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MCAT
Writing Sample:
30 minutes, 2 essays.
MCAT
MCAT
MCAT
MCAT
A
ZX
What is an isotope?
Two atoms of the same element that differ in
their number of neutrons:
74Be and 94Be.
42.6
41.7
40.6
39.7
9
33Cl
34Cl
33S2
34S2
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Quantum Numbers:
Electron Zip Code
What is the purpose of quantum numbers?
Quantum numbers designate a unique zip
code for each electron in an energy level.
No two can have same zip code.
How many quantum numbers in a zip code?
One zip code four quantum numbers.
shell, subshell, orbital, spin.
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14
If l = 0, then ml = 0
If l = 1, then ml = 1, 0, 1
If l = 2, then ml = 2, 1, 0, 1, 2
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16
2p
3s
3p
3d
4s
4p
4d
4f
5s
5p
5d
5f
6s
6p
6d
7s
7p
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Electron Configurations:
Anomalies
Sometimes the anticipated electron
configuration is not the actual one: stability
through filled or half-filled subshells.
What are some exceptions?
The exceptions: Cr, Cu, Mo, Ag, Au.
What is Cr expected?
[Ar]4s23d4
But what is it really?
Cr actual: [Ar]4s13d5
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Electron Configurations:
Examples
Which of the following gives the electron
configuration of an aluminum atom?
1s22s22p1
1s22s22p2
1s22s22p63s23p1
1s22s22p63s23p2
23
Electron Configurations:
Examples
What is the electron configuration of an atom
of copper?
Remember, Cu is an exception!
Expected: [Ar]3d94s2
Actual: [Ar]3d104s1
Moral: beware of stability in transition metals!
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Excited state?
At least 1e in higher energy level.
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Electromagnetic Spectrum
From lowest to highest energy level?
Radiowaves microwaves infrared
visible light ultraviolet X-rays gamma
rays.
Visible light, from lowest to highest frequency?
Red orange yellow green
blue indigo violet
ROYGBIV
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Alpha Decay:
An alpha particle, denoted by , consists of 2
protons and 2 neutrons, equivalent to a He
nucleus, which is ejected.
Alpha decay reduces the parents atomic
number by 2 and mass number by 4.
210 Po 206
4 He
+
84
2
82Pb
Z = 2, A = 4
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Beta Decay:
When unstable nucleus contains too many
neutrons, it may convert a neutron into a
proton and an electron ( particle) which is
ejected: 10n 11p + 01e
Atomic number of daughter nucleus is 1
greater than parent, but mass number same.
14 C 14 N + 0 e
6
1
7
Z = +1, A = 0
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Positron Decay: +
When unstable nucleus contains too few
neutrons, it may convert a proton into a neutron
and positron (+ particle) which is ejected: 11p
10n + 0+1e+
Positron is electrons antiparticle identical to
electron, but charge is positive.
Atomic number of daughter nucleus is 1 less
than parent, but mass number same.
18 F 18 O + 0 e+
8
9
+1
Z = 1, A = 0
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Electron Capture
Conversion of a proton into a neutron by an
unstable nucleus by capturing an electron (e)
from the closest shell: 11p + 01e 10n
Atomic number of daughter nucleus is 1 less
than parent, but mass number same just like
positron emission.
51 Cr + 0 e 51 V
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1
23
Z = 1, A = 0
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Gamma Decay:
Nucleus in excited state (often after alpha or
beta decay) emits energy in form of photons of
electromagnetic radiation.
Gamma photons ( rays) have neither mass nor
charge, and their ejection changes neither
atomic mass or number.
31 Si 31 P + 31 P +
15
14
15
Z = 0, A = 0
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Memory device:
+ decay starts with proton and makes it a neutron.
decay starts with neutron and makes it a proton.
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Amount of Sample
Remaining
100 %
1 half-life t1/2
1/2 = 50 %
2 half-lives 2t1/2
(1/2)2 = 1/4 = 25 %
3 half-lives 3t1/2
4 half-lives 4t1/2
The Mole
Mole: amount of substance contains same #
of elementary entities as carbon-12 atoms in
exactly 12 g carbon-12.
