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Docslide - Us Carbohydrates 558458d2ed539
Docslide - Us Carbohydrates 558458d2ed539
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Carbohydrates contain only the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. The group includes
monomers, dimers and polymers, as shown in this diagram:
Examples of Carbohydrates
Carbohydrate
Monosaccharides
(simple sugars)
Disaccharides
(double sugars)
Polysaccharides
Name
glucose
fructose
galactose
Formula
C6H12O6
C6H12O6
C6H12O6
Source
fruits
fruits, honey
not naturally occurring
C12H22O11
C12H22O11
C12H22O11
starch
-(C6H10O5)-n
glycogen
-(C6H10O5)-n
cellulose
-(C6H10O5)-n
In ketones, the carbonyl group has two hydrocarbon groups attached. Again,
these can be either alkyl groups or ones containing benzene rings. Again, we'll
concentrated on those containing alkyl groups just to keep things simple.
Notice that ketones never have a hydrogen atom attached to the carbonyl group.
or
a ketone (alkanone)
||
||
R-
-H
R-
- R'
Ketoses
Aldoses
Aldotriose
Ketotriose
Dihydroxyacetone
D-Glyceraldehyde
Aldopentoses
ketopentoses
D-Ribulose
D-Ribose
ketohexoses
D-Fructose
Aldohexoses
D-Glucose
D-Galactose
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These all have the formula (CH 2O)n, where n can be 3-7. The most common and important
monosaccharide is glucose, which is a six-carbon or hexose sugar, so has the formula C6H12O6.
Triose
A triose is a monosaccharide containing three carbon atoms. There are only two trioses, an
aldotriose (glyceraldehyde) and a ketotriose (dihydroxyacetone). Trioses are important in
respiration. Namely, lactic acid and pyruvic acid are derived from aldotriose and ketotriose,
respectively.
The structure of triose is:
Pentose
A pentose is a monosaccharide with five carbon atoms.[1] Pentoses are organized into two
groups. Aldopentoses have an aldehyde functional group at position 1. Ketopentoses have a
ketone functional group in position 2 or 3.
The structure of pentose ring (ribose & deoxyribose) is:
Ribose
Ribose and its related compound, deoxyribose, are the building blocks of the backbone chains
in nucleic acids, better known as DNA and RNA. Ribose is used in RNA and deoxyribose is
used in DNA. The deoxy- designation refers to the lack of an alcohol, -OH, group as will be
shown in detail further down.
Ribose and deoxyribose are classified as monosaccharides, aldoses, pentoses, and are reducing
sugars.
Hexose
A hexose is a monosaccharide with six carbon atoms, having the chemical formula C6H12O6.
Hexoses are classified by functional group, with aldohexoses having an aldehyde at position 1,
and ketohexoses having a ketone at position 2.
Glucose, fructose and galactose are all examples of hexoses, simple sugars containing 6 carbon atoms.
Name
Formula
glucose
C6H12O6
galactose
C6H12O6
Structure
fructose
C6H12O6
Monosaccharide
Glucose
Fructose
aldohexose
ketohexose
Closed-ring (cyclic)
Structure
Open-chain Structure
Classification
This shows two glucose molecules joining together to form the disaccharide maltose. Because this bond
is between carbon 1 of one molecule and carbon 4 of the other molecule it is called a 1-4 glycosidic bond.
Bonds between other carbon atoms are possible, leading to different shapes, and branched chains.
This kind of reaction, where H2O is formed, is called a condensation reaction. The reverse process, when
bonds are broken by the addition of water (e.g. in digestion), is called a hydrolysis reaction.
In
general:
Maltose (or malt sugar) is glucose 1-4 glucose. It is formed on digestion of starch by amylase,
because this enzyme breaks starch down into two-glucose units. Brewing beer starts with malt,
which is a maltose solution made from germinated barley. Maltose is the structure shown above.
Sucrose (or cane sugar) is glucose 1-2 fructose. It is common in plants because it is less reactive
than glucose, and it is their main transport sugar. It is the common table sugar that you put in your
tea.
Lactose (or milk sugar) is galactose 1-4 glucose. It is found only in mammalian milk, and is the
main source of energy for infant mammals.
Polysaccharides
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Polysaccharides are long chains of many monosaccharides joined together by glycosidic bonds. There
are three important polysaccharides:
Starch is the plant storage polysaccharide. It is insoluble and forms starch granules inside many
plant cells. Being insoluble means starch does not change the water potential of cells, so does
not cause the cells to take up water by osmosis (more on osmosis later). It is not a pure
substance, but is a mixture of amylose and amylopectin.
more
quickly
than
amylose
by
amylase
enzymes.
