Rubens &

Brueghel

Rubens

Brueghel

Anne T. Woollett
Ariane van Suchtelen
with contributions by

Tiarna Doherty, Mark Leonard,

and j0rgen Wadum

A Working Friendship

The J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles

Royal Picture Gallery Mauritshuis, The Hague

in association with
Waanders Publishers, Zwolle, The Netherlands

Rubens and Brueghel:

A Working

Friendship

has b e e n o r g a n i z e d b y

the J. P a u l G e t t y M u s e u m a n d the R o y a l P i c t u r e G a l l e r y M a u r i t s h u i s .

On the cover and page 214: P e t e r P a u l R u b e n s a n d Jan B r u e g h e l the

E l d e r , d e t a i l o f The Return from War: Mars
P e t e r P a u l R u b e n s , The Family

Frontispiece:
T h e e x h i b i t i o n i n T h e H a g u e is s p o n s o r e d

Disarmed

by Venus (cat. n o . 2)

of Jan Brueghel

the

Elder,

ca. 1612-13. O i l o n p a n e l , 125.1 x 95.2 c m ( 4 9 V 4 x 371/2 i n . ) . L o n d o n ,

by

T h e Samuel C o u r t a u l d Trust, Courtauld. Institute o f A r t Gallery,

ING

inv. p . 1 9 7 8 . P G . 3 6 2 .
Rages iv-v:

Jan B r u e g h e l the E l d e r a n d Peter P a u l R u b e n s ,

d e t a i l o f The Garden
T h i s v o l u m e is p u b l i s h e d t o a c c o m p a n y the e x h i b i t i o n Rubens
Brueghel: A Working

and

h e l d at the J. P a u l G e t t y M u s e u m ,

Friendship,

L o s A n g e l e s , a n d the R o y a l P i c t u r e G a l l e r y M a u r i t s h u i s , T h e H a g u e .

of Eden with the Fall of Man

(cat. n o . 4 )

Rage viii: Jan B r u e g h e l the E l d e r a n d Peter P a u l R u b e n s ,

d e t a i l o f Allegory

of'Taste

(cat. n o . 8)

T h e e x h i b i t i o n is o n v i e w i n L o s A n g e l e s f r o m J u l y 5 t o S e p t e m b e r 2 4 ,

Rage xiv: P e t e r P a u l R u b e n s a n d Jan B r u e g h e l the E l d e r ,

2 0 0 6 , a n d i n T h e H a g u e f r o m O c t o b e r 21, 2 0 0 6 , t o J a n u a r y 28, 2 0 0 7 .

d e t a i l o f The Feast of Achelous

(cat. n o . 3)

Rage 42: P e t e r P a u l R u b e n s a n d Jan B r u e g h e l the E l d e r ,

2 0 0 6 J. P a u l G e t t y T r u s t

d e t a i l o f Ran and Syrinx

(cat. n o . 5)

D u t c h translation 2006 R o y a l Picture Gallery Mauritshuis, The H a g u e ,

and Waanders Publishers, Z w o l l e , The

Netherlands

A l l p h o t o g r a p h s are c o p y r i g h t e d b y the i s s u i n g i n s t i t u t i o n , unless

otherwise

noted.

R u b e n s a n d B r u e g h e l : a w o r k i n g f r i e n d s h i p / A n n e T. W o o l l e t t , A r i a n e
and Jorgen W a d u m .

1200 G e t t y C e n t e r D r i v e , S u i t e 500

p.

L o s Angeles, California 90049-1682

cm.

" P u b l i s h e d t o a c c o m p a n y the e x h i b i t i o n ' R u b e n s a n d B r u e g h e l :

www.getty.edu

a w o r k i n g f r i e n d s h i p , h e l d at the J. P a u l G e t t y M u s e u m , L o s A n g e l e s ,
5

M a r k G r e e n b e r g , Editor

in

A n n L u c k e , Managing

Editor

Cynthia Newman Bohn,

a n d the R o y a l P i c t u r e G a l l e r y M a u r i t s h u i s , T h e H a g u e . T h e e x h i b i t i o n

Chief

w i l l be o n v i e w i n L o s A n g e l e s f r o m J u l y 5 t o S e p t e m b e r 2 4 , 2 0 0 6 , a n d
i n T h e H a g u e f r o m O c t o b e r 21, 2 0 0 6 , to J a n u a r y 28, 2 0 0 7 " T . p . v e r s o .
I n c l u d e s b i b l i o g r a p h i c a l references a n d i n d e x .

Editor

I S B N - 1 3 : 978-0-89236-847-1

Designer

S u z a n n e W a t s o n , Production
Diane Webb,

W o o l l e t t , A n n e T.

van Suchtelen ; w i t h contributions by Tiarna D o h e r t y , M a r k L e o n a r d ,

Getty Publications

Jeffrey C o h e n ,

Library o f Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

ISBN-IO: 0-89236-847-0

Coordinator

ISBN-13: 978-0-89236-848-8

Translator

ISBN-IO: 0-89236-848-9

(hardcover)

(hardcover)
(pbk.)

(pbk.)

1. R u b e n s , P e t e r P a u l , S i r , 1 5 7 7 - 1 6 4 0 E x h i b i t i o n s .

Typesetting by D i a n e Franco

2. B r u e g h e l , J a n ,

C o l o r separations by Professional G r a p h i c s , Inc., R o c k f o r d , Illinois

1568-1625Exhibitions.

Printed by Waanders Publishers, Z w o l l e , The

E x h i b i t i o n s . I. S u c h t e l e n , A r i a n e v a n . I I . R u b e n s , Peter P a u l , S i r ,

Netherlands

1577-1640.

3. A r t i s t i c c o l l a b o r a t i o n B e l g i u m A n t w e r p

I I I . B r u e g h e l , J a n , 1568-1625.

V. M a u r i t s h u i s ( H a g u e , Netherlands).

I V . J. P a u l G e t t y M u s e u m .

V I . Title. V I I . Title: Rubens

and B r u e g h e l .
ND673.R9A4 2006
759-94 9 3 d c 2 2
2006003124

T h e a u t h o r s o f the c a t a l o g u e entries are i d e n t i f i e d b y t h e i r i n i t i a l s :

A r i a n e van Suchtelen (AvS) and A n n e T W o o l l e t t ( A T W ) .

Contents
ix

Foreword
MICHAEL

xi
xiii

A N D FREDERIK

J.

DUPARC

Acknowledgments
Lenders to the Exhibition

Two Celebrated Painters: The Collaborative Ventures

of Rubens and Brueghel, ca. 1598-1625
ANNE

43

BRAND

T.

WOOLLETT

Catalogue
ARIANE
ANNE

T.

VAN

SUCHTELEN

WOOLLETT

44

Jan Brueghel the Elder and Peter Paul Rubens / C A T . N O S . 1-13

128

Jan Brueghel the Elder and Hans Rottenhammer

136

Jan Brueghel the Elder and Hendrick de Clerck / C A T . N O . 16

140

Jan Brueghel the Elder and Hendrick van Balen / C A T . N O S . 1 7 - 2 1

166

Peter Paul Rubens and Frans Snyders / C A T . N O S . 22-24

186

Jan Brueghel the Elder / C A T . N O S . 25-28

208

Peter Paul Rubens / C A T . N O . 29

215

Brueghel and Rubens at Work:

Technique and the Practice of Collaboration
TIARNA

DOHERTY,

MARK

252

Literature

267

Index

273

Photography Credits

274

About the Authors

LEONARD,

AND J0RGEN

/ CAT. N O S . 1 4 - 1 5

WADUM

Foreword

ETER

PAUL

RUBENS

A N D JAN BRUEGHEL

THE

ELDER

were the two most famous painters in Antwerp at the

beginning of the seventeenth century. A prolific land
scape and still-life painter, Jan "Velvet" Brueghel was the
senior of the two by nine years and renowned for his remark
ably meticulous and jewel-like paintings. Rubens was an
ambitious painter of altarpieces and erudite mythological and
historical subjects in which he recast antique and Renaissance
sources. Both painters served the regents of the Southern
Netherlands, Archduke Albert and Archduchess Isabella.
More personally, they were also close friends. Together, the
two artists produced beautiful and richly allusive composi
tions, uniting their distinctive brushwork and individual
visual modes in highly sought-after paintings. In an era when
it was common for artists to specialize and for more than
one painter to contribute to the execution of a work, the
conceptual partnership of Rubens and Brueghelwhich
joined artists of equal status, who were united by friendship
and respectwas rare and redefined the widespread practice
of collaboration.
Rubens and Brueghel: A Working friendship is the first
international loan exhibition devoted to the collaborative
works of Rubens and Brueghel and their working method.
Assembled here are the most important works of their part
nership, from the early war themes, to mythological land
scapes and allegories, to the iconic paintings of the Madonna
and Child in a flower garland. Also included are a select
group of works that Rubens and Brueghel executed together
with other collaborators, notably Hans Rottenhammer,
Hendrick de Clerck, Hendrick van Balen, and Frans Snyders.
They highlight the development of significant compositions
in the distinctive oeuvres of both artists and reveal the
dynamic roles each played in other partnerships. Together,

these paintings provide a rare opportunity to examine

the process by which artists in the Netherlands worked
collaboratively.
The genesis of the exhibition lies in the concurrent inter
ests of the J. Paul Getty Museum and the Royal Picture
Gallery Mauritshuis. The Getty Museum's purchase in 2000
of a previously unknown painting, The Return from War:
Mars Disarmed by Venus, in which Rubens revised his col
league's work, coincided with the completion of a thorough
restoration and technical investigation of the Mauritshuis's
renowned Garden of Eden with the Fall ofMan, in which
the order of work between the two artists was quite different.
Subsequent discussions between our institutions centered
on the fundamental questions addressed in this catalogue:
In which studio did their joint compositions originate?
Was their approach consistent throughout the period of their
collaboration? H o w did they work together on these panels
and for whom were they painted? What emerges is a complex,
reciprocal relationship in which a painting could originate
with either artist, one in which Jan Brueghel, contrary to
conventional belief, was often the generating force.
The exhibition and catalogue likewise represent a fruitful
collaboration between our institutions and among their
respective curatorial, conservation, and scientific departments.
Scott Schaefer, curator of paintings, and Anne Woollett,
associate curator, at the J. Paul Getty Museum, devised the
concept and selected the exhibition together with Peter van
der Ploeg, chief curator, and Ariane van Suchtelen, curator,
of the Royal Picture Gallery Mauritshuis. Anne Woollett
contributed the essay exploring the artistic partnership of
Rubens and Brueghel and its context and a number of
the catalogue entries, the majority of which were written by
Ariane van Suchtelen. Tiarna Doherty, associate conservator,

ix

and Mark Leonard, head, Department of Paintings Conser

vation, at the J. Paul Getty Museum, and Jorgen Wadum,
formerly chief conservator at the Mauritshuis and now chief
conservator at the Statens Museum for Kunst, Copenhagen,
are the authors of an essay about both the individual and
joint working methods of Brueghel and Rubens. The pro
duction of the English-language and Dutch-language
catalogues was overseen, respectively, by Anne Woollett and
Ariane van Suchtelen.
We are immensely grateful to the generous lenders who
were willing to send some of the most popular works in
their collections to both institutions. Our debt extends to
the many colleagues who enthusiastically embarked on
the journey of discovery and granted special access for tech
nical study. Without the remarkable generosity of Miguel
Zugaza Miranda of the Museo Nacional del Prado, one
of the greatest repositories of collaborative works by Rubens
and Brueghel, an exhibition of this scale and importance
would not have been possible. In addition, we are deeply
appreciative of the munificent support of I N G Nederland,
the exclusive sponsor of Rubens and Brueghel: A Working
Friendship in The Hague.
It is with great pleasure that we welcome visitors to
this remarkable exhibition, which celebrates the long-lasting
friendship and artistic partnership of two great artists. We
hope that the breathtakingly beautiful and technically extra
ordinary works of Rubens and Brueghel will intrigue and
captivate our viewers, bringing the eloquence of art and
friendship of seventeenth-century Antwerp into the present.

MICHAEL

BRAND

Director
J. Paul Getty Museum

FREDERIK J. D U P A R C

Director
Picture Gallery Mauritshuis

Acknowledgments

??????

HE

EXPLORATION

OF THE REMARKABLE

ARTISTIC

partnership of Peter Paul Rubens and Jan Brueghel

the Elder has been our pleasurable pursuit for the last
four years. It is our privilege to thank those who have made
the exhibition and the catalogue possible. In Los Angeles,
we are indebted to Michael Brand, director of the J. Paul
Getty Museum, for his support, and to William Griswold,
former acting director, and Deborah Gribbon, former
director, who were instrumental in supporting the exhibitio n
during the early stages of its organization. From the incep
tion of the project, Frederik J. Duparc, director of the Royal
Picture Gallery Mauritshuis, has been a keen advocate and
made key contributions to its scope. This exhibition would
not have come to fruition without the vision and enthusiasm
of Scott Schaefer, curator of paintings at the Getty Museum.
We also thank Peter van der Pioeg, chief curator of the
Royal Picture Gallery Mauritshuis, for his tireless efforts on
behalf of Rubens and Brueghel: A Working Friendship.
The very nature of this exhibition, which involved an
alliance of art historical research and technical examination,
has made it a particularly collaborative enterprise between
the curatorial and conservation departments at both institu
tions. We thank our colleagues for the generosity with
which they shared their findings. Conservator Mark Leonard
and associate conservator Tiarna Doherty at the Getty, and
Jorgen Wadum, formerly chief conservator at the Mauritshui s,
now chief conservator, Statens Museum for Kunst, Copen
hagen, have made invaluable contributions to the under
standing of paintings by Rubens and Brueghel and to col
laborative undertakings in general. Tiarna Doherty traveled
to study nearly every painting in the exhibition, as well as
a number of key works that could not be lent, with infrared
reflectography. The initial technical study of paintings was

made possible by a substantial grant from the American

Friends of the Mauritshuis, with the assistance of Otto
Naumann and Sandra Canning.
We also thank Yvonne Szafran, Gene Karraker, and for
mer associate conservator Elisabeth Mention, in the Depart
ment of Paintings Conservation at the Getty Museum; and
Karen Trentelman, senior scientist, and Anna Schoenemann
and Narayan Khandekar, both former senior scientists,
at the Getty Conservation Institute. In The Hague, we thank
conservator Sabrina Meloni for her help with the technical
investigations. A number of extremely generous colleagues
at other institutions carried out close examinations of
these remarkable paintings and shared their results with us.
We thank, in particular, Alexander Vergara, curator, and
Ana Gonzalez M o z o and Jaime Garcia Maiquez, from the
Gabinete de Documentacion Tecnica of the Museo National
del Prado; Jan Schmidt, Doerner Institute, Munich;
Robert Wenley and Polly Smith, Glasgow Art Museums;
and Wolfgang Savelsberg, Kulturstiftung DessauWorlitz.
Collaboration in Netherlandish painting was a common
practice that took many forms and, due to its complex
nature, awaits a comprehensive investigation. The present
study, while offering a new approach that incorporates
technical information and close firsthand study, is indebted
to the observations and insights of colleagues working on
both the broader genre of collaboration and the joint oeuvre
of Rubens and Brueghel. Both Christine Van Mulders and
Elizabeth H o n i g shared their insights and material from
prepublication manuscripts. We have acknowledged, where
appropriate, the important contributions of Maryan
Ainsworth, David Freedberg, Susan Merriam, Peter Sutton,
and Dorien Tamis.

xi

The staffs of both our museums have made tremendous

contributions to this project, responding to its unique
challenges with great resourcefulness and good humor. At
the Getty Museum, we thank Quincy Houghton, assistant
director, Amber Keller, senior exhibitions coordinator,
and Paige-Marie Ketner and Sophia Allison, Exhibitions
and Public Programs Department. The coordination of
loan logistics was expertly handled by Sally Hibbard, chief
registrar, and Amy Linker, assistant registrar. For their
forbearance, practical advice, and vital contributions to the
preparation of the exhibition and the catalogue, we thank
the current and former colleagues in our respective depart
ments, notably Preston Bautista, Virginia Brilliant, Lillian
Hsu, Jean Linn, Mary Morton, Anita Morris, Tanya Paul,
Audrey Sands, Jon Seydl, Carol O'Connor, and Marilyn
Brundson. The exhibition was superbly designed in Los
Angeles by Merritt Price, Patrick Fredrickson, and Davina
Henderson and expertly installed by Bruce Metro and his
adroit team of preparators. Its interpretation benefited from
the insights of Mari-Tere Alvarez and Ben Garcia, Depart
ment of Education. A t the Mauritshuis, we especially thank
Frederik van Koetsveld, deputy director, Theo Haarsma,
the coordinator of this exhibition, and Andre Jordaan,
registrar. We would also like to thank Simone Hollen, Karen
de Moor, Pom Verhoeff, Marthe de Vet, and Antia Wiersma
of the Department of Communication, Arjan Rijnsburger,
and Caroline Walta. Henk Douna and Boy van den Hoorn
were responsible for the temporary pavilion on the Hofrijver^
which the Mauritshuis needs for exhibitions of this size.
For a project such as this one, which required wideranging resources, from artistic treatises to scientific encyclo
pedias revealing the origins of the Cavia porcellus, we have
relied on the outstanding resources of the Getty Research
Institute, where we acknowledge the assistance of Jay Gam,
Ross Garcia, Aimee Lind, Joyce Ludmer, Louis Marchesano,
and Tracey Schuster, as well as the staff of the Rijksbureau
voor Kunsthistorische Documentatie.
We are grateful to Mark Greenberg, editor in chief,
Getty Publications, for the realization of this book, and thank
Cynthia Newman Bohn for her fortitude and care as the
editor of the manuscript. Patrick Pardo was indispensable in
managing the earliest stages of the project and the didactic
texts for the installation. Karen Schmidt, production manager,
and Suzanne Watson, senior production coordinator, skill
fully and meticulously oversaw the production of the catalogue.
In addition, we thank other colleagues in Publications who

xii

provided significant support and encouragement through

out the process: Cecily Gardner, Anne Chamberlain,
Kara Kirk, A n n Lucke, and Deenie Yudell. Jeffrey Cohen is
responsible for the splendid design of the catalogue, which
captures the spirit of the artistic partnership it explores.
Diane Webb ably translated the Dutch text into English, and
Dorine Duyster skillfully translated the English text into
Dutch. Waanders Publishers in Zwolle printed the catalogue,
and we thank Marloes Waanders in particular for guiding
its production.
We received help and advice from many individuals,
in addition to those already named. We would like to express
particular appreciation to Denise Allen, Claude d'Anthenaise,
Gerd Bartoschek, Reinhold Baumstark, David Bomford,
Antonia Bostrom, Charissa Bremer-David, Lome Campbell,
Mark Carlisle, Marcus Dekiert, Lloyd De Witt, Hartmut
Dorgerloh, Burton Fredericksen, Carmen Garrido, Burckhardt
Gores, Anne d'Harnoncourt, Lee Hendrix, Nico Van Hout,
Dirk Imhoff, David Jaffe, Patricia Jaspers, Arianne Faber
Kolb, Anne-Marie Logan, Hans-Martin Kaulbach, Thomas
Kren, Walter Liedtke, Andrea De Marchi, Harald Marx,
Elizabeth McGrath, Philippe de Montebello, Elizabeth
Morrison, Uta Neidhardt, Lynn Orr, Michiel Plomp, MarieChristine Prestat, Wolfgang Prohaska, Konrad Renger,
Catherine Reynolds, Joseph Rishel, Martin Roth, Ashok
Roy, Gregory Rubinstein, Axel Riiger, Wolfgang Savelsberg,
Stephanie Schrader, Karl Schiitz, Wilfried Seipel, the late
Hubert von Sonnenburg, Renate Trnek, Mark Tucker, Ernst
Veen, Gregor Weber, Thomas Weiss, Barbara Welzel, and
Bettina Werche.
Finally, our greatest debt is to the lending institutions
(listed on the following page) and to the anonymous private
collector, who were willing to part for a time with some of
the most absorbing and delightful works in their collections.

ANNE

T. W O O L L E T T

ARIANE

VAN

SUCHTELEN

Lenders to the Exhibition

A k a d e m i e der B i l d e n d e n K i i n s t e , V i e n n a
Bayerische Staatsgemaldesammlungen, A l t e Pinakothek, M u n i c h
Bayerische Staatsgemaldesammlungen, Staatsgalerie, N e u b u r g an der D o n a u
Galleria D o r i a P a m p h i l j , R o m e
J. Paul Getty M u s e u m , L o s Angeles
K u l t u r s t i f t u n g D e s s a u W o r l i t z , Dessau
Kunsthistorisches M u s e u m , Gemaldegalerie, V i e n n a
The Metropolitan M u s e u m o f Art, N e w York
M u s e e de la Chasse et de la N a t u r e , Paris
M u s e o N a c i o n a l del Prado, M a d r i d
Philadelphia M u s e u m o f A r t
Private C o l l e c t i o n
R o y a l Picture Gallery M a u r i t s h u i s , T h e H a g u e
Staatliche K u n s t s a m m l u n g e n , Gemaldegalerie A l t e Meister, Dresden
Staatliche M u s e e n , Gemaldegalerie A l t e Meister, Kassel
Stiftung Preufiische Schlofier u n d G a r t e n B e r l i n - B r a n d e n b u r g ,
Schlofi Sanssouci Bildergalerie, Potsdam

xiii

T w o Celebrated

Painters
The Collaborative Ventures o f
Rubens and Brueghel, ca. 1598-1625

ANNE

T.