Avogadros constant, NA = 6.022 1023 mol1.
Molar mass: mass (g) of 1 mole of substance.
mass (g)
# moles =
molar mass (gmol1)
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Chemical Compounds
Chemical compound pure substance,
can be broken into 2/more elements.
Molecule smallest unit of a compound,
still retains properties (formula unit for
ionic compounds).
Atom smallest unit of an element.
Any compound always contains same %
composition by mass, e.g. iron (III) oxide:
Fe = 69.9 % O = 30.1 %
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Empirical Formula
Find lowest multiple(s) of whole atoms
2-step process:
c assume 100 g compound:
1 mol
= 1.25 mol
Fe = 69.9 g
55.9 g
1 mol
= 1.88 mol
O = 30.1 g
16.0 g
d convert numbers to lowest whole multiple(s):
1.88 mol O
3 mol O
1.5 mol O
Fe2O3
=
=
1.25 mol Fe 1.0 mol Fe 2 mol Fe
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Molecular Formula
For many (usually organic) compounds,
actual molecular formula usually not
empirical (simplest ratio), e.g. glucose:
Empirical: CH2O molecular: C6H12O6
molecular mass
= integer n CnxHnyOnz
empirical mass
For glucose n = 6.
43
Chemical Reactions
Stoichiometric factors:
4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) 2Fe2O3(s)
How many moles O2 required to react
completely with 5 mol Fe?
3 mol O2
= 3.75 mol O2
5 mol Fe
4 mol Fe
How many moles Fe2O3 are produced
when 5 mol Fe react completely?
2 mol Fe2O3
= 2.50 mol Fe2O3
5 mol Fe
4 mol Fe
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Limiting Reagent
279 g Fe & 128 g O2 are allowed to react.
Which is the limiting reagent?
2 mol Fe2O3 160 g Fe2O3
1 mol Fe
279 g Fe
55.9 g Fe
4 mol Fe
1 mol Fe2O3
= 400. g Fe2O3 Fe is limiting.
1 mol O2 2 mol Fe2O3 160 g Fe2O3
128 g O2
32.0 g O2
3 mol O2
1 mol Fe2O3
= 427 g Fe2O3 O2 is in excess.
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Yield
Theoretical yield maximum yield
allowed by limiting reagent (in grams).
Percentage yield:
actual yield
100 % = percentage yield
theoretical yield
Measure of how successfully reaction
proceeds in forward direction.
47
Yield
When 279 g Fe & 128 g O2 are allowed to
react, only 300. g of Fe2O3 are recovered.
What is the percentage yield?
300. g
100 % = 75.0 %
400. g
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Precipitation reactions.
Neutralization reactions.
Gas-forming reactions.
Redox reaction
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Precipitation Reactions
Formation of insoluble product:
Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2KI(aq) PbI2(s) + 2KNO3(aq)
Pb2+(aq) + 2NO3(aq) + 2K+(aq) + 2I(aq)
PbI2(s) + 2K+(aq) + 2NO3(aq)
Spectator ions
Net ionic reaction: Pb2+(aq) 2I(aq) PbI2(s)
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Neutralization Reactions
Strong acid + strong base salt + water
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
H+(aq) + Cl(aq) + Na+(aq) + OH(aq)
Na+(aq) + Cl(aq) + H2O(l)
Spectator ions
Net ionic reaction: H+(aq) + OH(aq) H2O(l)
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Gas-forming Reactions
Reaction where one of the products is a gas:
Na2CO3(aq) + 2HCl(aq)
CO2(g) + H2O(l) + 2NaCl(aq)
2Na+(aq) + CO32(aq) + 2H+(aq) + 2Cl(aq)
CO2(g) + H2O(l) + 2Na+(aq) + 2Cl(aq)
Spectator ions
Net ionic reaction: CO32 (aq) + 2H+ (aq)
CO2(g) + H2O(l)
52
Redox Reactions
Reactions involving transfer of electrons
and changes in oxidation state.
