1.5-3
Fr1.5-4
Fr1.5-5
Fr1-1
Fr1-2
Fr1-3
Tr1.5-1
Tr1.5-2
Tr1.5-3
Tr1.5-4
Tr1.5-5
Re1.5-1
Re1.5-2
Re1.5-3
Re1.5-4
Re1.5-5
He1.5-1
He1.5-2
He1.5-3
He1.5-4
Pr1.5-1
Pr1.5-2
Pr1.5-3
Pr1.5-4
Pr1.5-5
Pr1-1
Pr1-2
Pr1-3

1170.0
1190.0
1220.0
1150.0
1110.0
629.0
622.0
640.0
830.0
820.0
823.0
840.0
825.0
511.0
482.0
491.0
1075.0
1087.0
1081.0
1112.0
1098.0
561.0
556.0
560.0
658.0
610.0
677.0
663.0
647.0
710.0
692.0
688.0
730.0
690.0
961.0
947.0
939.0
956.0
728.0
752.0
776.0
763.0
780.0
461.0
422.0
427.0

14.63
15.25
15.38
14.37
14.05
8.00
7.90
8.10
10.50
10.60
10.40
10.56
10.27
6.46
6.02
6.33
13.27
13.20
13.34
13.64
13.47
6.68
6.66
6.55
7.74
7.30
8.01
8.08
7.73
9.08
8.76
8.76
9.01
8.57
12.64
12.62
12.49
12.50
8.18
8.10
8.20
8.30
8.22
5.55
5.17
5.11

34.50
36.00
34.78
35.55
35.10
25.62
25.28
25.35
34.40
33.90
34.10
34.00
33.80
23.50
23.20
23.40
25.59
25.61
25.26
25.91
25.32
15.99
15.89
15.91
32.40
30.15
30.98
31.70
31.50
32.57
32.72
32.80
33.00
32.80
37.00
36.80
36.30
37.40
26.40
26.90
26.60
27.10
26.70
12.99
12.16
12.20

80.0
78.0
79.3
80.0
79.0
78.6
77.6
79.0
79.0
77.3
79.0
79.5
80.3
79.0
80.0
77.5
81.0
82.3
81.0
81.5
81.5
84.0
83.5
85.5
85.0
83.5
84.5
82.0
83.7
78.2
79.0
78.5
81.0
80.5
76.0
75.0
75.2
76.5
82.3
81.5
83.3
78.8
84.0
83.1
81.6
83.5

Concertina
Concertina
Concertina
Concertina
Concertina
Diamond
Diamond
Diamond
Concertina
Concertina
Concertina
Concertina
Concertina
Diamond
Diamond
Diamond
Diamond
Diamond
Diamond
Diamond
Diamond
Diamond
Diamond
Diamond
Diamond
Diamond
Diamond
Diamond
Diamond
Concertina
Concertina
Concertina
Concertina
Concertina
Concertina
Concertina
Concertina
Concertina
Concertina
Concertina
Concertina
Concertina
Concertina
Concertina
Concertina
Diamond

and
and
and
and
and

Collapse starting point

diamond
diamond
diamond
diamond
diamond

and diamond

and diamond

and diamond
and diamond
and diamond

and diamond
and diamond

and diamond
and diamond
and diamond

Fixed end
Fixed end
Fixed end
Fixed end
Fixed end
Fixed end
Fixed end
Fixed end
Fixed End
Fixed end
Moving end
Fixed end
Fixed end
Fixed end
Fixed end
Moving end
Fixed end
Fixed end
Fixed end
Fixed end
Fixed end
Fixed end
Fixed end
Fixed end
Mid of specimen
Mid of specimen
Mid of specimen
Mid of specimen
Mid of specimen
Fixed end
Moving end
Fixed end
Fixed end
Fixed end
Fixed end
Fixed end
Fixed end
Moving end
Fixed end
Fixed end
Fixed end
Fixed end
Fixed end
Fixed end
Fixed end
Fixed end

A. Alavi Nia, J. Haddad Hamedani / Thin-Walled Structures 48 (2010) 946954

949

Fig. 3. Some specimens before (left), during (middle) and after loading (right).

the collapse modes and starting location of folding in each test are
registered and these parameters with the amount of energy absorbed
during the test and calculated from the loaddisplacement curve of
the specimen are listed in Table 5.
Fig. 3 shows some of the specimens before, during and after
loading.

displacement of the end of the sample, wmax, absorbed energy, E,

the maximum force, Fmax and the average force, Fmean. Average
amount of these parameters for each section shape with the same
thicknesses are shown in Tables 6 and 7.