WOOLLETT

D U R I N G F I R S T T W O D E C A D E S O F T H E S E V E N T E E N T H C E N T U R Y , J A N B R U E G H E L

the Elder' ; A

painters/' :..Ai

8 - 1 6 2 5 ) a n d Peter P a u l R u b e n s ( 1 5 7 7 - 1 6 4 0 ) w e r e the m o s t e m i n e n t

twerp, a splendid but economically diminished metropolis w h i c h remained

taK^stic

stic center. T h e y represented the t w o major artistic t r a d i t i o n s i n the city:

Q ^ n t V s el's
ex< e x c e p t i o n a l l y m e t i c u l o u s a n d g r a p h i c b r u s h w o r k deftly d e s c r i b e d m u l t i t u d e s

o f p e o p l e seen f r o m a h i g h vantage a n d the details o f the n a t u r a l w o r l d , w h i l e R u b e n s

c a p t u r e d e m o t i o n a n d c o r p o r e a l energy w i t h v i g o r o u s b r u s h w o r k i n large-scale h i s t o r y
p a i n t i n g s . B o t h h a d the h o n o r a n d d i s t i n c t i o n o f s e r v i n g as c o u r t painters t o the g o v e r
n o r s o f the S o u t h e r n N e t h e r l a n d s , A r c h d u k e A l b e r t a n d A r c h d u c h e s s Isabella C l a r a
E u g e n i a , a n d b o t h artists o v e r s a w p r o d u c t i v e w o r k s h o p s , a l t h o u g h l i t t l e is k n o w n o f
B r u e g h e l ' s s t u d i o arrangements, w h i l e R u b e n s ' s enterprise o p e r a t e d o n a g r a n d a n d elab
orate scale. T h e i r status a n d r e p u t a t i o n was v i v i d l y d e s c r i b e d b y an observant y o u n g
1

n o b l e m a n , D u k e J o h a n n E r n s t o f S a x o n y , w h o v i s i t e d A n t w e r p i n early 1614. H e n o t e d
i n the a c c o u n t o f his travels, u n d e r the h e a d i n g "Peter P a u l R y b e n t [ R u b e n s ] a n d
B r u g e l t w o celebrated p a i n t e r s " that he a n d his c o m p a n i o n s " t h e n . . . s a w w i t h t h e t w o
a d m i r a b l e painters Peter P a u l R y b e n t a n d B r u g e l m a n y s p l e n d i d p a i n t i n g s a n d w o r k s o f
art. R y b e n t m o s t l y paints large pieces a n d e v e r y t h i n g n a t u r a l l y great, very artistic a n d
after life. H e c a n m a k e 1 0 0 g u l d e n a week, excellent pieces b y h i m he c a n sell f o r 2 , 3, 4 ,
a n d 5 0 0 r i j k s g u l d e n . B r u g e l paints s m a l l panels a n d landscapes, b u t a l l very subtle
a n d artistic, that o n e regards t h e m w i t h w o n d e r . " A l t h o u g h he doesn't m e n t i o n m e e t i n g
2

the artists, i t is t a n t a l i z i n g t o t h i n k J o h a n n E r n s t m a y have e n c o u n t e r e d B r u e g h e l i n

R u b e n s ' s s t u d i o ( o r R u b e n s i n B r u e g h e l ' s s t u d i o ) d u r i n g his v i s i t .
A n t w e r p ' s l e a d i n g painters w e r e also frequent c o l l a b o r a t o r s , e x e c u t i n g a p p r o x i
m a t e l y t w o d o z e n w o r k s together o v e r the course o f twenty-five years, f r o m a b o u t 1598
t o 1 6 2 5 . T h e i r p a r t n e r s h i p b e g a n w i t h a w a r t h e m e , The Battle of the Amazons
3

(cat. n o . 1 ) ,

b u t o t h e r subjects that r e s u l t e d f r o m t h e i r w o r k i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p are m o r e f a m o u s ,

i n c l u d i n g d e p i c t i o n s o f the M a d o n n a a n d C h i l d i n a flower g a r l a n d (fig. 1), m y t h o l o g i c a l
themes, a n d the a l l e g o r i c a l series d e v o t e d t o the F i v e Senses. A n u m b e r o f t h e i r j o i n t
w o r k s , s u c h as The Garden of Eden with the Fall of Man

(cat. n o . 4 ) a n d the F i v e Senses

series (cat. n o . 8 ) , w e r e celebrated b y t h e i r c o n t e m p o r a r i e s , w h i l e the existence o f The

TWO

CELEBRATED

PAINTERS

FIGURE

Peter P a u l R u b e n s ( 1 5 7 7 - 1 6 4 0 ) a n d
J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r (1568-1625),
Madonna in a Flower Garland,
ca. 1616-18. O i l o n p a n e l ,
185 x 2 0 9 . 8 c m ( 7 2 % x 82 /s i n . ) .
5

M u n i c h , A l t e P i n a k o t h e k , i n v. 331

Return from War: Mars Disarmed by Venus (cat. no. 2) was unknown to scholars until
it was acquired by the J. Paul Getty M u s e u m in 2 0 0 0 . Rubens and Brueghel: A Working
Friendship brings together for the first time many o f the most important collabora
tions with the goal of considering the artists' unique artistic partnership and working
methods. Also included is a small selection of collaborative works that Brueghel and
Rubens undertook with significant contemporaries such as Hans Rottenhammer
(1564/65-1625), Hendrick de Clerck ( i 5 7 o ? - i 6 3 o ) , Hendrick van Balen (1574/75-1632),
and Frans Snyders (1579-1657).
Collaboration, the process by which two or more artists work together to produce
a single work o f art, is virtually synonymous with painting in the L o w Countries in
the years before 1700. The tradition o f painters specializing in particular genresfigures,
still life (game, fruit, vegetables), landscape, to name but a fewand contributing a
share to a painting, was already quite well established by the time Rubens and Brueghel
began their artistic partnership with The Battle of the Amazons (cat. no. 1) in about 1598.
Frequently, the principal artist w o u l d plan the composition, executing the most impor
tant areas himself, and engage the services of a second painter for the figures or details.
Collaboration o f this sort offered a highly practical approach to producing paintings
4

TWO

CELEBRATED

PAINTERS

quickly for the open market. This practice was so common, and had so many different
modes, that there was no middle-Dutch w o r d for what today falls under the general
umbrella o f "collaboration." Extraordinarily, artists o f equal stature contributed to
the genesis o f a composition and shared i n its execution. In such conceptual collabora
tions, individual contributions were integrated yet distinct and, as i n the joint works
of Rubens and Brueghel, accorded equal visual value.
In examining the process o f collaboration between Rubens and Brueghel, we are
considering joint authorship o f the rarest sort, not only between artists o f equal status,
but between painters with established styles who specialized i n particular areasfigures
and erudite history scenes i n the case o f Rubens and atmospheric settings, including
landscapes and still life, i n the case o f Brueghel. Their joint works were, it seems, the
result o f mutual desire. Brueghel and Rubens's fond friendship stands out among the
leading painters of Europe and within the city's close-knit artistic community. The two men
were dear friends who assisted each other outside the studio. Rubens famously penned
letters i n Italian to his friend's leading patron i n M i l a n , Cardinal Federico Borromeo,
and Brueghel affectionately referred to Rubens as "my secretary Rubens" (mio secretario
Rubens) in communications with the same patron. Brueghel and Rubens shared a formi
dable creative energy, and their artistic alliance was an intellectual exchange i n which
the concept for a composition could originate with either painter. It was also a respon
sive alliance, in which the artists adjusted existing work by the partner. Sometimes these
changes were substantial, as in The Return from War, i n others, more nuanced, as i n the
Madonna and Child in a Garland of Fruit and Flowers (cat. no. 12). However, the indivi
duality o f their respective styles was maintained i n their joint works, which amounted to
an amiably competitive arena i n which they carried out visual jousting. The evident
delight and wit that pervade many o f their paintings underscore the extraordinary
status of their collaborations, which doubtless were perceived as exclusive commodities,
not least by the astute Rubens and Brueghel. The extraordinary artistic products that
resulted from their collaboration were sought after by collectors throughout Europe.
5

While it has often been assumed that Rubens played the dominant role i n all his
partnerships, it is clear from the works assembled here that Brueghel played the largest
part in developing and executing their joint works, particularly during the second
half of the 1610s when their working method had become more streamlined and included
Rubens's workshop. A highly productive artist, Brueghel devised innovative composi
tions and reused them with great effect. H i s detailed and impressive settings are often
related to earlier, sixteenth-century types and to the allegorical language o f the preceding
century; In this respect, his contribution to the partnership was as rich and as impor
tant as that o f Rubens, whose pictorial language derived from antiquity and Renaissance
Italy as well as northern predecessors.
Rubens and Brueghel's oeuvre reflects the taste and values o f the court o f
Archduke Albert and Archduchess Isabella (figs. 2 and 3), joint rulers o f the Southern
Netherlands from 1599, who sought to convey the continuity o f their reign with earlier
Burgundian and Habsburg rulers. Following the religious strife o f the late sixteenth
century, during which the Protestant Northern provinces broke away from Spanish
Habsburg rule to form the independent U n i t e d Provinces, and Antwerp surrendered to
6

TWO

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PAINTERS

FIGURE

F r a n s F r a n c k e n the Y o u n g e r
(1581-1642) a n d w o r k s h o p , w i t h
J a n B r u e g h e l the Y o u n g e r
(1601-1678), The Archduke Albert
and the Archduchess Isabella
in a Collector's Cabinet,

ca. 1626.

O i l o n p a n e l , 9 4 x 123.3 c m
(37 x 4 8 V2 i n . ) . B a l t i m o r e , T h e
W a l t e r s A r t M u s e u m , i n v . 37.2010
FIGURE

O t t o v a n V e e n (ca. 1556-1629),
Portrait
Clara

of Albert
Eugenia,

and

Isabella

1615. O i l o n p a n e l ,

160 x 81 c m (63 x 31^8 i n . ) .

the forces o f Philip II in 1585 to become a Catholic bastion o f the Habsburg Southern
Netherlands, Albert and Isabella were seen to bring stability to the region, which
roughly corresponds to modern-day Belgium. They continued to try to subdue the
D u t c h rebels through military force, until the signing o f the Twelve Years' Truce in 1609,
which effectively recognized the independence o f the Northern provinces. Deeply pious,
they strove to promote the ideals o f the revitalized Catholic Church. The partnership
of Rubens and Brueghel thus spanned the first phase o f the archdukes' reign, which
ended w i t h Albert's death in 1621, at which time Isabella was appointed governess
general. The archdukes' dual leadership, which represented the goals o f piety and regal
ity, thus was reflected in joint artistic expression o f their two favorite painters. While
mindful o f themes traditionally favored in courtly circles, such as the hunt, the two
artists also devised new iconography and genres that captured the devoutness and splen
dor o f the archducal court.
7

Gloucestershire, England,
The Earl o f Wemyss and
March K.T.

THE

LIVES

A N D CAREERS

OF BRUEGHEL

A N D RUBENS

A t the time o f Brueghel and Rubens's earliest collaboration in the late 1590s, Jan
Brueghel (fig. 4 ) was the older and more established o f the pair, and a seasoned collabo
rator. Born in Brussels in 1568, he was the second son of Pieter Bruegel the Elder
(ca. 1525/30-1569). Jan's older brother, Pieter Brueghel the Younger (1564/65-1637/38),
8

TWO

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PAINTERS

e n j o y e d a successful career p a i n t i n g v e r s i o n s o f the h i g h l y p o p u l a r peasant subjects o f his

father. J a n , a c c o r d i n g t o the p a i n t e r a n d b i o g r a p h e r K a r e l v a n M a n d e r ( 1 5 4 8 - 1 6 0 6 ) ,
9

first l e a r n e d t o p a i n t i n w a t e r c o l o r f r o m his m a t e r n a l g r a n d m o t h e r , M a y e k e n V e r h u l s t
Bessemers, a m i n i a t u r i s t , a n d later t r a i n e d as an o i l p a i n t e r w i t h the landscape specialist
Pieter G o e t k i n t (d. 1583).

10

L i k e his father, J a n t r a v e l e d t o I t a l y i n 1589, a t r i p w h i c h was b y this t i m e a l m o s t

o b l i g a t o r y f o r a m b i t i o u s N o r t h e r n artists; he s t o p p e d first i n C o l o g n e a n d p r o b a b l y also
i n V e n i c e . T h e f e w d r a w i n g s that d o c u m e n t his stay i n N a p l e s after J u n e 1 5 9 0 reveal
1 1

his interest i n landscape vistas a n d m o n u m e n t a l a r c h i t e c t u r e .

12

While in Rome (1592-94),

B r u e g h e l b e f r i e n d e d P a u l B r i l (ca. 1 5 5 4 - 1 6 2 6 ) , an A n t w e r p landscape specialist w h o ,

a l o n g w i t h his b r o t h e r M a t t h i j s ( 1 5 5 0 - 1 5 8 3 ) , p a i n t e d a t m o s p h e r i c landscapes f o r m a n y
R o m a n i n t e r i o r s , o f t e n i n fresco, a n d c o n t r i b u t e d t o the taste a m o n g c o l l e c t o r s f o r this
especially N o r t h e r n g e n r e .

13

B r i l ' s o w n style was s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e d b y the d r a m a t i c

landscape f o r m s o f J o a c h i m P a t i n i r (ca. 1 4 8 0 - 1 5 2 4 ) (see, f o r e x a m p l e , fig. 21) a n d the

forest landscapes o f P i e t e r B r u e g e l the E l d e r . D u r i n g the m i d - i 5 9 0 S , B r i l ' s l i v e l y d r a w i n g s
a n d his small-scale, d e l i c a t e l y p a i n t e d landscapes h a d a decisive i m p a c t o n B r u e g h e l .
FIGURE

B r u e g h e l c o n t i n u e d t o d e v e l o p his o w n r e p e r t o i r e o f i n v e n t i v e , m i n u t e l y r e n d e r e d sub

A n t h o n y v a n D y c k (1599-1641),
Portrait

1 4

of Jan Brueghel

the

Elder,

ca. 1630. E t c h i n g , first state,

2 4 9 x 158 m m (9V4 x 6 V 4 i n . ) .
L o n d o n , British Museum,

jects t r a d i t i o n a l l y associated w i t h the N o r t h , s o m e c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y

D r a w i n g s , inv. 1 8 4 9 - 2 - 1 0 - 2 2 8
Trustees o f the B r i t i s h M u s e u m

nocturnal

effects a n d g r o t e s q u e m o n s t e r s (fig. 5) r e m i n i s c e n t o f H i e r o n y m u s B o s c h (ca. 1 4 5 0 - 1 5 1 6 ) .

T o w a r d the e n d o f his R o m a n stay, he d e v e l o p e d an early f o r m o f the paradise landscape
(see fig. 7 5 ) , perhaps as a result o f his e n c o u n t e r s w i t h V e n e t i a n landscapes a n d the
R o m a n w o r k s o f J a c o p o Z u c c h i (ca. 1 5 4 0 - 1 5 9 6 ) .

Department o f Prints and

flickering

1 5

P a u l B r i P s w o r k s w e r e a v i d l y c o l l e c t e d , a n d his contacts w i t h l e a d i n g c o g n o s c e n t i
a n d the A c c a d e m i a d i S a n L u c a h e l p e d t o b r i n g B r u e g h e l t o the a t t e n t i o n o f p a t r o n s .
W h i l e i n R o m e , B r u e g h e l e n j o y e d the p r o t e c t i o n o f C a r d i n a l A s c a n i o C o l o n n a , w h o
also e m p l o y e d R u b e n s ' s o l d e r b r o t h e r P h i l i p .

1 6

I n a b o u t 1593, he m e t the P o s t - T r i d e n t i n e

r e f o r m e r C a r d i n a l F e d e r i c o B o r r o m e o , a d i s c e r n i n g a n d enthusiastic c o l l e c t o r , w h o
became a l i f e l o n g f r i e n d a n d p a t r o n . T h e i r s p i r i t e d c o r r e s p o n d e n c e p r o v i d e s i n s i g h t i n t o
B r u e g h e l ' s w o r k i n g m e t h o d s a n d the cardinal's affinity f o r the artist's style. B r u e g h e l
r e s i d e d w i t h B o r r o m e o i n the P a l a z z o V e r c e l l i , a n d w h e n B o r r o m e o became a r c h b i s h o p
o f M i l a n i n J u n e 1595, B r u e g h e l r e c e i v e d a place i n his h o u s e h o l d .

1 7

D u r i n g his R o m a n

stay, B r u e g h e l also became a c q u a i n t e d w i t h a G e r m a n p a i n t e r o f small-scale refined

n u d e s , H a n s R o t t e n h a m m e r . I n a letter t o the c a r d i n a l , B r u e g h e l p r a i s e d R o t t e n h a m m e r ,
s a y i n g " n o t h i n g i n H o l l a n d a n d F l a n d e r s is as b e a u t i f u l as the w o r k o f a c e r t a i n G e r m a n
i n Italy, a n d I b e g y o u t o h o l d his w o r k s i n h i g h , h i g h e s t e e m . "

18

Borromeo's collection

i n c l u d e d a series o f s m a l l landscapes, i n d i v i d u a l l y executed b y B r u e g h e l a n d B r i l a n d

d i s p l a y e d t o g e t h e r , as w e l l as c o l l a b o r a t i v e w o r k s b y B r u e g h e l a n d

Rottenhammer.

1 9

T h e w e l l - m a t c h e d t e c h n i q u e s o f B r u e g h e l a n d R o t t e n h a m m e r (see cat. n o s . 1 4 a n d 15)

attest t o a c o n v i v i a l w o r k i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p .
I n a d d i t i o n t o the exchange o f ideas a m o n g N o r t h e r n painters i n R o m e f o r the
i m a g i n e d scenery o f forest landscapes t o w h i c h he was an i m p o r t a n t c o n t r i b u t o r ,
B r u e g h e l was a b s o r b e d i n r e n d e r i n g the i m p o s i n g r e m a i n s o f a n t i q u i t y i n a n d a r o u n d
the city. I n contrast t o the d o c u m e n t a r y a p p r o a c h t a k e n b y o t h e r N o r t h e r n artists i n
t h e i r s k e t c h b o o k s , B r u e g h e l c a p t u r e d the m o n u m e n t a l r e m a i n s o f the classical past i n

TWO

CELEBRATED

PAINTERS

FIGURE

Jan B r u e g h e l the E l d e r ,

Orpheus

Singing before Pluto and Proserpina,

1594. O i l o n c o p p e r , 27 x 36 c m
( i o / 8 x 141/8 i n . ) . F l o r e n c e ,
5

Palazzo Pitti, Galleria Palatina,

i n v . 1298

delicately hued watercolor drawings. A number of drawings o f rocky hills and cascades
attest to Brueghel's visit to T i v o l i . The rugged landscape and soaring vaults o f the
Baths o f Diocletian or the Cluvius Scauri (fig. 6), and particularly the interior o f the
Colosseum (fig. 7), reveal his response to the dramatic effect of the vaulted interiors.
These arched forms were important not only for his later architectural interiors but for
his development o f landscape forms that suggest corridors. Brueghel explored the
intricacies o f the play o f light and deep shade over the broken forms o f the Colosseum,
placing the viewer in the shadow, silhouetting the rough edges of the wall against the
bright sunlight through the far arch, the massiveness o f the structure emphasized by the
small figure at the right. H e was particularly fascinated by the dynamic visual " p u l l " o f
the receding arched corridor, and he reused this theatrical feature in allegorical scenes
after his return to Antwerp (see cat. nos. 17 and 18).
20

21

Brueghel was not: alone in his fascination for these crumbling forms, and he was
receptive to the fantastic renderings of landscapes animated by ruins and ruinous interiors

TWO

CELEBRATED

PAINTERS

FIGURE

J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r , The

Baths

of Diocletian or the Cluvius Scauri,

1594. P e n a n d b r o w n w a s h ,
26.2 x 2 0 . 4 c m ( i o / 8 x 8 in.).
3

Paris, F o n d a t i o n C u s t o d i a ,
C o l l e c t i o n R L u g t , Institut
N e e r l a n d a i s , i n v . 7879

FIGURE

by c o n t e m p o r a r i e s , s u c h as L o d e w i j k T o e p u t (ca. 1 5 5 0 - c a . 1 6 0 5 ) , w h o s e Interior

J a n B r u e g h e l t h e E l d e r , View of the
Interior

of the Colosseum,

ca. 1595.

P e n a n d b r o w n w a s h , 2 6 . 2 x 21 c m
( i o / 8 x 8V4 i n . ) . B e r l i n , S t a a t l i c h e
3

Museen, Kupferstichkabinett,
S a m m l u n g e n der Z e i c h n u n g e n u n d
D r u c k g r a p h i k , i n v . K D Z 26327

of the

Colosseum (fig. 8) is r e m a r k a b l e f o r its d a m p a t m o s p h e r e . B r u e g h e l ' s f r i e n d s h i p w i t h

the latter, w h o m he m a y have m e t i n T r e v i s o before a r r i v i n g i n R o m e , is d o c u m e n t e d b y
an i n s c r i p t i o n o n the back o f a d r a w i n g b y T o e p u t .

2 2

I n o n e o f the first o f his w o r k s

a c q u i r e d b y F e d e r i c o B o r r o m e o , B r u e g h e l i n f u s e d the landscape o f a r c h e d r u i n s , o n e
o f a six-part series o f c o n t e m p l a t i v e m o n k s (fig. 9 ) , w i t h greater i n t r i c a c y a n d m o n u m e n tality t h a n the p r i n t that served as its s o u r c e .

23

T h e a r c h e d i n t e r i o r s u s e d t o s u c h effect

i n later w o r k s (see cat. n o s . 2 , 17, a n d 1 8 ) , h o w e v e r , have a c o m m o n source i n the elabo

rate Forge of Vulcan b y P a o l o F i a m m i n g o ( 1 5 4 0 - 1 5 9 6 ) , a F l e m i s h artist active i n V e n i c e
(see fig. 7 8 ) . M a n y o f these m o t i f s , p a r t i c u l a r l y the v a u l t e d c o r r i d o r , fueled the i m a g i n a
tive settings o f later a l l e g o r i c a l subjects.

TWO

CELEBRATED

PAINTERS

FIGURE

B r u e g h e l spent o n l y a year i n M i l a n before r e t u r n i n g t o the N e t h e r l a n d s , w h e r e

L o d e w i j k T o e p u t (ca. 1550-

he settled i n A n t w e r p b y O c t o b e r 1 5 9 6 .

ca. 1605), The Interior

j o i n e d the G u i l d o f S a i n t L u k e as a "master's s o n " (his father h a d entered the g u i l d i n

Colosseum,

of the

15 81. P e n a n d b r o w n i n k ,

b r o w n a n d o l i v e w a s h , 34.7 x

24

T h e f o l l o w i n g year, at age t w e n t y - n i n e , he

1551) a n d later served as c o - d e a n a n d dean i n 1 6 0 1 a n d 1 6 0 2 .

2 5

I n 1599 he was accepted

25.5 c m (13 /8 x 10 i n . ) . V i e n n a ,

i n t o the elite confraternity o f R o m a n i s t s ( C o n f r a t r u m C o l l e g i j R o m a n o r u m a p u d

Graphische Sammlung Albertina,

A n t u e r p i e n s e s ) , w h o s e m e m b e r s h a d v i s i t e d R o m e a n d p a i d h o m a g e at the t o m b s o f the

inv. 2 4 6 5 0

apostles Peter a n d P a u l .

FIGURE

2 6

I n the late s i x t e e n t h century, few artists w e r e m e m b e r s o f the

R o m a n i s t s , b u t B r u e g h e l j o i n e d t w o o t h e r l e a d i n g artists w i t h ties t o the r u l i n g arch-

J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r ,

Landscape

with Ruins and a Hermit,

1596.

d u c a l c o u r t , Wenceslas C o b e r g h e r (ca. 1 5 6 0 - 1 6 3 2 ) a n d R u b e n s ' s teacher, O t t o van V e e n

(ca. 1 5 5 6 - 1 6 2 9 ) . T h e last years o f the c e n t u r y w e r e b u s y ones for V a n V e e n , w h o h a d

O i l o n c o p p e r , 26 x 36.5 c m

been c o u r t p a i n t e r t o the f o r m e r g o v e r n o r o f the N e t h e r l a n d s A l e s s a n d r o Farnese, as

(10 V4 x 14V8 i n . ) . M i l a n ,

w e l l as t o A r c h d u k e E r n s t , a n d was r e s p o n s i b l e for d e s i g n i n g the t r i u m p h a l arches for

P i n a c o t e c a A m b r o s i a n a , i n v . 75

the entry o f the archdukes A l b e r t a n d Isabella i n t o A n t w e r p i n 1599 f o l l o w i n g t h e i r acces

s i o n as s o v e r e i g n rulers o f the N e t h e r l a n d s . B r u e g h e l p r o b a b l y first became a c q u a i n t e d
w i t h R u b e n s t h r o u g h the G u i l d o f S a i n t L u k e o r p o s s i b l y d u r i n g p r e p a r a t i o n for the t r i
umphal
entries.2 7 Their earliest k n o w n j o i n t work, The Battle of the Amazons (cat. no. 1)
was executed s h o r t l y after R u b e n s became a master h i m s e l f i n 1598 a n d before his depar
ture for Italy i n M a y 1 6 0 0 . A l t h o u g h B r u e g h e l a n d R u b e n s a d h e r e d t o a c o n v e n t i o n a l
d i v i s i o n o f l a b o r b e t w e e n landscape a n d figures, the u n u s u a l subject o f The Battle of the
Amazons

h i n t s at the a m b i t i o n a n d scale o f t h e i r future c o l l a b o r a t i o n s . P r i o r t o that

project, B r u e g h e l h a d b e g u n t o f a s h i o n the m e t i c u l o u s m u l t i f i g u r e scenes (for e x a m p l e ,

cat. n o . 25) for w h i c h he was celebrated. V a n M a n d e r refers t o the " s m a l l landscapes
a n d t i n y figures i n w h i c h he has an excellently fine m a n n e r o f w o r k i n g . "

2 8

H o w e v e r , the

c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h R u b e n s o n a m o n u m e n t a l h i s t o r y subject m a y have s p u r r e d B r u e g h e l

T W O C E L E B R A T E D P A I N T E R S 9

FIGURE

1 0

J a n B r u e g h e l t h e E l d e r , The
Continence

ofScipio,

1600.