Both amylose and amylopectin are broken down by the enzyme amylase into maltose, though at different rates.
Cellulose is only found in plants, where it is the main component of cell walls. It is poly (1-4)
glucose, but with a different isomer of glucose. Starch and glycogen contain a-glucose, in which
the hydroxyl group on carbon 1 sticks down from the ring, while cellulose contains b-glucose, in
which the hydroxyl group on carbon 1 sticks up. This means that in a chain alternate glucose
molecules are inverted.
This apparently tiny difference makes a huge difference in structure and properties. While the 1-4
glucose polymer in starch coils up to form granules, the 14 glucose polymer in cellulose forms straight
chains. Hundreds of these chains are linked together by hydrogen bonds to form cellulose microfibrils.
These microfibrils are very strong and rigid, and give strength to plant cells, and therefore to young plants
and also to materials such as paper, cotton and sellotape.
The b-glycosidic bond cannot be broken by amylase, but requires a specific cellulase enzyme. The only
organisms that possess a cellulase enzyme are bacteria, so herbivorous animals, like cows and termites
whose diet is mainly cellulose, have mutualistic bacteria in their guts so that they can digest cellulose.
Humans cannot digest cellulose, and it is referred to as fibre.
Lignin (a complex polymer), found in the walls of xylem cells, is the main component of wood.
Sugars exist in solution as an equilibrium mixture of open-chain and closedring (or cyclic) structures.
In the open-chain form, the carbon atom that contains the C=O bond is called
the carbonyl carbon.
In the closed-ring (cyclic) structure, the carbonyl carbon is the one which is
attached to the O of the ring and an OH group.
Sugars that can be oxidised by mild oxidising agents are called reducing
sugars because the oxidising agent is reduced in the reaction.
Common oxidising agents used to test for the presence of a reducing sugar
are:
a. Benedict's Solution
b. Fehling's Solution
c. Tollen's Reagent
Benedict's
Solution
Fehling's
Solution
Tollen's Reagent
Composition
copper sulfate in
alkaline citrate
copper sulfate in
alkaline tartrate
silver nitrate in
aqueous ammonia
Colour of Solution
deep blue
deep blue
colourless
brick red
precipitate
Cu2O(s)
brick red
precipitate
Cu2O(s)
Species Being
Reduced
(the oxidant)
Species Being
Oxidised
(the reductant)
Cu2+
Cu2+
+ e ---> Cu+
Cu2+
reducing sugar
oxidised to
carboxylate
Cu2+
+ e ---> Cu+
reducing sugar
oxidised to
carboxylate
Ag+
Ag+ + e ---> Ag(s)
reducing sugar
oxidised to
carboxylate
Oxidation of Monosaccharides
Oxidation of Aldoses
Glucose and galactose are both examples of aldoses.
1. Oxidation Using Benedict's or Fehling's Solution:
O
||
R- C -H
O
+ 2Cu2+ + 5OHdeep blue
aldose
2. Oxidation Using Tollen's Reagent
||
R - C - Ocarboxylate
+ Cu2O(s)
brick red
+ 3H2O
||
R- C -H
+ 2Ag(NH3)2+ + 3OHcolourless
aldose
||
R - C - O-
+ 2Ag(s)
silver mirror
+ 4NH3(g) + 2H2O
carboxylate
Oxidation of Ketoses
Fructose is an example of a ketose.
||
R- C -CH2OH
R- C -COO-
+ Cu2O(s)
+ 3H2O
brick red
|
H
ketose
hydroxy carboxylate
O
||
R- C -CH2OH
+ 2Ag(NH3)2+ +
3OHcolourless
ketose
R- C -COO|
H
+ 2Ag(s)
silver
mirror
+ 4NH3(g) +
2H2O
hydroxy
carboxylate
sucrose
maltose
lactose
Cyclic
Structu
re
Glycosi
dic Link
through
2 carbonyl carbons
1 carbonyl carbon
1 carbonyl carbon
Openchain
structu
re
no
yes
yes
+Bened
ict's
Solutio
n
no reaction
+Fehlin
g's
Solutio
n
no reaction
+Tollen'
s
Reagen
t
no reaction
Type
non-reducing sugar
reducing sugar
reducing sugar