4. Numerical simulation
3.1. Calculation of the average values of the important parameters
from test results
The main parameters which are concerned in energy absorption process of thin walled structures include the maximum

Numerical simulations for axial compression of thin walled

samples are carried out, using LSDYNA 970 software. Three
dimensional models are constructed, due to assurance about
accuracy of results. The model geometry includes thin-walled
tube between two rigid parts at its ends. BelytschoTsay shell

950

A. Alavi Nia, J. Haddad Hamedani / Thin-Walled Structures 48 (2010) 946954

Table 6
Average values of the important results for 1.5 mm thickness specimens.
Specimen shape

Absorbed energy (Nm) Mean force (kN) Maximum force (kN) Crushing length D (mm) Collapse mode

Cylindrical
1168.0
Hexagonal prism 1090.6
Square prism
950.8
Rectangular prism 827.6
Triangular prism
651.0
Frusta
702.0
Pyramidal
759.8

14.74
13.38
12.56
10.46
7.77
8.84
8.20

35.19
25.54
36.88
34.04
31.35
32.78
26.74

79.3
81.5
75.7
79.0
83.7
79.4
82.0

Collapse starting point

Concertina and diamond Fixed

Diamond
Fixed
Concertina
Fixed
Concertina
Fixed
Diamond
Fixed
Concertina and diamond Fixed
Concertina
Fixed

end
end
end
end
end
end
end

Table 7
Average values of the important results for 1 mm thickness specimens.
Specimen shape Absorbed energy (Nm) Mean force (kN) Maximum force (kN) Crushing length D (mm) Collapse Mode

Collapse starting Point

Cylindrical
Frusta
Square prism
Pyramidal

Fixed
Fixed
Fixed
Fixed

630.3
559.0
496.6
436.7

8.00
6.63
6.27
5.28

25.42
15.93
23.36
12.45

78.4
84.3
78.8
82.7

Diamond
Diamond
Diamond
Concertina and diamond

end
end
end
end

Tables 10 and 11. These discrepancies may be due to welding

process effect on the test samples. The differences between the
starting locations of folds may be due to an inaccuracy on
approximating the friction coefcient in simulations. Since there
is no deterministic criterion for prediction of the starting place of
folds [1], the results of experiments are more valid.
5.1. Deformation mode

Fig. 4. Rectangular section tube before (left) and during loading (right).

elements with 1 and 1.5 mm thicknesses are used for tubes. The
boundary conditions are the same as the experimental tests;
therefore, the upper rigid part is constrained completely, whereas
the lower rigid part can move upward vertically with a speed
equal to 100 mm/s. The material models for the tube and the rigid
parts are Mat_picewise_ linear_placticity and Rigid, respectively.
In order to supply appropriate conditions for deformations,
contact automatic surface to surface title and contact automatic single surface title are used for tube-rigid part elements
and tube elements with each other, respectively. The nite
element model of the specimen with rectangular section before
and during loading is shown in Fig. 4.
The results of simulations including important parameters
related to energy absorption capacity of samples are listed in
Tables 8 and 9.

Deformed sections of tested and simulated samples are

compared in Fig. 5. It is clear from this gure that in some cases
there are differences between these results, which could be
related to non-uniformities caused by welding.
The triangular cross-section does not fold progressively, due to
an inherent incompatibility of folding modes of neighboring
corner elements. The desired inoutinout folding, which
guarantees diamond-like pattern in square, hexagonal or circular
sections, cannot be developed as there is always an inin or out
out element in a triangular folding lobe.
5.2. Absorbed energy
Energy absorption capacity of tested sections is compared in
Figs. 6 and 7. It is clear from these gures that the circular and
triangular sections absorbed the most and the least amount of
energy between the tested sections, respectively. The conical,
pyramidal, rectangular and triangular tubes are set after
cylindrical tube. In axial quasi-static tests, the larger the
number of section edges, the greater the energy absorption
capacity. This is due to an increase of the number of folds and
plastic hinges in sections with larger number of edges.