O i l o n c o p p e r , 72.2 x 106.5 c m
(28V8 x 4 1 % i n . ) . M u n i c h , A l t e
P i n a k o t h e k , i n v . 827

to paint similar themes, such as The Continence ofScipio (fig. 10) with its episodic action,
and to invest his birdVeye-view landscapes w i t h new grandeur. Intriguingly, a later
inventory refers to a painting of M o u n t Parnassus, specified as a collaboration between
Van Veen, Brueghel, and Rubens, now lost.
Over the course of the first decade of the seventeenth century, Brueghel estab
lished himself as one o f the leading painters i n the Southern Netherlands. O n January 23,
1599, he married Isabella de Jode, the daughter of the engraver Gerard de Jode, and i n
1601 their first child, Jan, was born. Following Isabella's death i n 1603, possibly during
the birth o f their daughter Paschasia, Brueghel married Catharina van Marienberghe,
with w h o m he had eight children. In 1604 Brueghel purchased a large house w i t h
a garden, the "Meerminne" (The Mermaid), no. 107 Lange Nieuwstraat (fig. n ) , which
must reflect not only his status but also his high level of productivity i n these years.
K n o w n as "Velvet Brueghel" for his delicate touch, Jan specialized i n still-life and land
scape subjects of remarkably refined execution. H i s most frequent collaborator in these
years was Hendrick van Balen. Like Brueghel, Van Balen had made the journey to Rome
(1595-1600) and joined the Antwerp G u i l d o f Romanists i n 1605. While Van Balen
29

30

31

32

10

TWO

CELEBRATED

PAINTERS

FIGURE

JAN

11

Joris H o e f n a g e l (1542i 6 o x ) , Antverpia

(bird's-eye

F r o m G . Braun and
F. H o g e n b e r g ,
Urbium
Terrarum,

1604
2

vol. v (Antwerp,

PETER

A n t w e r p , m a n y artists'

and Brueghel, were located

i n close p r o x i m i t y to one
another.

78 L a n g e N i e u w s t r a a t , " D e W i l d e m a n " ( T h e W i l d
M a n ) , large h o u s e w i t h a g a l l e r y , p u r c h a s e d J u l y 1622
FRANS

o w n e d b y the artist

Stedelijk Prentenkabinet

ticularly those o f Rubens

17 A r e n b e r g s t r a a t , " D e n B o c k " ( T h e B i l l y G o a t ) ,

p u r c h a s e d M a r c h 1619; o n e o f several p r o p e r t i e s

ca. 1598). A n t w e r p ,

r e s i d e n c e s a n d s t u d i o s , par

purchased D e c e m b e r 1604

a g a r d e n n e a r the l u x u r y art m a r k e t ( t a p i s s i e r s p a n d ) ,

Or bis

I n early seventeenth-century

V A N BALEN

96 L a n g e N i e u w s t r a a t , a h o u s e w i t h a g a r d e n ;

a substantial property (formerly t w o houses) w i t h

Theatrum

et Civitatum

107 L a n g e N i e u w s t r a a t , " D e M e e r m i n n e " ( T h e M e r

m a i d ) , a large house w i t h a garden, f r o m D e c e m b e r

perspective o f A n t w e r p ,
seen f r o m the east), d e t a i l .

HENDRICK

BRUEGHEL THE ELDER

PAUL

RUBENS

37 K l o o s t e r s t r a a t . R u b e n s a n d his w i f e r e s i d e w i t h
his f a t h e r - i n - l a w , Jan B r a n t , ca. 1609-1611

SNYDERS

17 K o r t e G a s t h u i s s t r a a t ( r e n t e d h o u s e ) , O c t o b e r
1611-1620

8 Keizerstraat, " D e F o r t u y n e " ( F o r t u n e ) , a large house

w i t h a c o u r t y a r d o n o n e o f the city's m o s t e x c l u s i v e
streets, p u r c h a s e d D e c e m b e r 1620

I n 1610, R u b e n s p u r c h a s e d a n d r e b u i l t a large h o u s e
w i t h a g a r d e n o n the W a p p e r ( o f f the M e i r , A n t w e r p ' s
most important thoroughfare), and added a twostory studio w i t h a sumptuously decorated exterior;
o c c u p i e d ca. 1617

TWO CELEBRATED PAINTERS

11

FIGURE

12

H e n d r i c k v a n B a l e n (1574/75-1632)
a n d A b e l G r i m m e r (ca. 1 5 7 0 1618/19), View of Antwerp,

1600.

O i l o n p a n e l , 37 x 4 4 c m
(14V2 x 17 Vs i n . ) . A n t w e r p ,
Koninklijk M u s e u m voor Schone
K u n s t e n , i n v . 817

executed monumental altarpieces at the outset o f his career and collaborated with
other artists, such as Abel Grimmer (1570-1618/19) (fig. 12), his joint compositions with
Brueghel were small-scale works, usually painted on panel or copper supports that
enhanced their jewel-like qualities. Brueghel's precise brushwork complements
Van Balen's similarly refined technique, while Brueghel's descriptive landscape settings
and sumptuous still-life objects serve to offset Van Balen's smooth figures (see cat.
nos. 17-21).

Brueghel painted some o f his most innovative and, indeed, most labor-intensive
works for his patron in M i l a n , Cardinal Borromeo. Over his lifetime, Borromeo
assembled a large collection o f Flemish landscapes and Italian paintings (in 1621, he
owned twenty-one works by Jan Brueghel). The Allegory of Fire (see fig. 76), for
example, was the first o f a series o f the four elements Brueghel painted for the cardinal
between 1606 and 1621. Brueghel's extensive correspondence with Borromeo and his
agent, Ercole Bianchi, reveal much about his working process and particularly about
the relationship between cleric and painter. It was for this devoted and rigorous patron
that Brueghel developed some o f his most extraordinary and influential images. The
Madonna and Child in a Flower Garland (see fig. 82) is the most remarkable example o f
his invention and the truly collaborative relationship that existed between Brueghel
and Borromeo. Brueghel reformulated a traditional devotional element, the garland o f
flowers with which holy images were honored, according to the instructions o f his
patron and rendered it as a trompe l'oeil masterpiece that appears to be suspended from
a nail on the wall. The V i r g i n and C h i l d were painted by Van Balen on a separate silver
insert; both the Madonna and C h i l d and the honorific garland were concealed by a
gold cover that served to enhance the image's devotional nature. The garland painting
was sent i n 1607 to Borromeo, who returned it the following year, asking Brueghel
33

34

12

TWO

CELEBRATED

PAINTERS

to add a landscape around the V i r g i n and C h i l d . Brueghel added the verdant woody
background as well as deer to Van Balen's image and sent it to M i l a n , where it was
received with rapture. It was Brueghel's practice to send a painting to the cardinal for his
approval, and on more than one occasion the cardinal asked Brueghel to make specific
changes. The longevity of Brueghel's relationship with Borromeo not only illustrates
his considerable skill as a collaborator but also his effortless ability to fruitfully confer
with such a powerful personality, making his relationship with Rubens all the easier
to comprehend.
35

For Borromeo, the natural world was evidence o f God's presence, and he prized
Brueghel's skillful portrayal o f that world, particularly his technical ability to render
all aspects of nature with tremendous specificity. As Borromeo noted in his 1625 treatise
on the Ambrosian collection, Musaeum Bibliothecae Ambrosianae: " H e [Brueghel] was
wonderful i n his field and knew how to give to those tiny figures so much nobility and
so much life that they leave the onlooker uncertain as to the dimensions o f the things
which are painted. It also appears that he even wished with his brush to travel over
all o f nature, because he painted, as we shall later demonstrate, seas, mountains, grottos,
subterranean caves, and all these things, which are separated by immense distances,
he confined to a small space, imitating nature itself not only i n color, but also in talent,
which is the highest quality o f nature and o f art. A n d i f to someone this praise seems
exaggerated, let h i m know that one day the fame o f this man w i l l be so great that this
praise which I gave h i m w i l l seem meager."
36

Brueghel's interest i n the representation o f the natural world had been stimulated
by the collection o f the H o l y Roman Emperor R u d o l f II, whose court Brueghel had
visited in 1604. Whether inspired by the floral still lifes of Roelandt Savery (1576-1639)
he saw there, or as a result o f his own study o f flowers in the gardens o f the Brussels
court, Brueghel undertook an ambitious and evidently technically challenging series o f
paintings for the cardinal that featured flowers from different seasons, all at their
peak of perfection. Brueghel wrote to Borromeo on more than one occasion about the
magnificent Vase of Flowers with Jewel, Coins and Shells (fig. 13), which was finally sent
to h i m in August 1 6 0 6 . Earlier that year, on A p r i l 14, Brueghel told his patron, T have
begun and destined for Your Illustrious Lordship a bunch o f flowers that is found
to be very beautiful, as much as for their naturalness as also for the beauty and rarity
of the various flowers, [of which] a few are unknown and little seen in this area; for that
[reason] I have been to Brussels in order to depict from nature some flowers that are
not found in Antwerp." In August 1606, he informed Borromeo that the "bunch" w o u l d
include over one hundred different varieties, all o f which w o u l d be life-size, adding
proudly, "I believe that so rare and varied flowers never have been finished with similar
diligence; in winter this painting w i l l make a beautiful sight. A few o f the colors are
very close to nature."
37

38

As Brueghel's reference to the study o f flowers in the gardens of the Brussels court
suggests, he was already connected with the archducal court as early as 1606, and other
documents from that year show the archdukes exercising their authority on Jan's behalf
with the Antwerp magistrates. While Brueghel and Rubens can both be described as
court painters, they occupied different positions within the apparatus of artists who served
39

TWO

CELEBRATED

PAINTERS

13

14

FIGURE

13

J a n B r u e g h e l t h e E l d e r , Vase of
Flowers with Jewel, Coins and

Shells,

1 6 0 6 . O i l o n c o p p e r , 65 x 45 c m
(25V8 x i 7 A i n . ) . M i l a n ,
3

P i n a c o t e c a A m b r o s i a n a , i n v . 66
Biblioteca A m b r o s i a n a A u t h .
F 179-05

FIGURE

14

J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r ,
Banquet
Archdukes,

Presided

Wedding

over by the

ca. 1612-13. O i l o n

canvas, 84 x 126 c m (33 V& x

49 /8 in.). M a d r i d , M u s e o
5

N a c i o n a l d e l P r a d o , i n v . 1442

A l b e r t a n d Isabella. W i t h o u t r e c e i v i n g an official a p p o i n t m e n t , J a n h e l d the p o s i t i o n

o f " p a i n t e r to t h e i r R o y a l H i g h n e s s e s " (constschilder Harer Hoogheden)

b y 1 6 0 8 , a desig

n a t i o n he shared w i t h o t h e r artists, n o t a b l y J o o s de M o m p e r the Y o u n g e r ( 1 5 6 4 - 1 6 3 5 )

a n d H e n d r i c k de C l e r c k .

4 0

H e was thus r e t a i n e d i n the service o f the s o v e r e i g n s , for

w h i c h he r e c e i v e d privileges, s u c h as e x e m p t i o n f r o m excise a n d taxes and f r e e d o m f r o m

serving i n A n t w e r p ' s c i v i c g u a r d , a n d c o u l d reside i n A n t w e r p , rather t h a n at the c o u r t i n
Brussels. H e r e m a i n e d , h o w e v e r , a m e m b e r o f the G u i l d o f S a i n t L u k e . U n l i k e R u b e n s ,
w h o r e t u r n e d t o A n t w e r p i n late 1 6 0 8 , B r u e g h e l d i d n o t receive a s t i p e n d , o r c o s t l y
d e m o n s t r a t i o n s o f esteem f r o m the archdukes. I n 161 o he e x p l i c i t l y requested the d e s i g
n a t i o n " p e i n t r e d o m e s t i q u e " f r o m the a r c h d u k e s , b u t received a l u k e w a r m response
w h e n t h e y n o t e d that he was " s o m e t i m e s o c c u p i e d w i t h w o r k i n t h e i r service" (quelques
C e r t a i n w o r k s , s u c h as B r u e g h e l ' s large canvas

fois occupe en ouvrages de [leur] service).

41

d e p i c t i n g the archdukes at a peasant w e d d i n g (fig. 1 4 ) a p p a r e n t l y served p o l i t i c a l ends,

p r o m o t i n g A l b e r t a n d Isabella's efforts t o be p e r c e i v e d as s y m p a t h e t i c rulers w i t h attach
ments t o the c o u n t r y s i d e .

42

B r u e g h e l ' s t r e m e n d o u s p r o d u c t i v i t y c o n t i n u e d t h r o u g h the s e c o n d decade o f the

century. W i t h the c r e a t i o n o f the m a t u r e paradise landscape subject, B r u e g h e l established
his p r e e m i n e n c e as a p a i n t e r a n d interpreter o f the n a t u r a l w o r l d w i t h i n the parameters
o f b i b l i c a l subjects (see cat. nos. 4 a n d 2 6 ) . S o m e o f his m o s t c o m p l e x figure w o r k s
also date f r o m this p e r i o d , s u c h as the Village Landscape with Self-Portrait

(fig. 15). H e m a y

have been assisted i n the s t u d i o b y his s o n , J a n B r u e g h e l the Y o u n g e r ( 1 6 0 1 - 1 6 7 8 ) ,

before his departure for Italy i n 1 6 2 2 .

43

T w o o t h e r students were registered w i t h B r u e g h e l :

D a n i e l Seghers ( 1 5 9 0 - 1 6 6 1 ) a n d an artist k n o w n o n l y as " M i c h i e l . "

TWO

4 4

CELEBRATED

PAINTERS

15

FIGURE

15

Jan B r u e g h e l the E l d e r ,

Village

Landscape with Self-Portrait, 1614.

O i l o n p a n e l , 52 x 90.5 c m
(20 V2 x 35 /8 i n . ) . V i e n n a ,
5

Kunsthistorisches

Ipuseum,

i n v . 9102 (the a r t i s t a n d h i s f a m i l y
a p p e a r i n the left

FIGURE

foreground)

16

J o o s de M o m p e r t h e Y o u n g e r
(1564-1635) a n d J a n B r u e g h e l t h e
E l d e r , A Market

and

Bleaching

Fields, c a . 1 6 2 0 - 2 2 . O i l o n canvas,
166 x 194 c m (65V8 x 7 6 V 8 i n . ) .
M a d r i d , M u s e o N a c i o n a l del
P r a d o , i n v . 1443

16

TWO

CELEBRATED

PAINTERS

B r u e g h e l ' s q u i c k sureness w i t h the b r u s h a n d adept m a n a g e m e n t o f s i m u l t a n e o u s

projects e n s u r e d his status as a l e a d c o l l a b o r a t o r , a n d a substantial p r o p o r t i o n o f his
activity i n v o l v e d c o l l a b o r a t i v e w o r k s w i t h m a n y o f A n t w e r p ' s m o s t e m i n e n t specialists.
H e c o n t i n u e d t o w o r k w i t h H e n d r i c k v a n B a l e n a n d w i t h artists o f s i m i l a r l y fine tech
n i q u e , i n c l u d i n g Frans F r a n c k e n the Y o u n g e r (1581-1642). I n his artistic r e l a t i o n s h i p
w i t h the landscape p a i n t e r J o o s de M o m p e r the Y o u n g e r , it was B r u e g h e l w h o , i n
an u n u s u a l r o l e reversal, s u p p l i e d the figures for D e M o m p e r ' s l a n d s c a p e s .
these w o r k s w e r e large-scale p a n o r a m a s , w h i l e others s u c h as A Market

45

and

Sometimes
Bleaching

Fields (fig. 16) r e q u i r e d a closer i n t e g r a t i o n b e t w e e n the s e t t i n g , b y D e M o m p e r , a n d the

figures,

w h i c h are e x c e p t i o n a l l y large for B r u e g h e l . D e M o m p e r a n d B r u e g h e l ' s close

acquaintance is c o n f i r m e d b y B r u e g h e l ' s reference t o h i m as " m y f r i e n d M o m p e r " (mio

amico Momper)

i n a letter t o E r c o l e B i a n c h i i n M i l a n .

4 6

B r u e g h e l ' s s e n i o r i t y a n d established a b i l i t y to c o o r d i n a t e projects w i t h o t h e r

painters surely a c c o u n t for his o v e r s i g h t o f the p r e s t i g i o u s c o m m i s s i o n f r o m the city o f
A n t w e r p for the u n p r e c e d e n t e d c o l l e c t i v e e x e c u t i o n b y t w e l v e o f A n t w e r p ' s l e a d i n g
painters o f t w o p a i n t i n g s r e p r e s e n t i n g the F i v e Senses, t o d a y k n o w n f r o m t w o large can
vases (see figs. 58 a n d 59), as gifts for A r c h d u k e s A l b e r t a n d I s a b e l l a .

47

P a i n t e d a b o u t the

same t i m e as B r u e g h e l a n d R u b e n s ' s five-part series o n the same t h e m e (see cat. n o . 8),

the r i c h l y a p p o i n t e d i n t e r i o r s encapsulate A n t w e r p ' s artistic heritage a n d the m u n i f i c e n t
a n d refined sensibilities o f the archdukes a n d t h e i r e n l i g h t e n e d c o u r t . T h e archdukes
also c o n f i r m e d t h e i r c o l l e c t i n g interests a n d ties o f taste w i t h t h e i r realm's elite c i t i z e n s
i n archetypal representations o f art c o l l e c t i o n s (fig. 17). T h e s e i d e a l assemblages o f
famous p a i n t i n g s h o n o r the p r o u d t r a d i t i o n o f p a i n t i n g i n A n t w e r p , and i n the allegories
o f the senses often p l a y f u l l y refer t o R u b e n s a n d B r u e g h e l ' s o w n achievements a n d those
o f talented c o n t e m p o r a r i e s s u c h as Frans S n y d e r s .
I n 1619 B r u e g h e l p u r c h a s e d " D e n B o c k " ( T h e B i l l y G o a t ) , a sizable h o u s e w i t h a
g a r d e n o n the west c o r n e r o f A r e n b e r g s t r a a t a n d S i n t M a r t i n s s t r a a t , near the tapissiers
pand, a center for the sale o f p a i n t i n g s , tapestries, a n d o t h e r l u x u r y items i n A n t w e r p .

4 8

B r u e g h e l c o n t i n u e d t o d e v e l o p s o m e o f his earliest, m o s t i n n o v a t i v e landscapes, n o t a b l y

the s o - c a l l e d paradise landscape (see cat. n o s . 4 , 14, and 26), first d e v e l o p e d i n the late
1590s, a n d u n d e r the influence o f R u b e n s ' s recent i n n o v a t i o n s , t o p u r s u e o t h e r landscape
subjects i n a cabinet f o r m a t , n o t a b l y the h u n t subjects f e a t u r i n g D i a n a a n d her n y m p h s
(see cat. nos. 10 a n d n ) . C a r d i n a l B o r r o m e o r e m a i n e d a key p a t r o n , a n d B r u e g h e l
c o n t i n u e d t o d e v e l o p the g a r l a n d genre. I n a series o f letters between S e p t e m b e r 1621
a n d J u l y 1622, he refers t o a g a r l a n d i n w h i c h the central i m a g e w o u l d be p a i n t e d
by R u b e n s .

4 9

Tragically, B r u e g h e l ' s career, a n d his fruitful p a r t n e r s h i p w i t h R u b e n s and

others, was cut short o n January 13, 1625, w h e n he d i e d , a l o n g w i t h three o f his c h i l d r e n ,

Pieter, E l i s a b e t h , a n d M a r i a , i n an o u t b r e a k o f c h o l e r a that swept t h r o u g h A n t w e r p .
H i s s o n Jan, t r a v e l i n g i n Italy, r e t u r n e d t o take o v e r the w o r k s h o p a n d c o n t i n u e d t o
w o r k w i t h R u b e n s b u t was never his e q u a l partner.
U n l i k e Jan B r u e g h e l the E l d e r , w h o h a d been b o r n i n t o a f a m i l y o f painters, Peter
P a u l R u b e n s was to take u p the b r u s h o n l y after i n i t i a l p r e p a r a t i o n for a c i v i c career.

50

H i s father, J a n R u b e n s , a P r o t e s t a n t l a w y e r a n d a l d e r m a n , fled A n t w e r p w i t h his f a m i l y

i n 1568 for C o l o g n e . W h i l e s e r v i n g as secretary t o A n n a o f S a x o n y , princess o f O r a n g e ,

TWO

CELEBRATED

PAINTERS

17

FIGURE

17

W i l l e m van Haecht

(1593-1637),

Apelles Painting Campaspe,

ca. 1630. O i l o n p a n e l , 1 0 4 . 9 x
148.7 c m (41 A x 58 V2 i n . ) .
L

The Hague, R o y a l Picture Gallery

M a u r i t s h u i s , i n v . 266

he was f o u n d g u i l t y o f an adulterous affair w i t h his p a t r o n a n d e x p e l l e d t o W e s t p h a l i a .

Peter P a u l R u b e n s was b o r n i n S i e g e n i n 1577. T h e f a m i l y r e t u r n e d t o C o l o g n e the
f o l l o w i n g year a n d later reverted t o C a t h o l i c i s m . F o l l o w i n g his father's death, R u b e n s ' s
m o t h e r , M a r i a P i j p e l i n c k x , r e t u r n e d w i t h her f a m i l y to A n t w e r p i n 1589. A f t e r r e c e i v i n g
a r i g o r o u s e d u c a t i o n at the L a t i n s c h o o l o f R o m b o u t V e r d o n c k , a f o u n d a t i o n that
w o u l d i n f o r m a n d shape his future artistic endeavors, R u b e n s e n t e r e d the h o u s e h o l d o f
M a r g u e r i t e de L a l a i n g d ' A r e n b u r g , comtesse de L i g n e , i n A u d e n a r d e as a page. A f t e r
o n l y a short t i m e , R u b e n s left the cloistered courtier's w o r l d t o b e g i n his artistic t r a i n i n g ,
e n t e r i n g the w o r k s h o p o f a distant r e l a t i o n , the landscape a n d h i s t o r y p a i n t e r T o b i a s
V e r h a e c h t ( 1 5 6 1 - 1 6 3 1 ) i n a b o u t 1591 at the age o f f o u r t e e n .
R u b e n s s o o n s o u g h t a m o r e s y m p a t h e t i c a n d perhaps i n f l u e n t i a l teacher a n d
became a p p r e n t i c e d to the h i s t o r y p a i n t e r A d a m v a n N o o r t ( 1 5 6 2 - 1 6 4 1 ) before finally
s e t t l i n g w i t h the i l l u s t r i o u s O t t o v a n V e e n i n a b o u t 1 5 9 4 .

51

I n V a n V e e n he f o u n d a

teacher o f great e r u d i t i o n w h o h a d h i m s e l f traveled to I t a l y a n d p u r p o r t e d l y w o r k e d i n

the s t u d i o o f F e d e r i c o Z u c c a r o ( 1 5 4 0 / 4 2 - 1 6 0 9 ) .