Fe2+(aq) Fe3+(aq) + e reductant
MnO4(aq) + 5e Mn2+(aq) oxidant
MnO4(aq) + 5e Mn2+(aq) + 4H2O(l)
MnO4(aq) + 8H+(aq) + 5e Mn2+(aq) + 4H2O(l)
5Fe2+(aq) 5Fe3+(aq) + 5e
5Fe2+(aq) + MnO4(aq) + 8H+(aq)
Net ionic reaction 5Fe3+(aq) + Mn2+(aq) + 4H2O(l)
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Name
Alkali Metals
Alkaline Earth Metals
Halogens
Noble Gases
Valence Config
ns1
ns2
ns2np5
ns2np6
The s block
The d block
The p block
The f block
Representative Elements
Transition Metals
Representative Elements
Rare Earth Metals
ns12
(n1)dxnsy
ns2np16
(n2)fx(n1)dynsz
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e.g. Mg
60
Periodic Trends:
Atomic and Ionic Radius
What properties of an atom determine radius?
Radius is a function of total pull of protons on
valence electrons: what does the trend look like?
More protons to the right within a period means
stronger pull smaller radius:
Number of shells doesnt change in a period.
Periodic Trends:
Ionization Energy
What is an ionization energy?
Amount of energy necessary to remove the
least-tightly bound electron: IEn (n = 1,2,3..)
What is IE related to?
Smaller radii means least-tightly bound
electron is closer to nucleus, held tighter, and
requires more energy to ionize.
Filled valence shells have high IE: reluctant to
relinquish stability IE2 vs. IE1
62
Periodic Trends:
Electron Affinity
Anyone want to define it?
The energy associated with the addition of an
electron negative and positive values.
How is electron affinity related to octet stability?
Becomes more negative the closer the atom is to
an octet configuration: what does this mean?
Positive values: energy required for atoms to
accept an electron anions of these are unstable.
63
Periodic Trends:
Electronegativity
Definition or description?
An atoms ability to pull electrons to itself when
forming a covalent bond.
Greater attraction means higher electronegativity.
Notice a pattern?
Trend follows same pattern as IE.
A Hobbit mnemonic FONCl BrISCH:
F > O > N ~ Cl > Br > I > S > C > H
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Atomic radius
Ionization energy
Electronegativity
I only
I and II only
II and III only
I, II, and III
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68
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Y
r
CCl4HFOCSNO3
70
B
71
Ionic Bonds
What are they?
One atom gives a valence electron to the
other and electrostatic interaction holds
atoms together.
Usually between a metal and nonmetal, but
always between two atoms with large
electronegativity difference, .
NaClKCletc.
72
VSEPR Theory
Basic premise: electron pairs on a central
atom try to move apart as far as possible.
Electron group geometry vs. molecular
geometry?
73
Geometric Family
Linear
Trigonal Planar
Tetrahedral
Trigonal Bipyramidal
Octahedral
74
VSEPR Theory:
Shape & Lone Pairs
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Hybridization
How do you determine hybridization around a
central atom?
Determine number of electron pairs surrounding
central atom.
Each pair needs an orbital:
81
Hybridization: Example
Determine the hybridization of the central
atom in each of the following molecules:
H2O
BrF3
XeOF4
NH3
NH4+
BF3
82
Polar Molecules?
CCl4HFOCSNO3 Polar or not?
83
85
Phase Transitions
Closely related to what property of molecules?
Temperature measure of internal kinetic
energy.
States or phases: name them!
Solids, liquids, gases all differ in kinetic
energy and intermolecular forces.
Phase change caused by overcoming or
strengthening intermolecular forces boiling
point, vapor pressure, etc.
87
Calorimetry
Absorption or release of heat: what are two
possible consequences?
Temperature change or phase change, but not
both at same time!
Equation for amount of heat absorbed/released?
q = mcT define the terms!
What is specific heat?
Intrinsic propertyresistance to temperature
change:
High c means small temperature change, holds
absorbed heat better.
91
Calorimetry: Example
Equal amounts of heat are absorbed by 10-g
solid samples of four different metals:
aluminum, lead, tin, and iron. Of the four,
which will exhibit the smallest temp change?
Aluminum (c = 0.90 Jg1K1)
Lead (c = 0.13 Jg1K1)
Tin (c = 0.23 Jg1K1)
Iron (c = 0.45 Jg1K1)
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106
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