5. Results and discussion

5.3. Maximum collapse load
The results of simulations are compared with the experimental
data in Tables 10 and 11. As it is shown from these tables,
maximum difference between results is about 8.3%. Therefore,
simulations can predict the behavior of tubes reasonably.
Furthermore, the sequence of samples with various sections
from viewpoint of energy absorption, the maximum force and the
average force is the same in experiments and simulations.
However, there are some mismatches about loaddisplacement
curves and at the starting location of folds, as it is seen in

The maximum force is a critical parameter during impact of bodies

and is the rst peak in the loaddisplacement curve. Investigation of
this parameter shows that pyramidal and conical tubes undergo a
large amount of reduction in maximum force, whereas for the tubes
with constant sections, this parameter is almost the same. However,
this advantage can be easily counterbalanced in prismatic specimens
by an introduction of triggering dents or other folding initiators, yet
large stability of progressive folding of tapered tubes distinguishes

A. Alavi Nia, J. Haddad Hamedani / Thin-Walled Structures 48 (2010) 946954

951

Table 8
Results of simulations for 1.5 mm thickness specimens.
Specimen shape

Absorbed energy (Nm) Mean force (kN) Maximum force (kN) Crushing length D (mm) Collapse mode

Cylindrical
1080.0
Hexagonal prism 1030.0
Square prism
988.0
Rectangular prism 894.0
Triangular prism
662.0
Frusta
684.0
Pyramidal
730.0

13.67
13.20
12.05
11.10
8.34
8.40
8.79

35.80
24.80
36.60
35.30
32.50
34.00
27.60

79.0
78.0
82.0
80.6
79.0
81.4
83.0

Collapse starting point

Concertina and diamond Fixed end

Diamond
Fixed end
Concertina
Moving end
Concertina
Moving end
Diamond
Mid of specimen
Concertina
Moving end
Concertina
Fixed end

Table 9
Results of simulations for 1 mm thickness specimens.
Specimen shape

Absorbed energy (Nm) Mean force (kN) Maximum force (kN) Crushing length D (mm) Collapse mode

Collapse starting point

Cylindrical
Hexagonal prism
Square prism
Rectangular prism
Triangular prism
Frusta
Pyramidal

585.0
533.0
529.0
512.0
383.0
419.0
465.0

Fixed end
Fixed end
Moving end
Moving end
Mid of specimen
Fixed end
Fixed end

7.40
6.58
6.59
6.32
4.73
5.34
5.60

23.30
15.90
24.10
23.60
15.50
18.40
14.99

79.0
81.0
80.3
81.6
81.0
78.5
83.0

Concertina and diamond

Diamond
Concertina
Concertina
Diamond
Concertina
Concertina and diamond

Table 10
Comparison between the results of simulations and experiments for 1.5 mm thickness samples.
Specimen shape

Difference %
Absorbed energy (Nm)

Cylindrical
Hexagonal prism
Square prism
Rectangular prism
Triangular prism
Frusta
Pyramidal

7.5
5.5
3.9
8.0
1.7
2.5
3.9

Mean force (kN)

7.00
1.10
4.00
6.00
7.30
4.90
7.20

Maximum force (kN)

1.70
2.80
0.75
3.70
3.70
3.73
3.20

Collapse mode

Collapse starting point

Similar
Similar
Similar
Similar
Similar
Almost similar
Similar

Similar
Similar
Different
Different
Similar
Different
Similar

Collapse mode

Collapse starting point

Almost similar
Similar
Almost similar
Almost similar

Similar
Similar
Similar
Similar

Crushing length D (mm)

0.3
4.0
8.3
5.6
5.6
2.5
1.2

Table 11
Comparison between the results of simulations and experiments for 1 mm thickness samples.
Specimen shape

Difference %
Absorbed energy (Nm)

Cylindrical
Frusta
Square prism
Pyramidal

7.2
4.6
3.1
4.0

Mean force (kN)

7.50
0.60
0.78
6.20

Maximum force (kN)

8.30
0.10
1.00
1.40

them from prismatic tubes. Reductions of the maximum force in

pyramidal and conical tubes are due to small area of tube at the
impact location, which in turn decreases the required force for
yielding and formation of plastic hinge.