5 2

I n the late 1590s, V a n V e e n was n o t

o n l y p a i n t i n g i m p o r t a n t altarpiece c o m m i s s i o n s , s u c h as The Martyrdom

of Saint

Andrew

(fig. 1 8 ) , w h i c h m e t the r i g o r o u s c r i t e r i a o f o r t h o d o x C a t h o l i c i s m , b u t was i n charge o f

d e v i s i n g the celebratory allegories for the t r i u m p h a l entry o f the A r c h d u k e A l b e r t a n d
A r c h d u c h e s s Isabella i n t o A n t w e r p . A t this t i m e he was a p p o i n t e d engineer o f the c i t a d e l
o f A n t w e r p , an official c o u r t p o s i t i o n a c c o m p a n i e d b y p r i v i l e g e s a n d few r e s t r i c t i o n s .

53

R u b e n s was already seeking o u t p i c t o r i a l m o d e l s o u t s i d e the example o f his

teacher. H e later c o n f i d e d t o a f e l l o w artist that he h a d a s s i d u o u s l y m a d e d r a w i n g s after

18

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prints by early German masters as a young artist. W i t h his command o f Latin, Greek,
and several other languages, and his exposure to Van Veen's own extensive knowledge
of antique and Italian Renaissance works, Rubens acquired the foundations of a learned
painter, zpictor doctus. H e became a master in the G u i l d o f Saint Luke i n 1598 and
remained in Van Veen's studio, perhaps as an assistant, until 1600. Only a few works
from this period can be identified, including the refined miniature Portrait of a Man
(fig. 19). H e never returned to this format. Although his famous declaration that he
was "by natural instinct, better fitted to execute very large works than small curiosities"
was made twenty years later, Rubens's earliest paintings, including The Battle of the
Amazons (cat. no. 1), suggest that his inclinations were already established. In his col
laboration with Brueghel on The Battle of the Amazons, Rubens adopted an intermediate
scale for the tangle o f figures, which he infused with the graphic emotion o f a much
larger work. Although the experiences of Brueghel's Italian sojourn may have helped
prepare Rubens for his own journey, he eschewed a specialty in landscape to establish
himself as an outstanding painter o f historical subjects.
54

55

56

57

The following eight years, during which Rubens (fig. 20) traveled and worked in
Italy and Spain, were decisive. A r m e d perhaps with a letter o f introduction from Otto
van Veen, he left Antwerp in November 1600 for Mantua with an assistant, Deodaat
del M o n t e . While his projects for the duke o f Mantua, Vincenzo I Gonzaga, were
routinehe mostly painted and copied portraitsRubens took advantage o f the duke's
extraordinary collection and the opportunity to study the work o f leading Renaissance
painters such as Andrea Mantegna (1430/31-1506), Titian (1485/90-1576), and G i u l i o
Romano (ca. 1499-1546), among others. H e visited Rome, where the rivalry between
Caravaggio (1571-1610) and Giovanni Baglione (ca. 1566-1643) had polarized art lovers
for six months between July 1601 and January 1602. H e was immediately drawn to
the famous works o f antique sculpture that could be seen in the papal collection o f the
Belvedere Palace, which contained the Torso Belvedere and the Laocoon, as well as
works in the private collections o f the Borghese and Farnese families. H i s drawings after
sculpture i n this period are full o f contained energy and eventually formed a repertoire
to which he would return when composing paintings in A n t w e r p .
58

59

60

FIGURE

18

O t t o v a n V e e n , The
of Saint Andrew,

Martyrdom

1594-99.

O i l o n panel, 4 0 0 x 300 c m
(1571/2 x 118 i n . ) . A n t w e r p ,
Sint-Andrieskerk
IRPA/KIK-Brussels

FIGURE

19

Peter P a u l R u b e n s , Portrait
Man,

of a

ca. 1597. O i l o n c o p p e r ,

21.6 x 14.6 c m (8 /2 x 5 /4 i n . ) .
]

N e w York, Metropolitan M u s e u m
o f A r t , T h e Jack a n d B e l l e L i n s k y
C o l l e c t i o n , 1982, inv. 1 9 8 2 . 6 0 . 2 4

In addition to Paul Bril and Hans Rottenhammer, other Northern artists had
moved to the city. The fluid brushwork and nocturnal effects of the German painter
A d a m Elsheimer (1578-1610) were as important to Rubens as the graphic, aggressive
compositions o f Caravaggio. Rubens's presence i n the city and success were also moni
tored by Archduke Albert, whose agent, Johannes Richardot, kept h i m abreast of
the activities o f Flemish artists. In 1602 Albert favored Rubens with the important com
mission o f an altarpiece for Santa Croce i n Gerusalemme, which had been his titular
church i n Rome (the archduke, who had been elevated to the cardinalate at age eighteen
and later became archbishop o f Toledo, renounced his ecclesiastical rank in 1598).
Rubens's diplomatic skills were tested as the emissary o f the duke of Mantua to
the court o f Philip III i n M a d r i d . Accompanying the train o f gifts, which included
almost forty paintings as well as horses from the Gonzaga stud, Rubens arrived in the
Spanish capital Valladolid in M a y 1603 and remained there for eight months. After
repairing works damaged during the journey, he visited the royal collections, including
61

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19

F I G U R E 20

Peter Paul Rubens, Self-Portmit

with Friends,

ca, 1602. O i l o n

canvas, 77.5 x 101 c m {^o h

39 A in.). C o l o g n e , Wallraf3

R i c h a r t z - M u s e u m , i n v . 248
Rheinisches Bildarchiv K o l n

the E s c o r i a l , w h e r e P h i l i p I I h a d amassed a c o n s i d e r a b l e g r o u p o f w o r k s b y the m o s t

f a m o u s F l e m i s h painters o f the fifteenth a n d sixteenth centuries, i n c l u d i n g The
Temptation of Saint Anthony

(fig. 21), a c o l l a b o r a t i o n b e t w e e n A n t w e r p ' s l e a d i n g painters

o f the early sixteenth century, Q u i n t e n M e t s y s (1466-1530) a n d J o a c h i m P a t i n i r .

62

R u b e n s also executed the i m p o s i n g a n d i n f l u e n t i a l equestrian p o r t r a i t o f the d u k e o f

L e r m a (fig. 22), the k i n g ' s m o s t p o w e r f u l m i n i s t e r , the o n l y d o c u m e n t e d c o m m i s s i o n he
received w h i l e i n S p a i n .

6 3

I n this p a i n t i n g R u b e n s t r a n s f o r m e d the influences o f T i t i a n

a n d T i n t o r e t t o t o create a h i g h l y d r a m a t i c a n d u n i f i e d e v o c a t i o n o f status a n d p o w e r .
T h e t a u t l y a n i m a t e d steed, w h i c h seems t o pause just i n f r o n t o f the v i e w e r , was later
u s e d t o great effect o n a m u c h smaller scale b y J a n B r u e g h e l , b o t h i n j o i n t w o r k s w i t h
R u b e n s (see cat. nos. 2, 4 , a n d 7) a n d i n the paradise landscapes (see cat. n o . 2 6 ) .

64

O n c e R u b e n s was back i n M a n t u a , V e n e t i a n a n d R o m a n influences c o n t i n u e d t o

shape his w o r k , for e x a m p l e , i n the three canvases h o n o r i n g the H o l y T r i n i t y ( 1 6 0 4 - 0 5 )
commissioned by D u k e V i n c e n z o .

6 5

I n 1 6 0 5 - 0 6 R u b e n s tr a v e le d t o G e n o a , w h e r e he

p a i n t e d m o n u m e n t a l p o r t r a i t s as w e l l as an altarpiece o n the subject o f the C i r c u m c i s i o n

( G e n o a , Jesuit C h u r c h ) . U l t i m a t e l y , R u b e n s g r e w t i r e d o f the constraints o f the
G o n z a g a c o u r t a n d asked for l i b e r t y t o r e m a i n i n R o m e . T h e r e , r e s i d i n g w i t h his b r o t h e r
P h i l i p i n the V i a de l a C r o c e , he secured o n e o f the f o r e m o s t c o m m i s s i o n s i n the city,
the altarpiece f o r the O r a t o r i a n C h u r c h o f S a n t a M a r i a i n V a l l i c e l l a (see cat. n o . 2 9 ) .
R u b e n s i n c o r p o r a t e d the r e p u t e d l y m i r a c u l o u s i m a g e o f the V a l l i c e l l a M a d o n n a , a n

20

TWO CELEBRATED

PAINTERS

66

FIGURE

21

J o a c h i m P a t i n i r (ca. 1 4 8 0 - 1 5 2 4 )
and Q u i n t e n M e t s y s (1466-1530),
The Temptation

of Saint

Anthony,

ca. 1522. O i l o n p a n e l , 155 x 173 c m

(61 x 68Vs i n . ) . M a d r i d , M u s e o
N a c i o n a l d e l P r a d o , i n v . 1615

Andachtsbild,

i n the n e w h i g h altarpiece a n d e n c i r c l i n g it w i t h v e n e r a t i n g angels, a s o l u

t i o n that m e t his p a t r o n s ' k e y d e m a n d a n d h a d r a m i f i c a t i o n s f o r the t r e a t m e n t o f

d e c o r a t e d images o f the V i r g i n a n d C h i l d that he, a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y J a n B r u e g h e l , w o u l d
pursue i n A n t w e r p .

6 7

T h e news that his m o t h e r was gravely i l l b r o u g h t R u b e n s h o m e t o A n t w e r p i n

O c t o b e r 1 6 0 8 , just days after his m o t h e r ' s death. D e s p i t e this p e r s o n a l loss, he r e c o g
n i z e d the a u s p i c i o u s i n d i c a t i o n s o f change. W i t h the s i g n i n g o f the T w e l v e Years' T r u c e
i m m i n e n t , b r i n g i n g h o s t i l i t i e s w i t h the N o r t h e r n p r o v i n c e s t o a halt w i t h the r e c o g n i
t i o n o f t h e i r i n d e p e n d e n c e , the future o f the S o u t h e r n N e t h e r l a n d s , a n d beleaguered
A n t w e r p i n p a r t i c u l a r , appeared m o r e p r o m i s i n g . A l t h o u g h R u b e n s c o n s i d e r e d r e t u r n i n g
t o Italy, as he w r o t e t o his f r i e n d J o h a n n F a b e r i n R o m e : T have n o t yet m a d e u p m y
C

m i n d w h e t h e r t o r e m a i n i n m y o w n c o u n t r y o r t o r e t u r n forever t o R o m e , w h e r e I a m
i n v i t e d o n the m o s t favorable terms. H e r e also they d o n o t fail t o m a k e every effort t o
keep m e , b y every sort o f c o m p l i m e n t . T h e A r c h d u k e a n d the M o s t Serene Infanta have
h a d letters w r i t t e n u r g i n g m e t o r e m a i n i n t h e i r service. T h e i r offers are very g e n e r o u s ,
b u t I have l i t t l e desire t o b e c o m e a c o u r t i e r a g a i n . A n t w e r p a n d its c i t i z e n s w o u l d satisfy

TWO

CELEBRATED

PAINTERS

21

22

FIGURE

22

Peter P a u l R u b e n s ,
Portrait

Equestrian
1603.

of the Duke ofLerma,

O i l o n canvas, 283 x 2 0 0 c m
(111V2 i n . x 78 /4 i n . ) . M a d r i d ,
3

M u s e o N a c i o n a l del Prado,
inv. 3137
FIGURE

23

and

ca. 1610. O i l o n p a n e l ,

185 x 205 c m ( 7 2 % x 8o /4 i n . ) .
3

L o n d o n , National Gallery,
i n v . 6461
FIGURE

68

69

Peter P a u l R u b e n s , Samson
Delilah,

me, i f I could say farewell to Rome. The peace, or rather, the truce from many years
will without doubt be ratified, and during this period it is believed that our country w i l l
flourish again."
Rubens decided to stay in Antwerp and set about to attain the status he desired.
W i t h i n the first twelve months after his return, he established himself as one o f the city's
leading painters. Early in 1609, he was commissioned to paint The Adoration of the Magi
(1609; M a d r i d , Museo Nacional del Prado) for the Statenkamer (State Room) o f the
Antwerp town hall where the new peace was signed. By the end o f 1609, he had also
completed a major altarpiece and gallery paintings for preeminent collectors. The erudite
elite o f Antwerp were well acquainted with the figurative language employed by Rubens,
who in essence was updating a long-standing Italianate visual style preferred by socially
and politically ambitious patrons. Samson and Delilah (fig. 23) w o u l d have appealed
to the learned viewer familiar not only with the major monuments o f antiquity but also
with the weighty, sculptural forms o f Michelangelo. Rubens was soon able to com
mand higher prices than his colleagues, and many students were drawn to his studio.
Following his marriage in 1609 to Isabella Brant, Rubens bought a substantial house on
the Wapper (see fig. n ) , renovating it according to Italian architectural ideals and adding
a large studio extension (completed in 1618) (fig. 24).
70

24

71

J a c o b H a r r e w y n ( d i e d after 1701)
after J. v a n C r o e s (active late 17th
c e n t u r y ) , The Facade and
of Rubens's House,

Arch

1684. E n g r a v i n g ,

287 x 434 m m (ulA x iyVs in.).

A n t w e r p , Stedelijk Prentenkabinet,
inv. 17.877

72

The archdukes sought to attach Rubens to their service on generous terms. In the
patent letter o f September 23, 1609, they recognized his "great experience in the art
of painting and other arts" and entreated h i m to become their officier and paintre de nostre

TWO

CELEBRATED

PAINTERS

23

FIGURE

25

P e t e r P a u l R u b e n s , The Raising

of

the Cross, ca. 1 6 1 0 - 1 1 . O i l o n

panel, central panel: 4 6 0 x 340 c m
(181 x 133 /s i n . ) . A n t w e r p
5

Cathedral IRPA/KIK-Brussels

hostel, from which office Rubens w o u l d benefit from the "rights, honors, liberties,
exemptions and the customary liberties and from appurtenances, and from other uses
of our attendants and servants" (droitz, honneurs, libertez, exemptions et franchises
accoustumez et y appertenans, et dont joyssent aultres noz domesticques et serviteurs).
In addition to freedom from onerous responsibilities such as participation i n the civic
guard, he was also freed from membership i n the painters' guild and could teach his art
to whomever he wished (enseigner a ses serviteurs et aultres qu'il voudra sondict art,
sans estre assubjecti a ceulx du mestier). Rubens was allowed to work away from the
court and reside i n Antwerp and received an annual pension o f 500 livres, a substantial
amount comparable to the cost o f a large painting. In addition, he was to be paid
for all work executed for the archdukes over and above the pension. Rubens's stature
and the great admiration the archdukes held for h i m were further reinforced by the
sword and gold chain presented to h i m upon the conclusion o f this agreement, along
with a double-sided portrait medal bearing his patrons' likenesses (see cat. nos. 9A and
73

24

TWO

CELEBRATED

PAINTERS

FIGURE

26

Peter P a u l R u b e n s a n d Frans
S n y d e r s (1579-1657), The
Recognition ofPhilopoemen, ca. 1609.
O i l o n canvas, 201 x 311 c m
(79Vs x 122 A i n . ) . M a d r i d , M u s e o
l

N a c i o n a l d e l P r a d o , inv. 1851

9 B ) . These splendid gifts bound the artist to the court still further and constituted the
"golden fetters" Rubens's nephew famously referred to in the biography o f his uncle.
While it is often emphasized that Rubens reinfused the Antwerp artistic scene
with the vitality and expressiveness he had acquired during his Italian sojourn, he seems
also to have consciously adopted a Northern sensibility. For example, he used panel
supports for many o f the commissions after 1609, a support long favored by Flemish
artists. H e continued to devise altarpieces in the triptych format preferred by his
patrons, finding creative solutions to the challenges posed by separate fields, uniting,
for example, the scene across all three sections in The Raising of the Cross (fig. 2s).
U p o n returning home, Rubens also embraced the local artistic practice o f collabo
ration. A m o n g the earliest works he produced with a second artist is The Recognition
of Philopoemen (fig. 26), with Frans Snyders. This large-scale painting, in which the
magnificent still life by Snyders dominates the composition, was the beginning o f
a long-term working relationship between the two men that was very different from
Rubens's partnership with Brueghel. The enterprise was overseen by Rubens, who
painted a preliminary sketch for the composition (fig. 27), including the still life.
Snyders was called upon to paint on a substantial scale and with a greater vividness than
74

75

76

TWO

CELEBRATED

PAINTERS

25

FIGURE

27

P e t e r P a u l R u b e n s , The

Recognition

ca. 1 6 0 9 .

of Philopoemen,

O i l o n p a n e l , 50.5 x 66.5 c m
( 1 9 % x 26 Vs i n . ) . P a r i s ,
M u s e e d u L o u v r e , inv. M . I . 967
FIGURE

28

A n t h o n y v a n D y c k , Portrait

of

Frans Snyders, 1621. O i l o n canvas,

124.5 x 105 c m ( 4 9 x 41V8 i n . ) .
N e w York, Frick Collection,
i n v . 1909.1.39

in his previous works. Only two years younger than Rubens, he was carefully cultivated
as a specialist contributor during the formation o f Rubens's studio in anticipation o f
future large-scale commissions. Snyders was an independent master, who brilliantly
expressed the complexities o f subjects devised by Rubens, such as magnificent vegetables
or game, that the latter was disinterested in ideating. While in some cases, such as the
Philopoemen and Prometheus Bound (cat. no. 22), Snyders adhered to a design provided
by Rubens, i n other instances Snyders was either brought i n after the composition
had been planned or allowed to devise the still-life and animal aspects o f a composition,
as in Diana Returning from the Hunt (cat. no. 23). So compatible was Snyder's brushwork with Rubens's, that in their most successful collaboration, The Head of Medusa
(cat. no. 2 4 ) , in which snakes emerge from both the gorgon's hair and drops o f blood, it
is difficult to determine where the contribution o f one begins and the other ends.
Snyders's success as a specialist and the regard with which he was held by his colleagues
are evident from the splendid portraits o f Snyders (fig. 28) and his wife by Anthony van
Dyck. Rubens and Snyders worked together until Rubens's death in 1640, and Snyders
served as one o f the assessors who drew up the inventory o f Rubens's collection.
77

Rubens's creative relationship to the work o f other artists could, on occasion,

take a direct and even revisory form. A n avid collector o f sixteenth-century Italian and
German drawings, he sometimes changed works by adjusting contours, reworking
areas, or affixing new sheets of paper with figures added by his own hand. Although this
interference may seem surprising, Rubens's hands-on interaction with non-compliant
partners reflects the confidence o f his creative response and approach to problem solving.
In an unusual example o f painted intervention, Rubens reworked an existing landscape
78

26

TWO

CELEBRATED

PAINTERS

FIGURE

29

P a u l B r i l (ca. 1554-1626),
r e t o u c h e d b y Peter Paul R u b e n s ,
Landscape

with Psyche and

Jupiter,

1610. O i l o n canvas, 93 x ^ c m
(36 /s x 50 /8 i n . ) . M a d r i d ,
5

M u s e o Nacional del Prado,

i n v . 1849

TWO

C E L E B R A T E D PAINTERS

2J

FIGURE

30

P e t e r P a u l R u b e n s , \The Saint
IIdefonso Altarpiece, 1630-32.
O i l o n panel, central panel:
352 x 236 c m (138 Vi x 9 2 % i n . ) .
Vienna, Kunsthistorisches
M u s e u m , i n v . 678

28

TWO CELEBRATED

PAINTERS

by Paul B r i l , Landscape with Psyche and Jupiter (fig. 29). Rubens covered the end o f the
cliff at the center with, gray paint, then replaced it with landscape, and added the figures
of Psyche and Jupiter. H e also introduced the rainbows and the shimmering effects o f
spray from the waterfall on the right. Rubens retained the painting for himself, and it
appears i n the inventory o f his collection at his death. While this case doesn't represent
a joint effort by Rubens with B r i l , who was still living in Rome, it highlights Rubens's
readiness to adjust and perhaps "improve" the work o f another artist, an approach
that notably recurs in The Return from War (cat. no. 2). That Rubens made a similarly
dramatic revision of the composition established by Brueghel is indicative o f the spirit o f
reciprocity in which they worked and the forthrightness that can exist between friends
and equals.
79

Collaborative works executed with Jan Brueghel, Frans Snyders, and Osias Beert
( ? i 5 8 o - i 6 2 4 ) were but one aspect of Rubens's tremendous activity in the 1610s and
1620s. In addition to the sacred images that defined devotional imagery in this period,
Rubens devised complex iconographic programs in the form o f book illustrations, as
well as a program of ceiling paintings for the Jesuit church in Antwerp (1618-21), deco
rative cycles, such as the history o f the Roman consul Decius M u s , and the politically
charged series o f paintings (1622-25) portraying the life of Marie de' Medici. Jan Wildens
(1585/6-1653), recognized as an independent landscape painter o f merit in Rubens's
correspondence with Sir Dudley Carleton, contributed calm, broadly executed landscapes
to the Decius M u s tapestry series and other history paintings, elements which were
compatible with Rubens's own brushwork but always subordinate to his figures.
80

81

After the death o f Archduke Albert in 1621, Rubens served Isabella as a diplomat
and political agent, until her death in 1633. In 1630-32 Rubens painted The Saint Ildefonso
Altarpiece (fig. 30) for Isabella in memory o f her husband. The monumental triptych
recalls traditional Flemish devotional images in its format and rich, jewel-like palette,
while also epitomizing the marvelous painterly brushwork o f Rubens's late career.
Rubens's own aversion to war and his frustration with the elusiveness of peace are a recur
ring theme in his later career, in works such as The Horrors of War (1637-38; Florence,
Palazzo Pitti). In the late 1630s, Rubens oversaw the production o f decorations for the
triumphal entry o f Archduke Ferdinand into Antwerp (1635), and the suite o f over one
hundred scenes from Ovid's Metamorphoses that were painted by his contemporaries and
assistants for Torre de la Parada, the hunting lodge o f Philip I V . Rubens's last years
were spent in part at his castle, the Steen, at Elewijt, outside Antwerp. H e died in 1640
after an illness and was eulogized on his epitaph as "the Apelles, not only o f his own
age but o f all time."
82

83

THE

WORKING

FRIENDSHIP

OF RUBENS

AND

BRUEGHEL

Rubens and Brueghel's professional and personal lives were closely intertwined, revealing
the extent o f their remarkable friendship. Shortly after Rubens decided to remain in
Antwerp, Brueghel introduced h i m into the elite confraternity o f Romanists, o f which
he had been a member for the preceding ten years. One o f the most often cited examples
of their friendship, however, was Rubens's role as amanuensis for his friend. H e acted
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as BrueghePs secretary to Cardinal Borromeo and his agent Bianchi. Starting i n October
1610, over two dozen letters i n Italian from Rubens's hand are known, continuing up
to Brueghel's death i n 1625. Although Rubens and Brueghel together painted at least
one garland for Borromeo, Rubens facilitated his friend's exchanges w i t h his M i l a n
patrons regardless o f the content. H i s briefer, more elegant style is evident when
compared with the lively but irregular grammar o f those written by Brueghel himself.
The intimacy and warmth o f their personal relationship were conveyed in Rubens's
splendid portrait o f Jan Brueghel and his family, painted at about the time they resumed
their painterly collaborations i n 1610-12 (frontispiece). The affectionate interactions
between Jan, his second wife, Catharina van Marienberghe, and their children Elisabeth,
on the left, and Pieter are emphasized by the tight format o f the Netherlandish portrait
tradition. The strong lighting, simple background, and sculptural quality o f the figures
lend the group a polished immediacy that mitigates the simplicity o f this older portrait
type, and underscores the familiarity o f the painter with his subjects. Jan Brueghel's
angled posture conveys the relaxed naturalism that seems to have been a revised objec
tive o f the painting. Rubens's first wife, Isabella Brant, was present at the baptism o f
the Brueghel children, and Rubens himself was godfather to Brueghel's older children,
Jan and Paschasia. A t Brueghel's death, he served as one o f the executors o f his friend's
w i l l and guardian o f his children. As a mark o f esteem for Brueghel and his family,
Rubens painted The Delivery of the Keys to Saint Peter to decorate the tomb o f Jan's father,
the celebrated Pieter Bruegel the Elder, i n Notre Dame de la Chapelle, Brussels.
85

86

87

88

89

Despite their disparate styles, Brueghel and Rubens exercised an artistic relation
ship that was based on mutually held principles. F r o m their earliest known collaboration
(cat. no. 1), conceptually innovative and technically challenging projects were the norm.
Unlike their work with other colleagues, i n which the painting styles are similar, Rubens
and Brueghel's joint works are distinguished by the evident separateness o f their hands
in a composition. While only one collaboration bears the names o f both artists (see
cat. no. 4), and a handful o f others Brueghel's name (see cat. no. 8), their established
specialties and styles o f painting serve as the visual equivalent o f a signature. M o s t
unusually for Rubens, in certain works, notably The Battle of the Amazons (cat. no. 1) and
The Return from War: Mars Disarmed by Venus (cat. no. 2), there exists a visual equality
between his work and that o f Brueghel. H i s willingness to allow certain features o f
Brueghel's approach, such as a high viewpoint or tilted foreground, as well as the strong
and even lighting Jan preferred, to be employed suggests that he perceived these as more
truly collaborative ventures than his works with other artists such as Snyders, which
were carried out under his direction. In instances where the composition is dominated
by Brueghel's contribution, such as i n the allegories o f the senses (see cat. no. 8) and the
garlands (fig. 1 and cat. no. 12), it is the type o f painting that determined which o f the
two partners took the primary role. There are also instances o f friendly reciprocity; i n
The Garden of Eden with the Poll ofMan (cat. no. 4) Rubens shared the role o f animal
painter and may even have contributed grapes to the foreground still life in The Return
from War. The artists certainly had access to each other's studios, and Brueghel's repeated
borrowing o f animal motifs from Rubens i n the years around 1612-13 attests to the close
association they enjoyed and which they acknowledged i n paint.

30

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FIGURE

31

H e n d r i c k van B a l e n , Jan B r u e g h e l
the E l d e r , F r a n s F r a n c k e n the
Y o u n g e r (1581-1642), a n d
S e b a s t i a n V r a n c x (1573-1647),
Blazon for the Rhetorician's Guild
1618. O i l o n p a n e l ,

"De Violieren"

73 x 73 c m (28 /4 x 28 /4 i n . ) .
3

Antwerp, Koninklijk M u s e u m voor

S c h o n e K u n s t e n , i n v . 366
IRPA/KIK-Brussels

While Rubens and Brueghel's artistic camaraderie was unusual, in the closeknit Antwerp artistic community there were bonds o f affinity and family between many
leading painters. It was not uncommon for the principal families to be connected
by marriage. M a n y o f these connections were facilitated by the common membership in
the G u i l d o f Saint Luke, the body that regulated and protected the work not only o f
painters but also o f sculptors and goldsmiths. A related corporate body, the rhetoricians
(rederijkers), brought together painters and so-called liefhebbers, amateur art-lovers, in a
learned dramatic society. Membership in the guild and other civic corporations provided
ample opportunity for feasting and merrymaking. The blazon (blazoen) o f 1618 (fig. 31)
presents the ideals o f the group as a delightful rebus, in which the art o f painting receives
tfee protection o f its patron, Saint Luke, and the goddess Fortuna.
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31

COLLABORATION

AND THE FLEMISH

WORKSHOP

TRADITION:

BACKGROUND

In their joint works Rubens and Brueghel largely adhered to their respective specialties,
although each could, and did, paint other elements on occasion. Their working relation
ship on a practical level reflected the Flemish tradition o f specialized contributions to
a single painting by artists and their workshops. While, as we shall see, only Patinir and
Metsys's partnership offers a possible precedent for the close artistic relationship o f
Rubens and Brueghel, the examples o f fifteenth- and sixteenth-century practices outlined
below testify to the truly elaborate and complex methods o f coproduction i n which
paintings resulted from the participation o f different contributors. U n t i l a comprehen
sive study o f collaboration i n the Netherlands is completed, it is only possible here to
touch on the main elements o f the rich tradition that informed the collaborative mode
employed by Rubens and Brueghel.
Collaboration was an essential component o f structured workshop practice and
was quite common i n the L o w Countries by the fifteenth century. Important prece
dents for the rapid development o f genres and the associated practice o f specialization i n
the early sixteenth century are found i n manuscript illumination. As J. G . Alexander
has observed, collaboration between different illuminators was "very common, especially
in the later M i d d l e A g e s . . . facilitated by the fact that the manuscript was still unbound
and could be distributed for different artists to work on at one time." A scribe i n
the late fourteenth century recounted how he traversed the streets o f Paris i n the rain
carrying a colophon between two studios. A hierarchy o f status and expertise was
implicit i n this process. Broadly speaking, under the direction o f a lead illuminator, who
might execute the most important miniatures, other artists, perhaps studio assistants,
w o u l d paint the remaining miniatures and the borders, which themselves might be
separated into decorative and figural components. It became increasingly common for
one artist to execute the figurative elements and another the landscape or elements
from nature. M o d e l books, transfer, pouncing, and other methods helped artists keep
pace with demand.
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93

94

95

Panel painters' workshops i n the fifteenth century were structured i n a similar

fashion. Documentary evidence, such as accounts, contracts, and guild records, suggests
that the master painter executed the important aspects o f a commission and assistants
in the studio w o u l d carry out the rest. Essential preparatory materials for painting,
including drawings o f motifs, enabled successful painters to produce multiple versions
of successful or popular compositions. Designs, drawings, and other precious resources
o f a workshop might also be passed to the son o f a painter or other family member,
who w o u l d continue i n his father's manner. The most famous example o f a jointly
produced painting i n the fifteenth century was The Adoration of the Mystic Lamb, also
known as the Ghent Altarpece (fig. 32), by Hubert van Eyck (d. 1426) and his brother Jan
(ca. 1390/1400-1441). A fragmentary inscription on the outside o f the altarpiece is
today largely accepted as evidence that Hubert began the polyptych and that his younger
brother Jan finished i t . Workshop resources were protected and passed o n to descen
dants i n the seventeenth century as well. Rubens closely guarded his drawings and
retained preparatory o i l sketches for future reference. While it is assumed that Jan
Brueghel the Elder worked with his son Jan the Younger, before the latter's departure for
96

97

98

99

32

TWO

CELEBRATED

PAINTERS

FIGURE

32

H u b e r t v a n E y c k ( d . 1426) a n d
J a n v a n E y c k (ca. 1 3 9 0 / 1 4 0 0 1441), The Ghent Altarpiece
Adoration of the Mystic Lamb)
( o p e n ) , c o m p l e t e d 1432. O i l o n
p a n e l , 350 x 461 c m (i37 /4 x
3

181V2 i n . ) . G h e n t , C a t h e d r a l o f
Saint Bavo IRPA/KIK-Brussels

Italy in the spring o f 1622, it was at the unexpected death of his father in 1625 that Jan II
inherited the contents o f the workshop and its "resources." The younger Brueghel
capitalized on the successful compositions and relationships established by his father and
produced, for example, numerous versions of the Five Senses and garlands. Documents
attest to his continued contact with Rubens, though the latter was pursuing diplomatic
ventures and must have largely operated through his studio. Jan the Younger's journal
(Dagfboek) for the period 1625-51 provides insight into the market-driven collaborative
relationships the younger Brueghel maintained with Abraham Janssens (ca. 1575-1632),
Lucas van U d e n (1595-1672), and his brother-in-law, David Teniers the Younger
(1610-1690), as well as his careful perpetuation o f his father's inventions.
Early in the sixteenth century, according to Karel van Mander, particularly in
the burgeoning port city o f Antwerp, the growing phenomenon o f varieties or specialties
(verscheydenheden) in which artists worked began to gather momentum. The favorable
economic climate i n the city, whose population would double over the next fifty years,
is often considered one o f the contributing factors to the change in artistic practice.
Opportunities for selling works o f art increased with the establishment o f yearly markets
(pandts) and later with the building o f the new bourse with its upper gallery o f shops
where artists and painters could sell on the open market. In this dynamic and competitive
marketplace, it has been argued, a specialized product was often advantageous.
M a n y painters moved to Antwerp from towns i n the southern Flemish regions, setting
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101

102

103

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33

up workshops and establishing themselves as specialists. O f the leading sixteenth-century

Antwerp painters, Joachim Patinir, the innovative landscape painter, and Quinten Metsys
the leading figure painter i n Antwerp, best anticipate the working relationship o f equals
enjoyed by Brueghel and Rubens. The Temptation of Saint Anthony (see fig. 21) is the only
painting that can be securely attributed to both artists, whereas Brueghel and Rubens,
remarkably, produced many paintings together. Like Brueghel and Rubens, Patinir
and Metsys worked with other artists, but their elements often dominated those o f the
other painter.

UNDERSTANDING

AND

PERCEIVING

COLLABORATION

While Walter Friedlander pessimistically described the increasing tendency toward

specialization as the seventeenth century approached as "a kind o f collaboration, which
often took excessive forms i n the seventeenth century, especially i n Antwerp" that
"implied a dubious division o f labor, a pernicious specialization," there is little evi
dence to indicate that specialties were perceived negatively i n the sixteenth and seven
teenth centuries. Even the painter Karel van Mander, whose biography o f the eminent
artists o f the time relied heavily on information supplied by descendants and others
for fifteenth- and early-sixteenth-century artists, and for w h o m the ideals o f the master
history painter were at odds with the Northern expertise i n landscape, adopted a
matter-of-fact approach. While it is clear that an artist with talent in all areas was con
sidered most admirable, Van Mander often simply states that a painter such as Patinir
was famous for a particular subject.
There is very little documentary material to tell us how collaborative paintings
were perceived by early viewers or patrons. It seems likely, particularly in the fifteenth
century when verisimilitude was especially valued, that a successfully unified surface
was the artistic and aesthetic goal. The intriguing inscription on the Ghent Altarpiece is
all the more suggestive, as the question o f which parts o f the polyptych were painted by
which artist has remained contentious even as the work was famously celebrated as the
work o f the brothers Van Eyck. In an interesting case from Bruges about 1520, an artist's
decision to subcontract out a portion o f the work on a large altarpiece gave rise to a law
suit when the disgruntled patrons sought to require him to paint the entire composition.
Statements by artists themselves concerning their authorship versus others' par
ticipation i n a work are very rare and should be understood as exceptional occurrences.
Brueghel's attestations that he painted certain pieces while others were the work o f a
knecht (assistant) have usually gone unnoticed but allow a rare glimpse into his working
arrangements. Rubens's famous declaration to Sir Dudley Carleton that certain
works were "by my hand" while others were "retouched by my own hand" amounts to
an acknowledgment o f the negative perception o f his workshop process and the desire
for wholly autograph works among potential patrons, and reveals his methods for
reassuring his important clients. Brueghel, too, often promoted his colleagues
including Rubensto Cardinal Borromeo. In a letter o f September 1621, Brueghel
offered a garland to Borromeo and promoted its magnificence and the contribution o f
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106

107

108

109

34

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PAINTERS

his colleague in glowing terms, noting that Rubens had demonstrated his skill with a
beautiful painting o f the Madonna in the middle, perhaps aware that the cardinal was
among the few patrons in Europe who remained cool to Rubens's talents.
Perhaps the best evidence of the status o f the collaborative process generally, as
well as the regard for the products o f Rubens and Brueghel's partnership, is the fre
quency with which paintings o f joint authorship are identified in contemporary docu
ments. Patinir and Metsys's Temptation of Saint Anthony (fig. 21) was attributed in
the 1574 inventory of the Escorial to "Master Quinten and Master Joachim," followed
by a description o f their respective contributions. Brueghel regularly identified his
collaborators in his correspondence with B o r r o m e o . Prometheus Bound (cat. no. 22),
clearly described by Rubens i n correspondence with Carleton, is the best-known
example in Rubens's oeuvre for which the second artist is named. However, The Head
ofMedusa (cat. no. 24) was identified in 1635 as "by Rubens and Subter [Snyders]," and
several works that entered prominent aristocratic and royal collections (for example,
cat. nos. 6 and 12) were also recognized as collaborative works. The inventories of paint
ings at the archducal hunting castle of Tervuren identify works o f joint authorship, as
do numerous household inventories, including those o f painters' estates. Three paintings
were clearly identified as by two artists in the Specif catie drawn up at Rubens's death,
and Frans Snyders owned three such paintings, including, extraordinarily, a "Psyche by
Titian and Rubens" (untraced).
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111

112

113

114

0 0 0 0

RUBENS

AND

BRUEGHEL'S

APPROACH

TO

CREATING

WORKS

OF

EXTRAORDINARY

beauty and refinement represents a late phase in the development o f the collaborative
artistic process in the L o w Countries, and much about their technical method, such
as their general adherence to figure and landscape specialties, reflects the practical
and long-held approaches to working pursued by their sixteenth-century predecessors.
Brueghel, however, challenged the traditional secondary role o f landscape by trans
forming settings, both interior and exterior, with encyclopedic detail, from the lush
menagerie o f the paradise landscape to the crumbling shadowy forge. Because every
painting Rubens and Brueghel produced was initially unique, their mode o f working
varied. It is often difficult today to discern w i t h certainty how a particular work
was painted. Both men shared forceful and energetic personalities, evident in the
quickness and surety o f their brushwork. The joyful camaraderie o f their collaborative
ventures is evident from the multiple levels o f meaning in their allegories, where even
politics and eroticism could coexist (see cat. no. 10). Equally evident is the delight
both artists took in illusionism and new ways o f viewing. The juxtaposition o f armor
painted by their two hands in The Return from War: Mars Disarmed by Venus (cat. no. 2)
amounts to friendly competition, whereas Brueghel's transfixingly descriptive fruit and
flower garlands, whether supported by Rubens's weighty putti (see fig. 1) or inhabited
by Brueghel's lively birds and animals (see cat. no. 12), compete with the ostensible
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PAINTERS

35

primacy o f Rubens's central painted icon, creating a highly intense viewing experience
and aid to devotion. It is only with a clearer understanding o f Brueghel's achievement as
an equal and even as a lead collaborator that the significance o f their mutual exchange
becomes apparent. Ultimately, Rubens and Brueghel's joint efforts were distinguished by
the cachet that their high status brought to each piece, as well as their close association
with their royal patrons, the impact o f their shared political and spiritual beliefs on the
invention o f new subjects, and, not least, their o w n profound friendship.

1968; H a i r s 1957; H a i r s 1977, p p . 1 3 - 3 3 ; a n d t h e

NOTES

a d d i t i o n a l references c i t e d b e l o w i n c o n j u n c t i o n
1. W h i l e s o m e i n s i g h t i n t o J a n B r u e g h e l t h e E l d e r ' s
w o r k s h o p c a n be g l e a n e d f r o m t h e d o c u m e n t s
p u b l i s h e d i n D e n u c e 1934, a s t u d y o f h i s s t u d i o
a r r a n g e m e n t s is n e e d e d ; see t h e

observations

remains the m o s t t h o r o u g h

o f Rubens's (pp. 93-130) and Brueghel's

consideration

Flanders: A R e v i e w o f the Evidence," i n B o s t o n -

( p p . 1 4 4 - 5 9 ) w o r k f o r t h e a r c h d u k e s , b u t see also

Toledo 1993-94, pp. 159-70; and A . Balis,

C h r i s t o p h e r B r o w n , " R u b e n s a n d the A r c h d u k e s "

'"Fatto da u n m i o discepolo': Rubens's Studio

(pp. 121-28), a n d Barbara W e l z e l , " A r m o r y

P r a c t i c e s R e v i e w e d , " i n T o k y o 1994, p p . 1 3 3 - 4 1 .

a n d A r c h d u c a l Image: T h e Sense o f T o u c h f r o m

d e n beyden vortrefHichen M a h l e r n Peter P a u l

t h e F i v e Senses o f J a n B r u e g h e l a n d P e t e r P a u l
R u b e n s " (pp. 9 9 - 1 0 6 ) , i n Brussels 1 9 9 8 - 9 9 .
7. F o r t h e g o v e r n m e n t a n d r e l i g i o u s p o l i c i e s o f t h e

Rybent u n d Briigeln viel herrlich Gemahlde

a r c h d u k e s , see P a s t u r e 1925 a n d E l i a s 1931. F o r

u n d Kunststiick. R y b e n t mahlet meistlich grosse

A n t w e r p ' s c i r c u m s t a n c e s after 1585, see T h i j s 1 9 9 0 .

S t u c k u n d alles i n r e c h t e r n a t i i r l i c h e r g r o s s e ,
aber iiberaufi k i i n s t l i c h s c h o n , u n d nach d e m
L e b e n . S o l i alle W o c h e n a u f f 100 G u l d e n a r b e i t e n
k o n n e n , m a g l e i c h t e i n S t u c k s e y n er verkauffet
s o l c h e s u m b 2, 3, 4 , a u c h 5 0 0 R e i c h s g u l d e n .
B r u g e l aber mahlet kleine T a f n e i n m i t L a n d schafften, a b e r alles so s u b t i l u n d k i i n s t l i c h , daft
mans m i t B e r w u n d e r u n g ansehen m u f i " :
N e u m a y r 1620, p . 261.
3. T h e j o i n t o e u v r e o f R u b e n s a n d B r u e g h e l
has b e e n i n v e s t i g a t e d i n M e r r i a m 1994 a n d

8. T h e m o s t t h o r o u g h t r e a t m e n t o f J a n B r u e g h e l ' s
career is E r t z 1979; aspects o f t h i s s t u d y h a v e
been revised a n d u p d a t e d b y the same a u t h o r i n
B r u s s e l s 1980, E s s e n - V i e n n a 1 9 9 7 - 9 8 , a n d
A n t w e r p 1998. See also C r i v e l l i 1868, W i n n e r 1961,
W i n n e r 1972, a n d B e d o n i 1983.
9. O n t h e o u t p u t o f P i e t e r B r u e g h e l t h e Y o u n g e r ' s
i n d u s t r i o u s w o r k s h o p , see M a a s t r i c h t - B r u s s e l s
2001-02.
10. " J a n v a n z y n G r o o t e - m o e d e r d e W e d u w e v a n

Van M u l d e r s 2000, Tamis 2001-02, V a n M u l d e r s

Pieter van Aelst hier van water-verwe hebbende

2 0 0 4 , V a n M u l d e r s 2005, and H o n i g 2005,

g h e l e e r t , q u a m e n leer d e v a n O l y - v e r w e b y e e n e n

a n d the e x h i b i t i o n K a s s e l - F r a n k f u r t 2 0 0 4 ; it

P i e t e r g o e - k i n d t , d a e r v e e l fraey d i n g h e n w a r e n

w i l l be t h e s u b j e c t o f a f o r t h c o m i n g v o l u m e

i n h u y s " (Jan learned to w o r k i n w a t e r c o l o r f r o m

i n the C o r p u s R u b e n i a n u m L u d w i g B u r c h a r d t

his g r a n d m o t h e r , the w i d o w o f Pieter [ C o e c k e ]

series b y C h r i s t i n e V a n M u l d e r s .

van Aelst, and became a student o f o i l painting

4. F o r collaboration generally i n seventeenthc e n t u r y F l e m i s h p a i n t i n g , see V a n d e r S t i g h e l e n

1990; Peter C . S u t t o n , " P a i n t i n g i n the A g e o f
Rubens: Collaboration," in Boston-Toledo
1 9 9 3 - 9 4 , p p . 3 5 - 3 7 ; H o n i g 1995; a n d V l i e g h e
1998, p p . 7 - 8 . S o m e o f t h e c h i e f s p e c i a l i s t s t u d i e s
include V a n Puyvelde 1949; M i i l l e r H o f s t e d e

PAINTERS

6. See cat. n o s . 7, 8, 9 A a n d 9 B . D e M a e y e r 1955

"Rubens's Atelier and H i s t o r y Painting i n

b e r i i h m b t e M a h l e r . H i e r a u f f s a h e n sie a u c h b e n

TWO CELEBRATED

5. C r i v e l l i 1868, p . 241 (letter o f D e c e m b e r 9, 1616).

i n H o n i g 2 0 0 5 . F o r R u b e n s , see H a n s V l i e g h e ,

2. " P e t e r P a u l R y b e n t u n d B r u g e l z w e e n e

36

w i t h specific p a r t n e r s h i p s .

w i t h one Pieter G o e - k i n d t , i n w h o s e house there

were m a n y h a n d s o m e w o r k s ) : V a n M a n d e r 1604,
f o l . 2 3 4 r ; V a n M a n d e r / M i e d e m a 1 9 9 4 - 9 9 , v o l . 1,
p. 195 ( t r a n s l a t i o n :

author).

11. " H i j r e y s d e v o o r t nae C o l e n , e n s o o i n I t a l i e n . . . "

(he t h e n t r a v e l e d t o C o l o g n e a n d so o n t o I t a l y ) :

V a n M a n d e r 1 6 0 4 , f o l . 234r; V a n M a n d e r /

F o r B r u e g h e l ' s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f the subject t o

M i e d e m a 1 9 9 4 - 9 9 , v o l . 1, p . r95-

s u i t B o r r o m e o , see J o n e s 1993, P P - 7 8 - 7 9 .

12. W i n n e r 1961, p . 1 9 0 ; a n d W i n n e r 1972, figs. 3 a n d

2 4 . B r u e g h e l was i n M i l a n b y M a y 30, 1596

4 . B r u e g h e l ' s s h o r t stay i n N a p l e s is d i s c u s s e d b y

( V a n d e n B r a n d e n 1883, p . 445)- H i s letter t o

B e d o n i 1983, p p . 1 9 - 2 1 .

B o r r o m e o o f O c t o b e r 10, 1596, c o n f i r m s he

13. B r u e g h e l ' s p r e s e n c e i n R o m e b y 1592 is s u p p o r t e d

b y the i n s c r i p t i o n o n the v e r s o o f a d r a w i n g o f
V e n u s a n d p u t t i b y the A n t w e r p artist L o d e w i j k

had arrived i n A n t w e r p by that time (Crivelli

1868, p. 7).
25. R o m b o u t s a n d V a n L e r i u s 1 8 6 4 - 7 6 , p p . 397, 4 1 6 ,
418.

T o e p u t ( S t o c k h o l m , N a t i o n a l M u s e u m , inv.
1347/1863): " H a n s b r u e g h e l i n R o o m a 1592,"
i n d i c a t i n g t h a t B r u e g h e l a c q u i r e d the d r a w i n g
from Toeput, w h o then resided i n Treviso;

26. F o r the h i s t o r y a n d m e m b e r s h i p o f the A n t w e r p

c o n f r a t e r n i t y o f R o m a n i s t s , see D i l i s 1923.
27. H e l d (1983, p . 2 4 ) p r o p o s e d t h a t B r u e g h e l c o u l d

see W i n n e r 1961, p p . 1 9 0 - 9 1 , i l l u s t r a t i n g the

i n s c r i p t i o n , a n d R u b y 1999, p p . 4 4 , 145 - 3 4 o .
n

have m e t R u b e n s w h e n he t r a v e l e d t h r o u g h
C o l o g n e , w h e r e Jan's sister M a r i a l i v e d , o n h i s

14. R u b y 1999, p p . 4 4 - 45.

w a y t o Italy. H o w e v e r , t h i s s c e n a r i o seems

15. F o r the i n f l u e n c e o f J a c o p o B a s s a n o o n B r u e g h e l ' s

r e m o t e , as R u b e n s , w h o w o u l d have b e e n a b o u t

e m e r g i n g p a r a d i s e l a n d s c a p e g e n r e , see K o l b

t w e l v e i n 1589, w a s n o t yet p a r t o f an a r t i s t i c

2 0 0 5 . F o r B r u e g h e l ' s awareness o f Z u c c h i ' s i n n o

community.

v a t i o n s , see H o n i g 2 0 0 5 .