5.4. Difference between the maximum and the average force

Reducing difference between the maximum and the average
force is of concern in energy absorber systems, and there are some
methods for attaining this purpose (for example: foam lling,
making internal or external grooves and continuous variation of
the net area of the section). Comparison of the results of the
experiments and the numerical simulations show that difference
between the maximum and the average force in conical

Crushing length D (mm)

0.7
6.3
3.5
0.3

and pyramidal tubes is smaller. This is clearer in conical tubes,

which have uniform loaddisplacement curves. This characteristic
is related to the small net area under load at the impact end,
which in turn is due to continuous growth of section in such
tubes.
In Figs. 811, the maximum and the average forces for
different sections are compared.

6. Conclusions
Based on experiments and simulations of this research, the
important results related to thin walled tubes, which are used as

952

A. Alavi Nia, J. Haddad Hamedani / Thin-Walled Structures 48 (2010) 946954

Fig. 5. Comparison between deformation modes of samples in experiments (left) and simulations (right).

energy absorbers are as follows:

 Absorbed energy per unit mass is maximum for cylindrical tubes.

 For samples with uniform polygon sections, the lower the


number of edges, the lower the energy absorption capacity, so

that this property has the least value for the triangular section.
Gradual increase in section area of samples affects their energy
absorption capacity, the maximum and the average force;
reducing the section area at the impact end reduces the
maximum load considerably.

 The maximum force for circular and hexagonal sections is





greater than the other one and is minimum for conical

samples.
Difference between the maximum and the average force in
conical and pyramidal samples is considerable and it has the
least value for the conical samples.
Changing the thickness of tubes from 1 to 1.5 mm does not
affect the sequence of their energy absorbance, the maximum
and the average load.
There is good agreement between test data and simulation results.

A. Alavi Nia, J. Haddad Hamedani / Thin-Walled Structures 48 (2010) 946954

40

Experimental
Numerical

1000

30

800
600
400
200
0

Mean force
Max force

35

Force (kN)

Absorbed energy (N.m)

1200

953

25
20
15
10

Cr

Fr

He

Sq

Tr

Re

Pr

Specimen shape

Fr

Cr

Fig. 6. Comparison of energy absorption capacity of different sections in

experiments and numerical simulations (1.5 mm thickness).

He

Sq

Tr

Re

Pr

Specimen shape
Fig. 9. Comparison of the maximum and the average force of various sections with
1.5 mm thickness (simulations).

Experimental

Max force

25

500
400
300

20
15
10

200

100
0

Mean force

30

Numerical

600

Force (kN)

Absorbed energy (N.m)

700

Cr

Fr

He

Sq

Tr

Re

Cr

Pr

Fr

40

Fig. 10. Comparison of the maximum and the average force of various sections
with 1 mm thickness (experiments).

25

Mean force
Max force

35

Mean force
Max force

20
Force (kN)

30
Force (kN)

Pr

Specimen shape

Specimen shape
Fig. 7. Comparison of energy absorption capacity of different sections in
experiments and numerical simulations (1 mm thickness).

Sq

25
20
15
10

15
10
5

5
0

Cr

Fr

He

Sq

Tr

Re

Pr

Specimen shape
Fig. 8. Comparison of the maximum and the average force of various sections with
1.5 mm thickness (experiments).

0
Cr

Fr

He

Sq

Tr

Re

Pr

Specimen shape
Fig. 11. Comparison of the maximum and the average force of various sections
with 1 mm thickness (simulations).

954

A. Alavi Nia, J. Haddad Hamedani / Thin-Walled Structures 48 (2010) 946954

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