28. " . . . e n is i n seer g r o o t a c h t e n g h e c o m e n m e t te

16. K l a u s E r t z , " J e a n B r u e g h e l P A i n e , " i n B r u s s e l s

heeft" ( . . . a n d is h e l d i n very g r e a t esteem b y

17. B r u e g h e l ' s c o r r e s p o n d e n c e w i t h B o r r o m e o is
p u b l i s h e d i n C r i v e l l i 1868 a n d V a e s 1 9 2 6 - 2 7 . F o r
Brueghel's contact w i t h B o r r o m e o i n R o m e
a n d i n M i l a n , see, r e s p e c t i v e l y , G a b r i e l i 1 9 3 3 - 3 4 ,
p p . 5 9 - 6 0 ; a n d B e d o n i 1983, p p . 8 9 - 1 0 7 .

veder la pittura d i nostra: m a veramente n o n

111.mo

de

t e n i r le c o s a sua i n g r a n d g r a n d ' e' s t i m o . "

(letter o f O c t o b e r 10, 1596): C r i v e l l i 1868, p . 7.

Angels

as w e l l as A Glory of

b y R o t t e n h a m m e r a n d B r u e g h e l , see J o n e s

1993, p p . 2 3 4 - 3 5 , n o . 30, a n d p p . 2 6 0 - 6 1 , n o . 1 0 0 ,
respectively. F o r B o r r o m e o ' s e a r l y c o n t a c t w i t h
B r u e g h e l a n d R o t t e n h a m m e r , see B e d o n i 1983,
pp. 38-49.
2 0 . See, f o r e x a m p l e , Cascades ofTivoli

he s h o w s an e x c e l l e n t l y fine m a n n e r o f w o r k i n g ) :
V a n M a n d e r / M i e d e m a 1 9 9 4 - 9 9 , v o l . 1, p . 195.

R u b e n s eerst g e s c h i l d e r t , m e t b u i t e n l y s t , w e s e n d e
d e n b e r c h P a r n a s s u s , get. N o . 362" (a p i e c e b y
O c t a v i [ O t t o van Veen] and B r c u g e l and by

t r o v e c o s a n i s u n o a p p r e s o q u e l l o d T t a l i a et
d'quel D o d e s c o : per questo prego v s .

m a k i n g s m a l l landscapes a n d t i n y figures i n w h i c h

29. "een s t u c k v a n O c t a v i e n d e B r c u g e l e n d c v a n

18. ' T o s o n o p e r t u t t i i n H o l l a n d i a e F i a n d r o , p e r

19. F o r the Six Small Landscapes,

m a k e n L a n d s c h a p k e n s en seer c l c e n b e e l d e k c n s
daer h y een u y t n e m e n d e fraey h a n d e l i n g h v a n

1980, p . 166.

R u b e n s i n his e a r l y style, f r a m e d , d e p i c t i n g
M o u n t Parnassus) i n the i n v e n t o r y o f H e r m a n
de N e y t ( O c t o b e r 15-21, 1 6 4 2 ) ; see D e n u c e
1932, p. 1 0 0 . See also cat. n o . 1.
30. B r u e g h e l m a r r i e d C a t h a r i n a i n A p r i l 1605
( V a n d e n B r a n d e n 1883, p p . 4 4 5 - 4 6 ) .
31. V a n d e n B r a n d e n 1883, p . 4 4 6 . F o r the d o c u m e n t ,
see D e n u c e 1934, p p . 2 0 - 2 1 , d o c . n .
32. F o r V a n B a l e n ' s career, see V a n M a n d e r 1 6 0 4 ,

(pen and

w a t e r c o l o r o n paper, 23.7 x 2 8 . 4 c m [ 9 V 4 x
11V8 i n . ] ; L e i d e n , R i j k s u n i v e r s i t e i t , i n v . 1 2 4 0 ) ;
B r u s s e l s - R o m e 1995, p p . 1 2 7 - 2 8 , cat. n o . 47.
21. T h e d r a w i n g p r o b a b l y dates f r o m the e n d o f
B r u e g h e l ' s R o m a n stay; see W i n n e r 1972, p . 122;
a n d B r u s s e l s - R o m e 1995, p . 128, cat. n o . 4 8 .
22. See n o t e 13 a b o v e .
23. F o r the p r i n t " S o l i t u d o , sive v i t a e p a t r u m
e r e m i c o l a r u m " b y J a n a n d R a p h a e l S a d e l e r after
d r a w i n g s b y M a r t e n de V o s , see J o n e s 1993,
p p . 2 1 6 - 1 7 , 234; a n d E r t z 1979, P- 562, n o . 30.

f o l . 295V; V a n M a n d e r / M i e d e m a 1 9 9 4 - 9 9 , v o l . 1,
p. 4 4 1 ; J o s t 1963; a n d W e r c h e 2 0 0 4 .
33. B r u e g h e l ' s c o r r e s p o n d e n c e was p u b l i s h e d b y
C r i v e l l i 1868.
34. See the i m p o r t a n t a r t i c l e b y F r e c d b e r g (1981), as
w e l l as J o n e s 1993, p p . 8 4 - 8 7 , a n d U . K l c i n m a n n ,
"Blumen, Krantze und Girlanden: Z u r Enstehung
u n d G e s t a l t u n g eines A n t w e r p e n e r B i l d t y p u s , "
i n E s s e n - V i e n n a 1 9 9 7 - 9 8 , p p . 5 4 - 6 6 . See also
cat. n o s . 12 a n d 19.
35. A scene o f Hell,

sent i n 1608, was a l t e r e d p e r

B o r r o m e o ' s s p e c i f i c a t i o n s ; see J o n e s 1993, p . 235.

TWO

CELEBRATED

PAINTERS

37

36. " F u i t i n s u o g e n e r e m i r i s i c u s , p o t u i t q u e c o r p u s -

4 3 . F o r the career o f J a n B r u e g h e l the Y o u n g e r ,

c u l i s i l l i s i n s e r e r e tarn g e n e r o s o s , v i u i d o s q u e

see M . - L . H a i r s , " J a n B r u e g h e l de J o n g e r e , "

s p i r i t u s , v t i n c e r t u m r e l i n q u e r e v i d e a t u r i n spec-

i n B r u s s e l s 1980, p p . 2 2 6 - 3 0 , 2 3 8 - 4 3 ; a n d E r t z

t a n t i u m a n i m i s , altane, a n h u m i l i d i m e n s i o n e

1984.

incluserit t e n u u i u m earum

figurarum

modum.

V i d e t u r p e n i c i l l o suo per cuncta nature voluisse

peruagari. P i n x i t e n i m , sicuti postea

demostra-

b i m u s , M a r i a , M o n t e s , A n t r a , specusque subteran e o s , et o m n i a ista spacys d i s i e c t a i m m a n i b u s

4 4 . S e g h e r s was r e g i s t e r e d i n t h e g u i l d o f S a i n t L u k e
as a leerjongen

( a p p r e n t i c e ) i n 1611; see R o m b o u t s

a n d V a n L e r i u s 1 8 6 4 - 7 6 , v o l . 1, p p . 477, 4 8 0 , 4 8 3 .
45. T h e i r a r t i s t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p is d o c u m e n t e d i n

i n augustum coegit, naturam ipsam imitatus

1612-13, w h e n B r u e g h e l s a i d he h a d p a i n t e d the

n o n c o l o r i b u s t a n t u m , sed etiam facilitate, q u a

figures

s i c u t i n a t u r e , i t a e t i a m artis s u m m u m d e c u s

f l o r i n s each (fatto l i figuri i n 6 q u a d r i d e l

est. Q u a s i fortafie c u i p i a m n i m i s effusa l a u d a t i o

M o m p e r a 25 fiorina p e r u n ) as w e l l as t h e

v i d e t u r , sciat, t a n t a m o l i m fore f a m a m ,

f o r a F o u r Seasons series at 4 0 florins a p a r t

nomenque

i n six o f D e M o m p e r ' s p a i n t i n g s at 25
figures

v i r i , v t p a r c e , ac restricte l a u d a t u s v i d e r i p o s s i t . "

( L i q u a t r o s t a g i o n i f d e l M o m p e r , et l ' a l t r o fatto

T h e E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n is f r o m Q u i n t (1986,

i n C a s a , l i figuri fatto d i m i o m a n e a 4 0

p . 236), a n d the L a t i n is f r o m the f a c s i m i l e r e p r o

p e r p e z z o ) ; see C r i v e l l i 1868, p . 2 0 8 ; a n d E r t z

d u c e d b y the s a m e a u t h o r (p. 198).

1979, p . 4 7 0 .
4 6 . C r i v e l l i 1868, p . 295 (letter o f M a y 7, 1622,

37. J o n e s 1993, p p . 2 3 2 - 3 3 , n o . 26.

38. " . . . h o p r i n c i p i a t a et d e s t i n a t o a V S

fiorina

111.mo

una

M a s s a de v a r i o f i o r i g l i q u a l i r e u c e r a n i m o l t o
bello: tanta per la naturalleza c o m e anco delle
b e l l e z z a et r a r i t a de v a r i o fiori i n q u e s t a p a r t o
a l c u n i i n c o n i t a et n o n p e i u u i s t o : p e r q u e l l a i o
s o n stata a B r u s s e l l a p e r r i t r a r e a l c u n i fiori d e l

w r i t t e n by R u b e n s o n Brueghel's behalf).
47. D i a z P a d r o n 1995, v o l . 1, p p . 2 3 6 - 4 5 ,
nos. 1 4 0 3 - 0 4 .
4 8 . V a n d e n B r a n d e n 1883, p . 451.
4 9 . A l t h o u g h i t has l o n g b e e n b e l i e v e d t h a t the gar

n a t u r a l , che n o n t r o u e i n A n v e r s a " (letter o f

l a n d B r u e g h e l refers t o is t o d a y i n the M u s e o

A p r i l 14, 1 6 0 6 ) : C r i v e l l i 1868, p . 63; a n d " C r e d o

N a c i o n a l del Prado, according to A r i a n e van

q u e n o n sia m a i f a t t o t a n t i r a r o et v a r i o
finita

fiori,

c o n s i m l a d i l i g e n s a , d ' i n u e r n a farra u n b e l

u e d e r e , a l c u n i c o l o r i a r r i u e n o apressa p o c a i l
n a t u r a l " (letter o f A u g u s t 25, 1 6 0 6 ) : C r i v e l l i 1868,
p p . 7 4 - 7 5 . T h e E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n is f r o m J o n e s
1993, p . 82, w h o n o t e s the letter was w r i t t e n

S u c h t e l e n i t is m o r e l i k e l y t o be the Madonna
Child

in a Garland

and

of Flowers i n the M u s e e d u

L o u v r e ; see cat. n o . 12.

50. F o r R u b e n s ' s l i f e , see the m o n o g r a p h s b y W h i t e
(1987) a n d V o n S i m s o n (1996), a n d the r e c e n t
treatments by U . H e i n e n ( " H e r r Pietro Paulo
c

in June.
39. F o r e x a m p l e , see D u v i v i e r i 8 6 0 , p . 331,
d o c . i v ( A p r i l 5, 1 6 0 6 ) , a n d p . 332, d o c . v i
( A p r i l 10, 1 6 0 6 ) .
4 0 . D e M a e y e r ' s (1955) t h o r o u g h c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f
the different c a t e g o r i e s o f artists w o r k i n g at the
a r c h d u c a l c o u r t has r e c e n t l y b e e n g i v e n t h o u g h t
ful reconsideration by Sabine van Sprang,
" L e s p e i n t r e s a l a c o u r d A l b e r t et I s a b e l l e : u n e
t e n t a t i v e de c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , " i n V l i e g h e a n d
V a n der Stighelen 2005, pp. 3 7 - 4 6 .
41. F o r t h e d o c u m e n t , see D u v i v i e r i 8 6 0 , d o c . I I ,
p . 4 4 0 ; B r u e g h e l ' s r e q u e s t is d i s c u s s e d i n
D e M a e y e r (1955, p . 148) a n d b y V a n S p r a n g
( n o t e 4 0 a b o v e , p . 41).
4 2 . F o r a reassessment o f B r u e g h e l ' s Peasant W e d
d i n g s a n d the p o l i t i c a l a g e n d a o f the a r c h d u k e s ,
see C o r d u l a S c h u m a n n , " C o u r t , C i t y a n d
C o u n t r y s i d e : J a n B r u e g h e l ' s Peasant W e d d i n g s
as I m a g e s o f S o c i a l U n i t y u n d e r A r c h d u c a l
Sovereignty," i n Brussels 1 9 9 8 - 9 9 , pp. 151-60.

38

T W O

C E L E B R A T E D

PAINTERS

Rubens, Ritter' A n m e r k u n g zur Biographie,"

i n B r a u n s c h w e i g 2 0 0 4 , pp. 13-27) and B a u d o u i n
(2005).
51. F o r R u b e n s ' s e a r l y teachers, see N o r r i s 1 9 4 0 ,
p p . 1 8 9 - 9 0 ; a n d H e l d 1983.
52. F o r the life a n d career o f O t t o v a n V e e n ,
see M i i l l e r H o f s t e d e 1957 a n d V l i e g h e 1998,
pp. 18-19.
53. F o r V a n V e e n ' s service t o the a r c h d u c a l c o u r t ,
see D e M a e y e r 1955, p p . 6 2 - 8 2 . V a n S p r a n g ( n o t e
4 0 a b o v e , p . 37) discusses the d u t i e s a n d p r i v i
leges a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the p o s i t i o n o f

"ingenieur?

54. E a r l y G e r m a n p r i n t s w e r e c o l l e c t e d a n d d i s
c u s s e d a m o n g a l e a r n e d c i r c l e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the
mapmaker A b r a h a m Ortelius. Rubens's recollec
t i o n o f the i m p o r t a n c e o f d r a w i n g after G e r m a n
artists i n h i s y o u t h was r e c o u n t e d b y J o a c h i m
v o n S a n d r a r t ( 1 6 0 6 - 1 6 8 8 ) ; see P e l t z e r 1925, p. 156.

p p . 2 0 9 - 2 5 1 ; I n c i s a d c l l a R o c c h c t t a 1963,

55. "Peeter R u b b e n s , v r y m e e s t e r , s c i l d e r " (Peeter

pp. 161-83;

R u b b e n s , free master, p a i n t e r ) : R o m b o u t s a n d
V a n L e r i u s 1 8 6 4 - 7 6 , p. 4 0 1 .

d H e l d 1980, p p . 5 3 7 - 4 5 .

67. See R u b e n s ' s letter t o A n n i b a l c C h i e p p i o

( F e b r u a r y 2, 1608), w h e r e he says " m y p a i n t i n g

56. F o r the p o r t r a i t , w h i c h is e n g r a v e d o n the v e r s o ,

P E T R V S P A V L V S R V B E N S / P I , see L i e d t k e 1984,

for the h i g h altar o f the C h i c s a N u o v a t u r n e d

v o l . 1, p p . 1 8 7 - 9 1 .

o u t v e r y w e l l , t o the e x t r e m e s a t i s f a c t i o n o f the
fathers a n d also ( w h i c h rarely h a p p e n s ) t o a l l

57. " . . . je confesse d'estre p a r u n i n s t i n c t n a t u r e l

the o t h e r s w h o first s a w it ( . . . m i o q u a d r o per

p l u s p r o p r e a faire des o u v r a g e s b i e n g r a n d e s q u e

PAltar maggiore della chicsa nova, cssendo

des petites c u r i o s i t e z , " (letter o f S e p t e m b e r 13,

1621,

riuscito buonissimo, i con summa

to W i l l i a m T r u m b u l l ) : Rooses and Ruelens

1 8 8 7 - 1 9 0 9 , v o l . 2, p . 286 (letter n o . 225); trans

di tutti gli altri ch'el videro p r i m a ) : Rooses and

R u e l e n s 1 8 8 7 - 1 9 0 9 , v o l . 1, p. 4 0 3 (letter n o . 108);
t r a n s l a t e d i n M a g u r n 1955, p p . 4 2 - 4 3 . R u b e n s

58. F o r R u b e n s ' s career i n Italy, see Jaffe 1977 a n d

goes o n t o n o t e the u n f o r t u n a t e l i g h t t h a t

L o n d o n 2005.

r e q u i r e d h i m t o r e p a i n t the w o r k o n a n o n -

59. V l i e g h e ( n o t e 1 a b o v e ) , p p . 1 5 9 - 6 0 .

reflective s u p p o r t . S e c cat. n o s . 12 a n d 19.

F o r R u b e n s ' s d r a w i n g s after a n t i q u e s c u l p t u r e ,
see V a n d e r M e u l e n 1994, a n d the i n s i g h t f u l

68. " M a p e r v e n i r e alle cose m i e s a p i a V S . c h i o n o n

saprei i n adesso che r e s o l u t i o n e p i g l i a r m i che fer-

observations i n L o n d o n 2005, pp. 8 9 - 9 5 .

61. Saint Helena

soddisfattione

di q u e l l i P a d r i i [ c i o che rare v o l t e accade]

l a t e d i n M a g u r n 1955, p . 4 6 .

60.

Discovering

C a t h e d r a l ) , The Mocking

m a r m i n e l l a P a t r i a o d i r i t o r n a r e per s e m p r e i n
R o m a donde vengo sollecitato con buonissimc

the True Cross ( G r a s s e ,

of Christ

C a t h e d r a l ) , a n d The Raising

c o n d i t i o n i ; q u i a n c o r a n o n m a n c a n o d i far o g n i

(Grasse,

sforzo a r i t e n e r m i c o n o g n i sorta d i carezze.

of the Cross k n o w n

today from a c o p y (Grasse, Cathedral). A l b e r t

L ' A r c i d u c a , e L T n f a n t a serenissima m i h a n n o fatto

r e s i g n e d h i s c a r d i n a l ' s hat w h e n he m a r r i e d

s c r i v e r e f a c e n d o i n s t a n z a d i r i m a n e r e al l o r o
servizio c o n grandissime offcrte, benche h o poca

Isabella C l a r a E u g e n i a .

v o l o n t a d i r i f a r m i c o r t e g g i a n o . A n v e r s a m i bastara

62. I t e n t e r e d the r o y a l c o l l e c t i o n s b y 1574; see B a l i s

c o l l i s u o i c i t t a d i n i , q u a n d o potessi d i r a D i o a

et a l . 1989a, p p . 7 8 - 8 1 .

R o m a . L a pace o p e r d i r m e g l i o t r e g u a p e r m o l t i
a n n i si fa d i s i c u r o m e d i a n t e la q u a l e si c r e d c che

63. W h e t h e r the sitter c o m m i s s i o n e d an e q u e s t r i a n

p o r t r a i t f r o m R u b e n s o r w h e t h e r the artist

q u e s t i paesi r i f i o r i r a n n o et si crede che per la

i n v e n t e d it i n r e s p o n s e t o a g e n e r a l r e q u e s t is

s e t t i m a n a p r o s s i m a si p u b l i c a r a per t u t t e q u c s t e

u n c l e a r ; see V e r g a r a 1999, p p . n - 1 6 ; a n d M a d r i d

p r o v i n c e . " : R o o s e s a n d R u e l e n s 1 8 8 7 - 1 9 0 9 , v o l . 6,

2001-02.

p p . 3 2 3 - 2 4 ; t r a n s l a t e d i n M a g u r n 1955, p p . 5 2 - 5 3 .

6 4 . W h i l e the earliest h i s t o r i e s o f t w o d r a w i n g s b y
R u b e n s c o n n e c t e d w i t h the e q u e s t r i a n
o f L e r m a (Equestrian

Portrait

portrait

of a Knight

in

pen and b r o w n ink w i t h b r o w n wash over

Armor,

b l a c k c h a l k h e i g h t e n e d w i t h w h i t e , 67.3 x 41 c m
[26V2

x i 6 / s i n . ] ; M u n i c h , Staatliche G r a p h i s c h e
1

S a m m l u n g , 1983.84, a n d Equestrian
a Knight

in Armor,

Portrait

of

p e n a n d i n k w i t h w a s h , 29 x

21.5 c m [ i i / s x 8 V 2 i n . ] ; P a r i s , M u s e e d u L o u v r e ,
3

inv. 20.185) are n o t k n o w n , i f R u b e n s r e t a i n e d

t h e m , the sheets m i g h t have b e e n accessible t o
B r u e g h e l i n the studio.. T h e d r a w i n g s a n d t h e i r
h i s t o r i e s are d i s c u s s e d b y T h e a V i g n a u - W i l b e r g ,
" R u b e n s ' S t u d i e s f o r the E q u e s t r i a n P o r t r a i t
o f the D u k e o f L e r m a , " i n M a d r i d 2 0 0 1 - 0 2 ,
pp. 21-29, 54-5965. F o r R u b e n s i n M a n t u a , see M a n t u a - M i l a n 1977.
66. F o r the b r o t h e r s ' R o m a n r e s i d e n c e , see R o o s e s
a n d R u e l e n s 1 8 8 7 - 1 9 0 9 , v o l . 1, p. 3 0 9 . F o r
the a l t a r p i e c e c o m m i s s i o n , see Jaffe 1963,

69.

F o r The Adoration

of the Magi,

see M a d r i d 2 0 0 4 ,

p p . 55-123.
70. See V l i e g h e 1993. F o r R u b e n s ' s awareness o f
f i f t e e n t h - c e n t u r y p r e c e d e n t s , see E i s l e r 1967.
71. F o r Samson and Delilah,

see L o n d o n 2 0 0 5 , p. 166,

cat. n o . 77.
72. F o r R u b e n s ' s p r i c e s , sec H . V l i e g h e , " M a a t w e r k
en c o n f e c t i e . O v e r de f u n c t i e v a n h i s t o r i c
s c h i l d e r k u n s t i n de V l a a m s e stad v a n de i 7

d c

c e u w , " i n B r u s s c l s - S c h a l l a b u r g 1991, p. 2 6 0 . I n
1611 R u b e n s s t a t e d he was u n a b l e t o accept the
p o t e n t i a l s t u d e n t p r o p o s e d b y his f r i e n d J a c o b
de B i e , s a y i n g " . . . ic v a n alle c a n t c n g h e pre ve
il ieert b e n s o o dat n o c h s o m m i g h e v o o r e t l y c k e
j a r e n b y a n d e r meesters haer o n d e r h o u d e n
myn

om

c o m m o d i t e y t te v c r w a c h t e n . . . v o o r t s m a c h

ic s e g g h e n m e t d e r w a e r h e y t s o n d e r e c n i c h
h y p e r b o l e dat ic o v e r d i e h o n d e r t h e b b e m o c t c n
refuseren 0 0 c s o m m i g h e v a n m y n e n d e m y n s
h u y s v r o u w e n maegen niet sonder

grooten

TWO

PAINTERS

CELEBRATED

39

o n d a n c k v a n v e l e v a n m y n beste v r i e n d e n " ( F r o m

T h i s y o u n g m a n is u s u a l l y i d e n t i f i e d as W i l d e n s .

a l l sides a p p l i c a t i o n s r e a c h m e . S o m e y o u n g m e n

W h e n W i l d e n s m a r r i e d M a r i a S t a p p a e r t i n 1619,

r e m a i n h e r e f o r several years w i t h o t h e r m a s t e r s ,

"his g o o d friend" (zijnen goede vriendt) R u b e n s

awaiting a vacancy i n m y s t u d i o . . . I can tell

s e r v e d as a w i t n e s s ( V a n d e n B r a n d e n 1883,

y o u t r u l y w i t h o u t exaggeration, that I have h a d

p. 6 8 4 ) .

t o refuse o v e r o n e h u n d r e d , e v e n s o m e o f m y
relatives o r m y w i f e ' s , a n d n o t w i t h o u t c a u s i n g
g r e a t d i s p l e a s u r e a m o n g m a n y o f m y best
f r i e n d s ) : R o o s e s a n d R u e l e n s 1 8 8 7 - 1 9 0 9 , v o l . 2,
p. 35 (letter o f M a y 11, 1611); t r a n s l a t e d i n

73. T h e l e t t e r p a t e n t w a s p u b l i s h e d b y D e M a e y e r
(1955, p p . 2 9 3 - 9 5 ) a n d d i s c u s s e d b y C h r i s t o p h e r
B r o w n ("Rubens a n d the A r c h d u k e s , " i n Brussels
1 9 9 8 - 9 9 , p . 121) a n d V a n S p r a n g ( n o t e 4 0 a b o v e ,

of the Cross, see M a r t i n 1969.

76. R o o s e s 1 8 8 6 - 9 2 , v o l . 4 , p . 14, n o . 8 0 0 . F o r r e c e n t
t e c h n i c a l f i n d i n g s , see G a y o G a r c i a a n d V e r g a r a
2004.
77. S e v e r a l i n d e p e n d e n t w o r k s b y S n y d e r s a p p e a r i n
( S p e c i f i c a t i o n ) m a d e at R u b e n s ' s

d e a t h : " n o . 239 A b a s k e t t w i t h f r u i t e , a n d b i r d s ,
by F r a n c h y s Snyders," " n o . 260 the h u n t i n g e o f a
g r e a t w i l d b o r e ; b y F r a n c y s S n y d e r s , " " n o . 261 A
f l o w e r p o t t b y t h e same," " A B o r d , w h e r e f r u i t e
Lyes v p p o n the E a r t h by F r a n . Sndyers," a n d
"no. 264 A bord, w i t h Cabbages & Turnipps by
t h e s a m e " ; see M u l l e r 1989, p p . 1 3 7 - 3 8 ; a n d
A n t w e r p 2004, pp. 174-76.

87. H a i r s 1977, p . 13.

88. T h e o t h e r g u a r d i a n s w e r e the p a i n t e r s H e n d r i c k
v a n B a l e n a n d C o r n e l l s S c h u t ; see D e n u c e 1934,
p p . 51-52, d o c . 2 0 , a n d p p . 55-57, d o c . 23.
89. Jaffe 1989, n o . 219.
9 0 . F o r t h e A n t w e r p G u i l d o f S a i n t L u k e , see
R o m b o u t s a n d v'an L e r i u s 1 8 6 4 - 7 6 .
91. T h e i m a g e is i n t h e f o r m o f a r e b u s o f a p o e m
by the painter Sebastian V r a n c x : "Apeiles
scholieren, die Sint Lucas vieren, / W i l t helpen
versieren den Olyftak snel, / M e t ons V i o l i e r e n
en A p o l l o ' s laurieren, / V l u c h t droevige manieren,
w i l l i c h houdt Vrede w e l " (Students o f Apeiles
D e c o r a t e the O l i v e B r a n c h / w i t h o u r g i l l y f l o w e r s
a n d the laurels o f A p o l l o , / M e l a n c h o l y ways

i n N e w Y o r k 2 0 0 5 , p p . 15-18.

r e a d i l y flee. K e e p t h e Peace w e l l ) ; see

/ 2 6 . A L a n d s c h a p [sic] o f P a u l B r i l l ' s w i t h a
P s y c h e " ; see M u l l e r 1980, p . 1 0 0 , n o . 2 6 , w h o
n o t e s " i t is n o t clear w h e t h e r R u b e n s o r d e r e d a
figureless l a n d s c a p e f r o m B r i l f o r t h e p u r p o s e
of collaboration or independently retouched Bril's
w o r k . " See also K o n r a d R e n g e r ' s e n t r y o n t h e
p a i n t i n g i n A n t w e r p 2 0 0 4 a , p . 174.

1957, a n d f o r t h e i r Rausias and Glycera

K e e r s m a e k e r s 1957, p p . 3 4 3 - 5 0 a n d P e t e r S u t t o n
i n B o s t o n - T o l e d o 1 9 9 3 - 9 4 , p . 57.
92. C a m p b e l l 1981, p . 50.
93. A l e x a n d e r 1992, p . 4 9 .
9 4 . A l e x a n d e r 1992, p . 50.
95. F o r a t h o r o u g h c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e v a r i e d p r a c
tices i n v o l v e d i n m a n u s c r i p t p r o d u c t i o n , see

80. F o r B e e r t ' s w o r k w i t h R u b e n s , see B e r g s t r o m

(1612-15;

A l e x a n d e r 1992. R e c e n t c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o l i t e r a t u r e
o n the p r o d u c t i o n o f F l e m i s h miniatures include

Sarasota, F l o r i d a , T h e J o h n and M a b e l R i n g l i n g

C a t h e r i n e R e y n o l d s , " I l l u m i n a t o r s and the

M u s e u m o f A r t , i n v . S N 2 1 9 ( 0 ] ) , see V i e n n a -

Painters' Guilds," i n L o s A n g e l e s - L o n d o n

E s s e n 2 0 0 2 , p p . 116-17, cat. n o . 33.

2 0 0 3 - 0 4 , p p . 15-33; a n d T h o m a s K r e n

81. I n a letter o f M a r c h 14, 1617 (to S i r D u d l e y

C a r l e t o n ) , G e o r g e G a g e refers t o " a y o n g m a n
w h o h a t h l i v e d l o n g i n I t a l y , w h o I t h i n k is t h e
rarest m a n l i v i n g i n L a n t s c a p e " : R o o s e s a n d
R u e l e n s 1 8 8 7 - 1 9 0 9 , v o l . 2, p . 1 0 4 (letter n o . 151).

P A I N T E R S

86. See V l i e g h e 1987, p p . 6 0 - 6 2 , n o . 7 9 ; R u b e n s ' s

E d i n b u r g h - N o t t i n g h a m 2 0 0 2 a n d is d i s c u s s e d

79. " 2 6 . V n paysage d e B r i l avec l ' h i s t o i r e de P s y c h e .

C E L E B R A T E D

85. P u b l i s h e d b y C r i v e l l i 1868.

w h o celebrate S a i n t L u k e / H e l p us q u i c k l y !

78. T h i s f a s c i n a t i n g p r a c t i c e w a s t h e f o c u s o f

T W O

8 4 . D i l i s 1923, p p . 4 5 6 - 5 7 -

the e n d o f the seventeenth century.

74. L i n d 1 9 4 6 , p . 38.

40

83. T h e e p i t a p h w a s c o m p o s e d b y R u b e n s ' s f r i e n d

portrait remained i n Brueghel's family through

p. 4 0 ) .

t h e Specificatie

M a r t i n 1972. F o r the T o r r e d e l a P a r a d a , see

A l p e r s 1971.

J a n G a s p a r G e v a e r t s ; see R o o s e s 1903, p . 6 2 9 .

M a g u r n 1955, P- 55-

75. F o r The Raising

82. F o r t h e d e c o r a t i o n s f o r t h e t r i u m p h a l entry, see

and M a r y a n W. A i n s w o r t h , "Illuminators and

Painters: Artistic Exchanges and Inter
relationships," i n L o s A n g e l e s - L o n d o n 2 0 0 3 - 0 4 ,
PP- 35-57-

a n d f o r the p h e n o m e n o n o f a " n e w " p r o d u c t , see

96. See C a m p b e l l 1981; C a m p b e l l 1998, p p . 2 3 - 2 8 ;

D e M a r c h i a n d V a n M i e g r o e t 1998.

and M a r y a n A i n s w o r t h , " W o r k s h o p Practice i n

Early Netherlandish Painting: A n Inside View,"
in N e w Y o r k 1998-99a, pp. 205-11.

105.

97. C a m p b e l l 1998, p . 53-

106.

between H u b e r t and Jan van E y c k o n

(had a certain i n d i v i d u a l way o f landscape paint

Adoration

ing, most subtle and precise): V a n M a n d e r /

are s t i l l d i s p u t e d (see T i l l -

H o l g e r Borchert, "Introduction: Jan van Eyck's

M i e d e m a 1 9 9 4 - 9 9 , v o l . 1, p . 135. L a t e r he

W o r k s h o p , " i n Bruges 2002, pp. 14-15), K a r e l

d e s c r i b e d G i l l i s v a n C o n i n x l o o as " d e n u y t n c -

van M a n d e r i n h i s b i o g r a p h y o f t h e b r o t h e r s

m e n d e n L a n d s c a p m a k e r " (the e x c e l l e n t l a n d s c a p e

p u b l i s h e d i n 1 6 0 4 asserted h i s o p i n i o n : " S o m e

p a i n t e r ) : p. 331.

believe that H u b e r t u s began this picture o n his

own

and that Joannes subsequently finished

it b u t I a m o f t h e o p i n i o n t h a t t h e y b e g a n it

107.
108.

" H e t eene v a n m y n h a n t h e e f t . . . g e g h e l d e n 54
g u l d e n s ; het a n d e r v a n m y n k n c c h t g e d a e n is

w h i l e the w o r k was i n p r o g r e s s " ( E e n i g e m e e n e n

v e r c o c h t 18 g u l d e n s . . . " (the o n e b y m y h a n d was

dat H u b e r t u s des tafel e e r s t m a e l a l l e e n h a d d e

w o r t h 54 g u l d e n ; t h e o t h e r d o n e b y m y assistant

b e g o n n e n e n datse I o a n n e s daer nae v o l d a e n

c o s t 18 g u l d e n s ) : D u v i v i e r i 8 6 0 , v o l . 2, p . 331,

heeft, d a n i c k h o u d e dat yse t ' s a m e n a e n g h e -

doc.

vanghen hebben, maer datter H u b e r t u s over

tures s i e n n e s , l ' u n e faicte de sa m a i n a 54 f l . , et

gestorven is): V a n M a n d e r / M i e d e m a 1 9 9 4 - 9 9 ,

l ' a u l t r e p a r u n s i e n valet a 18 fl." ( t w o o f h i s p a i n t

v o l . 1, p p . 5 8 - 5 9 .

i n g s , o n e f r o m his h a n d at 54 florins, a n d the

Y o r k 2 0 0 5 , p . 3.

i v ( A p r i l 5, 1 6 0 6 ) ; " . . . d e u x pieces de p c i n -

o t h e r b y h i s assistant at 18

florins.):

Duvivier

i 8 6 0 , v o l . 2, p . 332, d o c . v i ( A p r i l 10, 1 6 0 6 ) .

L o g a n , " P e t e r P a u l R u b e n s as D r a f t s m a n , " i n
New

109.

L e t t e r o f A p r i l 28, 1618; sec the d i s c u s s i o n i n

cat. n o s . 22 a n d 2 4 .

D e n u c e 1934, p p . 113-15, d o c . L X V I I I
( S e p t e m b e r 3, 1638).

n o . C r i v e l l i 1868, p. 272.

101. F o r B r u e g h e l the Y o u n g e r ' s c o p i e s o f the F i v e

i n . " M a e s t r e C o y n t i n y M . J o a c h i n . O t r a t a b l a en q u e

Senses m a d e f o r a p a t r o n i n H o l l a n d , see D e n u c e

esta p i n t a d a l a t e n t a c i o n de S a n t A n t o n c o n t r e s

1934, p p . 8 0 - 8 2 , d o c . 39 ( J u n e 8, 1632); B r u e g h e l

m u g e r e s e n u n paysage las figuras de m a n de

subsequently c l a i m e d that "thousands o f people"

M a e s t r e C o y n t i n y e l paysage de M . J o a c h i n q u e

( n o c h t a n s d u y s e n t m e n s c h e n ) c a m e t o see the

t i e n e de a l t o 6 p . y de a n c h o 7 " ( M a s t e r Q u i n t c n

Senses (letter o f A u g u s t 25, 1632): D e n u c e 1934,

[Metsys] and Master Joachim [Patinir]. A n o t h e r

p. 83, d o c . 4 1 ; a n d B e d o n i 1983, p . 142. See t h e

p a n e l u p o n w h i c h is p a i n t e d a t e m p t a t i o n o f S a i n t

n u m e r o u s references t o g a r l a n d p a i n t i n g s i n the

A n t h o n y against w o m e n [ h a r l o t s ] a n d a l a n d s c a p e

c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n J a n the Y o u n g e r a n d the

o f figures the h a n d o f M a s t e r Q u i n t c n a n d t h e

Seville merchant C h r . V a n Immerzeel i n D e n u c e

l a n d s c a p e o f M r . J o a c h i m w h i c h has the h e i g h t

1934, p p . 6 8 - 7 1 , 9 2 - 9 3 - See a l s o , f o r e x a m p l e ,

6 p . a n d t h e w i d t h 7). T h e c i t a t i o n was first p u b

D e n u c e 1931, p p . 31, 4 8 , 9 8 ; a n d D e n u c e 1932,

l i s h e d b y J u s t i 1886, p . 95.

p p . 2 4 6 , 2 5 2 - 5 7 ; instances o f s u c h references
a m o n g A n t w e r p i n v e n t o r i e s are t o o n u m e r o u s

102.

C a m p b e l l 1988, p. 51; a n d T a m i s 2 0 0 0 .

t o g e t h e r a n d t h a t H u b e r t u s d i e d i n t h e year 1426

99- F o r R u b e n s a n d h i s d r a w i n g s , see A n n e - M a r i e

100.

P a t i n i r " . . . h a d d e een sekcr c y g c n m a n i c r v a n

te m a k e n l a n d s c a p p e n , seer a e r d i c h en s u y v c r "

98. W h i l e the n a t u r e a n d e x t e n t o f c o l l a b o r a t i o n
of the Mystic Lamb

Friedlander 1967-76, vol. 7 (Qucntin Massys),

p. 25.

112. F o r e x a m p l e s , see C r i v e l l i 1868, p p . 2 4 8 , 2 4 9 , 272.

to cite.

113. See cat. n o . 22.

E r t z 1984, p p . 8 0 - 8 1 .

114. F o r the i n v e n t o r i e s o f p a i n t i n g s at T e r v u r e n i n
1617 a n d 1667, see D e M a e y e r 1955, p p . 3 3 6 - 3 7 ,

103. V a e s 1 9 2 6 - 2 7 a n d D e n u c e 1934.

doc.

104. F o r the rise o f the A n t w e r p art m a r k e t i n the e a r l y

s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y , see E w i n g 1990 a n d V e r m e y l e n
2 0 0 3 . F o r its r e l a t i o n t o t h e rise o f n e w g e n r e s ,
see A r n o u t B a l i s , " D e n i e u w e g e n r e s e n het b u r g e r l i j k m e c e n a a t , " i n B r u s s e l s - S c h a l l a b u r g 1991,
p p . 2 3 7 - 5 4 ; f o r the art m a r k e t i n the

seventeenth

c e n t u r y , see D e M a r c h i a n d V a n M i e g r o e t 1 9 9 4 ;

134, a n d p p . 4 4 8 - 5 3 , d o c . 272. F o r t h e

Specificatie,

see A n t w e r p 2 0 0 4 , p p . 3 2 8 - 3 3 ; a n d

D e n u c e 1949, pp. 1 8 8 - 9 0 .
115. F o r R u b e n s a n d B r u e g h e l ' s j o i n t w o r k i n g m e t h
o d s i n p a i n t i n g s i n the e x h i b i t i o n , a n d the
a p p r o a c h e s u s e d t o s t u d y t h e m , see the essay b y
Tiarna Doherty, M a r k L e o n a r d , and J o r g c n
W a d u m i n this v o l u m e .

TWO

CELEBRATED

PAINTERS

41

Catalogue

ARIANE
ANNE

VAN

SUCHTELEN

T. W O O L L E T T

(AvS)

(ATW)

Reader's Note: In entries on the collaborative works of

Rubens and Brueghel, a distinction has been made between
the levels of responsibility assumed by each artist, with the
primary contributor listed first.
Literature and Exhibition sections are comprehensive but
not exhaustive.

43

1
Peter Paul Rubens and Jan Brueghel the Elder

The Battle of the Amazons

ca. 1598-1600
O i l o n panel, 97 x 124 c m (38 A x 4 8 % in.)
l

Potsdam, Stiftung Preufiische Schlofier u n d G a r t e n B e r l i n - B r a n d e n b u r g ,

Schlofi Sanssouci Bildergalerie, g k i 10021

1978, p . 11, n o . 1, p i . i ;

PROVENANCE

I n the collection o f O r a n i e n b u r g Castle,

b y 1 6 9 9 transferred to Berliner Schlofi,
1

1710; r e m o v e d to a n d exhibited i n Paris,

2

Musee Napoleon (Musee d u Louvre),

E c k a r d t 1980,

p . 8 0 , n o . 7 4 ; H e l d 1983, p p . 2 1 - 2 5 ; H e l d
1987, p p . 9 - 2 2 ; V o n S i m s o n 1 9 9 6 , p p . 3 4 - 3 5 ;
P a d u a - R o m e - M i l a n 1 9 9 0 , p . 36; E s s e n V i e n n a 1997-98, pp. 2 4 0 , 242, 243, 246;
P o e s c h e l 2 0 0 1 , p p . 97, 1 0 7 ; R e n g e r a n d D e n k
7

1806-15;

Berliner Schlofi, 1830-1906, and

p r e s u m e d 1906-1940/43 ( d o c u m e n t e d i n the
Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gesellschaft, ca. 1 9 3 0 - 4 0 ) ;
thence i n the N e u e K a m m e r n o f Sanssouci;
[1945-1958 R u s s i a ] ; e x h i b i t e d i n t h e
Bildergalerie since 1 9 6 4

2 0 0 5 , p . 88; V i e n n a 2 0 0 4 a , p p . 1 5 8 - 6 0 ,
cat. n o . n ; H o n i g 2005
EXHIBITIONS

P a r i s 1807, cat. n o . 6 0 2 ; C o l o g n e - A n t w e r p V i e n n a 1 9 9 2 - 9 3 , p p . 3 4 3 - 4 4 , cat. n o . 4 4 . 1 ;

LITERATURE

N i c o l a i 1779, p . 6 6 6 ; W a a g e n 1830, v o l . 2 ,
p . 2 2 7 ; C o l o g n e 1977, p p . 1 8 1 - 8 2 ;

2 0 0 2 , p . 350; L i l l e 2 0 0 4 , p . 32; N e w Y o r k

L o n d o n 2 0 0 5 , p p . n , 4 2 - 4 4 , 4 7 , cat. n o . 1

Bartoschek

HE BATTLE OF THE AMAZONS IS T H E E A R L I E S T

were legendary. T h e exploits o f the A m a z o n s a n d their

k n o w n c o l l a b o r a t i o n undertaken b y Rubens a n d

queens, H i p p o l y t a , her sister A n t i o p e , and Penthesilea, w h o

B r u e g h e l . R e a l i z e d t h r o u g h a straightforward d i v i s i o n

were considered w o r t h y opponents o f the great heroes, are

o f labor between flgural a n d landscape components, this

recounted i n the myths o f H e r c u l e s a n d Theseus. P l u t a r c h

s p l e n d i d panel captures the s w i r l i n g action a n d violence o f a

{Lives 1.27) describes the A m a z o n s ' attack o n A t h e n s a n d

heroic clash o f combatants f r o m the classical past. Painted

their defeat by the Greek army l e d b y Theseus, for w h o m the

after Brueghel's return f r o m his Italian sojourn i n 1596 and

war was " n o trivial o r w o m a n i s h enterprise." A l t h o u g h large-

before R u b e n s departed for M a n t u a i n 1600, The Battle

scale Amazonomaches are f o u n d i n ancient G r e e k art and the

of the Amazons p r o v e d to be a decisive undertaking that h a d

exploits o f the formidable A m a z o n s were a p o p u l a r sub

repercussions for the independent oeuvres o f b o t h artists,

ject for antique sarcophagi, the subject was rarely depicted

as w e l l as for their future projects together. It was at this

i n Renaissance art. F o r this cabinet-sized Amazonomache,

crucial t i m e , w i t h the execution o f a w a r theme, that Rube ns

Rubens a n d B r u e g h e l c o m b i n e d the portrayal o f the fervor

and B r u e g h e l harnessed their complementary artistic a m b i

o f battle w i t h references to the feats o f H e r c u l e s , d r a w i n g

tions a n d apprehended the p o w e r o f their j o i n t inventions.

o n a b r o a d literary t r a d i t i o n rather than a single source.

T h e A m a z o n s were a race o f fierce female warriors f r o m

A s i a M i n o r , whose horsemanship a n d skill w i t h the b o w

44

RUBENS

A N D BRUEGHEL

O n a w i d e p l a i n , w i t h a w o o d e d h i l l to the left a n d a swampy

river o n the right leading t o a bridge, the A m a z o n s engage

45

their opponents. The Greek army charges in from the left,

pushing the Amazons at a gallop across the field toward the
water and forward in the direction of the viewer. In the
foreground, Hercules subdues two Amazons, one of whom
incongruously wears a plumed cap reminiscent of sixteenthcentury costume. The Amazon in red in the center right
of the composition, highlighted by the gold banner behind
her, may be Hippolyta, who has not yet succumbed to
Hercules. To the left of the Hercules group, a muscular
warrior clasps the limp figure of an Amazon; the two perhaps
representing Theseus and the slain Antiope. Around these
foreground groupings, warriors surge forward on foot
and on horseback, fall from their steeds, are trampled, and
resist their adversaries.
The Battle of the Amazons has long been recognized as a
collaborative work, although the attribution of the figures
to Rubens was only restored relatively recently. The Potsdam
panel, or a second version of the composition in a private
collection (see below), is almost certainly the painting
described in the inventory of Diego Duarte's collection in
Antwerp in 1682, in which collaborative works are clearly
identified: "By Peter Paul Rubens. A piece on panel, the
battle of the Amazons, full of action in his early manner;
the landscape or background is entirely by the Velvet [Jan]
Brueghel. ' In 1779 the painting was identified as a work
by Breughel and his frequent collaborator during the mid15908, Hans Rottenhammer (compare cat. nos. 14 and
15). During the confusion over the location of The Battle
of the Amazons after 1816, it was attributed simultaneously
by French authorities to Otto van Veen (ca. 1556-1629) and
again to Rottenhammer by keepers in Berlin. With its arrival
in Potsdam, Muller Hofstede confirmed the attribution
to Van Veen, and the Sanssouci Bildergalerie continued to
recognize this designation, as well as the attribution of the
landscape to Jan Brueghel, until Held returned The Battle of
the Amazons to the small group of early, pre-Italian-sojourn
works by Rubens.
Although there can be no doubt that Rubens was respon
sible for the figures in The Battle of the Amazons, the attri
butions to Rottenhammer and particularly to Van Veen
reflect the long-held uncertainty about Rubens's style before
his departure for Italy. After short apprenticeships with
the landscape painter Tobias Verhaecht (1561-1631) and the
history painter Adam van Noort (1562-1641), Rubens entered
the studio of Otto van Veen in about 1596. Originally
from Leiden, Van Veen had spent nearly five years in Italy,
10

11

5 12

13

14

15

46

RUBENS AND

BRUEGHEL

mostly in Rome. One of the most erudite painters in

Antwerp, he had been court painter to Alessandro Farnese,
duke of Parma and governor of the Southern Netherlands,
in Brussels, from 1584 to 1592 as well as to Archduke Ernst
in 1594 and to Archduke Albert in 1596. From 1599, he served
Archdukes Albert and Isabella. Rubens's nephew Philip
famously described the resemblance of his uncle's early style
to Otto van Veen's manner. Rubens's large Adam and Eve
of about 1598-1600, occasionally attributed to Van Veen,
reveals the influence of his teacher's smooth, heavy Roman
manner. The figures in The Battle of the Amazons, despite
their smaller scale, still retain vestiges of Van Veen's blocky
figural style and utilize the cool undertones for the flesh and
bright pink accents characteristic of his work in the 1590s.
Rubens became a master in the Antwerp Guild of Saint
Luke in 1598, and although he maintained ties with Van
Veen, the Potsdam panel dates from this period of indepen
dence. It demonstrates Rubens's youthful ambition and
interests as well as the decisive ways in which he was expand
ing beyond the model of his teacher. The young Rubens
eschewed Van Veen's monumentality and solidity and pur
sued motion, action, emotion, and complex arrangements of
men and animals. O n a sheet vividly drawn in pen and ink,
Battle of Nude Men (ca. 1598-1600; Washington, D . C . ,
National Gallery of Art), he excerpted key individual figures
and groups, choosing figures in violent and extreme motion,
from two engraved battle scenes by Barthel Beham (15021540), Battle of Titus Gracchus (ca. 1528) and Battle of Eighteen
Nude Men (ca. 1528). Beham's running frieze was itself
indebted to the battle scenes in relief on the Column
of Trajan (finished by A . D . 113; Rome, Forum of Trajan), a
major source for combat figures in the Renaissance. The
exaggerated expressions of the Greeks and Amazons and the
bloody portrayal of violence in The Battle of the Amazons
reveal a young artist striving to capture the extremity of his
subject. For a subject where the clash between women and
men was the central, charged theme, Rubens adopted the
conventional ruddy and creamy skin tones to differentiate
the sexes. Rubens was already a keen observer of horses,
as demonstrated by studies known through a later copy
(fig. 33). H e understood how equine figures could generate
energy and drama in a composition, and the dynamic variety
of horses in The Battle of the Amazons underscores his creative
and dramatic use of equine elements. The pink manes of
some of the horses are part of a chromatic palette that, along
with the illogical lighting, enhances the excitement of the
16

17

18

19

20

F I G U R E 33 W i l l e m P a n c c l s (ca. 1 6 0 0 - 1 6 3 2 )
after Peter P a u l R u b e n s , Studies of Horses
after Jost Amman,

ca. 1 6 2 8 - 3 0 . P e n a n d i n k ,

w i t h traces o f g r a p h i t e o n f o r m e r l y w h i t e
paper, 2 0 . 6 x 31.7 c m (8V8 x 12V2 i n . ) .
H a m b u r g , Kunsthalle, Graphischc Sammlungcn,
inv. 1957-145

scene. Rubens demonstrated his conversance with major

antique models in The Battle of the Amazons even before he
had studied them firsthand. The intricately entwined figures
of Hercules and the struggling Amazons, for example, are
derived from the Laocoon group. The biting horses at the
extreme right were drawn from Leonardo da Vinci's famous
Battle ofAnghiari, a composition that fascinated Rubens.
From the earliest moments of his career, Rubens was
engaged with the compositional challenges associated with
battle subjects, a passion to which he would return oversucceeding decades.
The Battle of the Amazons served as a forum for the shared
interests of Rubens and Brueghel and a natural meeting
of their ambitions. Brueghel had returned from his travels
through Naples, Rome, and Milan in the fall of 1596. A t this
time he was undertaking ambitious, large-format multifigure
landscapes, such as the Harbor Scene with Christ Preaching
(see fig. 98), in which the majestic setting contextualizes the
human dramas taking place in the foreground. Rubens pos
sessed a thorough classical education, and it must be
assumed he was familiar with literary accounts of the great
battles of antiquity. In addition, as discussed above, he
had begun to gather a figural vocabulary in anticipation of
a depiction of warfare. The cultural milieu of Antwerp at the
end of the decade may also have served as a powerful impe
tus upon the two artists. Battle subjects, both historical and
21

22

23

contemporary, were well represented in Burgundian and

Habsburg collections, and in 1597 Otto van Veen designed a
series of twenty-seven tapestries celebrating the military
victories of Archduke Albert (Madrid, Royal Collection).
Rubens and Brueghel approached the process of collabo
ration straightforwardly by dividing the panel horizontally
into two zones. In order to achieve the desired density
of figures, and to show off his command of many difficult
poses, Rubens carefully planned the lower half of the paint
ing. Infrared reflectography reveals his controlled drawing
(see fig. 115), perhaps after a sketch or group of separate
preparatory drawings. H e was also responsible for the tran
sitional section of tightly packed warriors. Brueghel painted
an extensive and atmospheric view across the curiously
lush plain to the mountains, throughout which Greek and
Amazon forces continue to skirmish. The wild far reaches
of this view conjure up an earlier, more archaic time. Char
acteristically, the different zones of landscape are separated,
so the most distant portions are largely blue in tonality.
Brueghel also added fine grass around the foreground fig
ures. One of the most striking aspects of The Battle of the
Amazons is the lively use of gold detailing, a practice found
earlier in the Netherlands and in the work of Van Veen.
Both artists adjusted their current modes while executing the
Potsdam panel: the viewpoint is lower than in many of
Brueghel's works from this period, while Rubens adopted an
24

25

26

RUBENS AND

BRUEGHEL

47

Francis I, itself influenced by Raphael's example, may have

suggested to Rubens the effective portrayal of horses seen
from the rear as well as other motifs of charging and fallen
horses.
The impressive Battle of the Amazons must have been
admired soon after its completion, as a second version was
painted a short time later. The extensive use of gold detail
ing in the Potsdam panel is absent from the later version,
which is also free of the draperies added (presumably later)
to some of the figures in the Potsdam Battle to cover their
nudity. As the specificity of the Duarte inventory suggests,
almost one hundred years later Rubens and Brueghel were
known to have collaborated on a painting of this subject.
A tradition also existed that there had been a more extensive
collaborative enterprise that included Rubens's teacher.
Two works have been attributed to the joint authorship of
Van Veen, Brueghel, and Rubens: in 1642 a Parnassus (pre
sumed lost) was listed in the collection of the Antwerp
dealer and painter Herman de Neyt, and at the end of the
nineteenth century, a large Battle of the Amazons (location
unknown) was sold in Cologne.
The extraordinary importance of The Battle of the Amazons
for Rubens and Brueghel is evident from their individual
pursuits after 1 6 0 0 . With Rubens's departure for Italy in Ma y
1600, Brueghel himself turned to large-scale historical sub
jects. For the Continence of Scipio, of about 1 6 0 0 (see fig. 10 ),
he borrowed Rubens's lively horses, including the white
horses with the pink manes, charging across the foreground
and cavorting at the side, as well as the motif of the horse
men entering from the right blowing their horns. The Battle
oflssus, 1602 (fig. 35), demonstrates Brueghel's ambitious
treatment of battle. Here, too, many of the most prominent
equine figures recall Rubens's example. However, the density
of figures ensures that the armies move and swirl en masse,
unified by the bird's-eye view.
For Rubens, The Battle of the Amazons stands at the
beginning of a series of drawn and painted engagements wit h
Amazonian themes. A rapidly executed group of figures,
Battle Scene between the Greeks and Amazons and Studies for
Samson (Edinburgh, National Galleries of Scotland) again
combines female and equine combatants. Some of the
ideas from this sheet and particularly from the more finished
drawing of The Battle of the Greeks and Amazons (London,
The British Museum) were employed in two other paintings
of the subject: the recently discovered The Battle of the
Amazons of 1 6 0 3 - 0 5 (private collection) and The Battle of
28

29

F I G U R E 34 G i o v a n n i F r a n c e s c o P e n n i (1496-1528) after G i u l i o R o m a n o
(ca. 1 4 9 9 - 1 5 4 6 ) , The Battle ofZama,

ca. 1523-28. P e n a n d b r o w n i n k ,

g r a y w a s h a n d w h i t e h e i g h t e n i n g o n paper, 41.9 x 56.7 c m (16 V2 x

22V8 i n . ) . P a r i s , M u s e e d u L o u v r e , i n v . 3718

30

intermediate figure size. Although Rubens was, as his nephew

later attested, already renowned before leaving for Italy, the
size of the painting, suitable for a gallery, the importance of
the landscape, and the adaptation of key Roman fresco
sources (discussed below) suggest that Brueghel, senior by
eleven years, strongly influenced its direction. It is, in fact,
difficult to determine in some areas exactly where Rubens's
figures end and Brueghel's work beginsa situation that
further promotes the supposition that their contributions to
The Battle of the Amazons were equivalent.
Rubens and Brueghel's conception of The Battle of the
Amazons was particularly indebted to the great fresco
designed by Raphael, The Battle of Constantine against
Maxentius (1520-24; Rome, Vatican, Sala di Constantino),
which Brueghel could have seen when he was in Italy only a
few years earlier, and Rubens could have known through
an engraving. In The Battle of the Amazons, the army surging
into the composition from the left, as well as the viewers'
remove from the melee, which allows for open ground in
the foreground, and the river and arched bridge on the
right, all recall the fresco. However, the foreground combat
of mounted soldiers in Giulio Romano's Battle ofZama
(fig. 34), one of twenty-two designs for the Deeds and
Triumphs of Scipio series of tapestries for the French king
27

48

RUBENS

AND

BRUEGHEL

31

32

the Amazons of about 1618 (fig. 3 6 ) . Among the motifs

Rubens retained from the Potsdam Battle of the Amazons and
incorporated into the London drawing, and the two paint
ings, is the fearsome Amazon holding her trophy of a severed
head aloft.
For Rubens, The Battle of the Amazons represents an early
attempt at a complex figural composition, and his meticu
lous drawn preparation on the panel, not found in later
collaborative works, betrays the difficulties of the process.
When the partnership was reestablished nearly a decade
later with another war theme, The Return from War: Mars
Disarmed by Venus (cat. no. 2), Rubens and Brueghel realized
the political and allegorical references associated with the
theme of peace through a more complex working process
that nonetheless resulted in contributions of equal visual
value, A T W
33

NOTES
1. N o . 321, " E i n e A m a z o n i s c h e B a t a i l l e m i t H e r c u l e u n d T h e s e o " :
E c k a r d t 1980, p . 8 0 ; a n d H e l d 1983, p . 22.
2. C a t a l o g u e d i n 1779 as J a n B r u e g h e l t h e E l d e r a n d H a n s
Rottenhammer;

see E c k a r d t 1980, p . 8 0 .

3. A s the w o r k o f O t t o v a n V e e n ; see H e l d 1983, p . 21. H e l d d i s c u s s e s

the c o n f u s i o n o v e r t h e w h e r e a b o u t s o f t h e p a i n t i n g after 1816, w h e n i t
was b e l i e v e d t o h a v e b e e n t r a n s f e r r e d t o the M u s e e des B e a u x - A r t s i n
D i j o n . T h e painting, however, had been returned to B e r l i n .
4 . W a a g e n 1830, v o l . 2, p . 227; E c k a r d t 1980, p . 8 0 ; a n d c o r r e s p o n d e n c e
F I G U R E 35 J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r , The Buttle oflssus,

1602. O i l o n canvas,

from G . Bartoschek.

80 x 136 c m (31.V2 x 531/2 i n . ) . P a r i s , M u s e e d u L o u v r e , i n v . 1 0 9 4

5. A s O t t o v a n V e e n .

F I G U R E 36 P e t e r P a u l R u b e n s , The Battle of the Amazons,

6. A s O t t o v a n V e e n , w i t h the l a n d s c a p e b y J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r .

ca. 1618.

O i l o n p a n e l , 120.3 x 165.3 c m ( 4 7 / s x 65 Vs i n . ) . M u n i c h , A l t e P i n a k o t h e k ,
3

inv.

324

7. A s O t t o v a n V e e n .
8. F o r a n c i e n t e x a m p l e s , see B o b e r a n d R u b i n s t e i n 1986, p p . 1 7 5 - 8 0 .
A c c o r d i n g t o H e l d (1983, p . 22), R u b e n s m a y h a v e k n o w n E n e a V i c o ' s
p r i n t o f 1543, p o s s i b l y after G i u l i o R o m a n o .
9. A l t e r n a t i v e l y , as p r o p o s e d b y M c G r a t h a n d Jaffe i n L o n d o n 2005
(p. 4 3 ) , V i r g i l ' s c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f t h e v i r t u o u s w a r r i o r C a m i l l a
i n TheAeneid

( 1 1 . 6 4 8 - 6 3 ) m a y h a v e i n f o r m e d R u b e n s ' s ideas f o r

the c o m p o s i t i o n .
10. P e r h a p s R u b e n s s o u g h t t o u n d e r s c o r e t h e r e l e v a n c e o f the s u b j e c t f o r
h i s o w n t i m e w i t h t h i s d e v i c e . H o w e v e r , he d i d n o t i n c l u d e c o n t e m
p o r a r y c o s t u m e e l s e w h e r e i n the c o m p o s i t i o n .
11. I n h i s n i n t h l a b o r , H e r c u l e s w a s sent t o o b t a i n t h e g i r d l e o f t h e
A m a z o n queen H i p p o l y t a , succeeding o n l y by slaying her i n battle;

50

RUBENS AND

BRUEGHEL

see, f o r e x a m p l e , A p o l l o d o r u s , Bibliotheca

f r o m e n g r a v i n g o r c o p y . F o r R u b e n s ' s s t u d y o f t h i s m o d e l later i n his

2.5.1-12; a n d D i o d o r u s

S i c u l u s 4 . P o e s c h e l ( 2 0 0 1 , p . 97) i d e n t i f i e d t h i s figure as H i p p o l y t a .
12. " V a n P e t r o P a u l o R u b b e n s [a t o t a l o f e l e v e n p a i n t i n g s i n c l u d e d u n d e r
t h i s h e a d i n g ] . . . E e n s t u c k o p p a n e e l d e n s l a g h v a n de A m a s o o n e n v o l
w e r c k x v a n s y n v r o e g e m a n i e r . H e t l a n d s c a p ofte v e r s c h i e t is g e h e e l
v a n d e n Fluweelen

Bruegel...

g u l d [ e n ] 1 0 0 [the s i x t h m o s t v a l u a b l e

1983, p . 2 2 .

1526-28, designed by

ofPavia,

B e r n a r d v a n O r l e y a n d d e p i c t i n g C h a r l e s V ' s defeat o f t h e F r e n c h
Jan V e r m e y e n for Charles V , were an i m p o r t a n t f o r m o f i m p e r i a l
p r o p a g a n d a ; see U t r e c h t - ' s - H e r t o g e n b o s c h 1993, p . 263; a n d N e w
P- 75-

14. M u l l e r H o f s t e d e i n C o l o g n e 1977, p . 181; see also H e l d 1983, p p . 2 1 - 2 5 .

H o w e v e r , V o n S i m s o n (1996, p . 34) d o e s n o t accept t h e a t t r i b u t i o n t o
R u b e n s , a n d P o e s c h e l (2001) retains the earlier a t t r i b u t i o n t o V a n V e e n .

25. See the essay b y D o h e r t y , L e o n a r d , a n d W a d u m i n t h i s v o l u m e ,

p p . 223, 228.
26. See p a r t i c u l a r l y the d e c o r a t i v e use o f g o l d i n the i m p o r t a n t

15. F o r R u b e n s ' s e a r l y t r a i n i n g , see M u l l e r H o f s t e d e 1962; H e l d 1983;

of Alessandro

and B a u d o u i n 2005.

27. N o r r i s 1 9 4 0 , p . 190.

H o f s t e d e 1957; V l i e g h e 1998, p p . 1 8 - 1 9 ; 117-19; a n d p . 18 i n

28. The Battle

this v o l u m e .
17. "car avant s o n v o y a g e d ' l t a l i e ils v o i e n t q u e l q u e r e s s e m b l a n c e avec
ceiux d'Octave van V e e n , son maistre" (in correspondence w i t h R o g e r
d e P i l e s , 1676): N o r r i s 1 9 4 0 , p . 189. F o r P h i l i p R u b e n s ' s b i o g r a p h y ,
see D e R e i f f e n b e r g 1837, p p . 1 0 - 1 1 .

of Titus Gracchus

d r a w i n g a n d t h e t a p e s t r y series, see P a r i s 1978, p . 97.

29. O i l o n p a n e l , 102 x 120 c m ( 4 0 Vs x 4714 i n . ) , p r i v a t e c o l l e c t i o n .

2005, p. 44-

( e n g r a v i n g , 55 x 295 m m [ 2 V 8 x

( e n g r a v i n g , 56 x 295 m m [2V4 x I I / S i n . ] ) ;
5

see H o l l s t e i n 1 9 4 9 - , v o l . 2 , p . 2 0 3 . F o r P e t e r P a u l R u b e n s ,

Fighting

( p e n a n d b r o w n i n k o v e r b l a c k c h a l k , 14.1 x 25.2 c m [5V2 x

9 /8 i n . ] ; W a s h i n g t o n , D . C . , N a t i o n a l G a l l e r y o f A r t , J u l i u s S. F i e l d
7

C o l l e c t i o n , A l i s a M e l l o n B r u c e F u n d , 1984.3.57), see H e l d 1959, n o . 3,

p p . 6 4 - 6 5 . T h e R u b e n s sheet a n d t h e B e h a m p r i n t s are d i s c u s s e d a n d
r e p r o d u c e d i n L o n d o n 2 0 0 5 , p p . 5 2 - 5 3 , cat. n o . 6.

30. I n v e n t o r y o f H e r m a n de N e y t , O c t o b e r 15-21, 1642: " O p d e earner

boven den w i n c k e l : . . . E e n stuck van O c t a v i ende Bruegel ende
v a n R u b e n s eerst g e s c h i l d e r t , m e t b u y t e n l y s t , w e s e n d e d e n b c r c h
P e r n a s s u s , get. N o . 3 6 2 " ( I n the r o o m a b o v e the s h o p : . . . a p i e c e b y
O c t a v i [ O t t o v a n V e e n ] a n d B r u e g h e l a n d R u b e n s i n h i s e a r l y style,
f r a m e d , d e p i c t i n g M o u n t P a r n a s s u s ) ; see D e n u c e 1932, p . 1 0 0 ; a n d
G e m a l d e - G a l e r i e des z u P r e s s b u r g v e r s t o r b e n e n H e r r n G r a z i o s o E n c a
L a n f r a n c o n i sale, J. M . H e b e r l e ( H . L e m p e r t z S o n n e ) C o l o g n e ,
O c t o b e r 1 8 - 2 0 , 1895, n o . 2 0 9 (Battle

2 0 . R u b e n s c o m p i l e d t h e h o r s e s f r o m d i f f e r e n t w o o d c u t b a t t l e scenes b y
J o s t A m m a n (ca. 1539-1591) f r o m a G e r m a n e d i t i o n o f The Jewish

War

b y F l a v i u s J o s e p h u s ; see H e l d 1983, p . 23.

R u b e n s ' s M a n t u a n stay, i n w h i c h t h e artist gave h i s h o r s e s v i b r a n t p i n k

of the Gods, 1 6 0 1 - 2 ( o i l o n canvas, 2 0 4 x 379 c m

[ 8 o / s x 149V4 i n . ] ; C z e c h R e p u b l i c , P r a g u e C a s t l e A r t C o l l e c t i o n s ,
3

inv. H S I I I ) .

o i l o n panel,

of the Amazons,

130 x 252 c m [51 Vs x 99V4 i n . ] ) .

31. F o r J a n B r u e g h e l ' s Battle

oflssus,

see E r t z 1979, p p . 4 6 3 - 6 5 , 571, n o . 86.

T h e effect recalls A l b r e c h t A l t d o r f e r ' s v e r t i c a l Battle

21. H e l d (1983, p . 25) d r e w a t t e n t i o n t o t h e o t h e r i n s t a n c e , d a t i n g f r o m

m a n e s : The Council

was e n g r a v e d b y C o r n e l l s C o r t (1567); sec H o l l s t e i n

See H e l d 1983, p . 25; P a d u a - R o m e - M i l a n 1 9 9 0 , p p . 3 6 - 3 7 , cat. n o . 1;

u / 8 i n . ] ) ; see H o l l s t e i n 1 9 4 9 - , v o l . 2 , p . 191; a n d B a r t h e l B e h a m ,
Nude Men

ofZama

1 9 9 3 - , v o l . 8, n o . 3, p p . 9 2 - 9 4 , n o s . 195 a n d 196. F o r G i u l i o R o m a n o ' s

E s s e n - V i e n n a 1 9 9 7 - 9 8 , p p . 238, 2 4 0 - 4 2 , cat. n o . 6 8 ; a n d L o n d o n

18. R o m b o u t s a n d V a n L e r i u s 1 8 6 4 - 7 6 , p . 4 0 1 .
19. B a r t h e l B e h a m , Battle

Portrait

(ca. 1585-92, o i l o n c o p p e r ; L o s A n g e l e s C o u n t y

Farnese

M u s e u m o f A r t , inv. M . 2003.69).

16. F o r V a n V e e n ' s career, see D e M a e y e r 1955, p p . 6 2 - 8 2 ; M u l l e r

Men

2 4 . T a p e s t r y series, n o t a b l y t h e Battle

Y o r k 2 0 0 2 , p p . 2 6 7 - 7 0 . F o r V a n V e e n ' s tapestries, see D e M a e y e r 1955,

13. E c k a r d t 1980, p . 8 0 .

of Eighteen

L o n d o n 2005, PP- 4 1 - 4 5 -

k i n g F r a n c i s I , a n d t h e Conquest of Tunis series, 1 5 4 8 - 5 4 , d e s i g n e d b y

p a i n t i n g i n t h i s g r o u p ] " : D o g a e r 1971, p p . 2 0 8 - 9 ; d i s c u s s e d i n H e l d

Battle

career, see W o o d i n E d i n b u r g h - N o t t i n g h a m 2 0 0 2 , p p . 4 0 - 4 1 ; a n d

oflssus

(1528-29;

M u n i c h , A l t e P i n a k o t h e k , i n v . 688) as o b s e r v e d b y E r t z 1979 (p. 4 6 3 )

a n d verbally to the author by D r . G e r t Bartoschek.
32. Studies for Hero and Leander
Amazons

( r e c t o ) , Battle

Scene between the Greeks

and

and Studies for Samson ( v e r s o ) (ca. 1 6 0 1 - 0 3 , p e n a n d b r o w n

i n k a n d b r o w n w a s h [recto] a n d p e n a n d b r o w n i n k [ v e r s o ] , 2 0 . 4 x

2 2 . R o m a n c o p y , first c e n t u r y A . D . , R o m e , V a t i c a n , B e l v e d e r e P a l a c e .

30.6 c m [8 x 12 i n . ] ; E d i n b u r g h , N a t i o n a l G a l l e r i e s o f S c o t l a n d , i n v .

R u b e n s w o u l d m a k e several d r a w i n g s o f the g r o u p a f e w years

D 4 9 3 6 ) ; see N e w Y o r k 2 0 0 5 , p p . 8 3 - 8 5 , cat. n o . 10; a n d L o n d o n 2 0 0 5 ,

later w h i l e he was i n R o m e . F o r these d r a w i n g s , see V a n d e r M e u l e n

p p . 5 0 - 5 1 , cat. n o . 5 (as " a t t r i b u t e d t o R u b e n s " ) .

1 9 9 4 , v o l . 2 , p p . 9 2 - 1 0 4 . D e s p i t e its t i t l e , W i l l e m Paneels's d r a w i n g
after R u b e n s , The Rape of the Sabines ( 1 6 2 8 - 3 0 , b l a c k c h a l k , p e n
a n d b r o w n i n k , 21 x 2 6 . 9 c m [8V2 x 10V2 i n . ] ; C o p e n h a g e n , S t a t e n s
M u s e u m f o r K u n s t , i n v . K K S G B 7 2 7 0 ) , is s p e c i f i c a l l y r e l a t e d t o the
t r i o o f figures i n the P o t s d a m c o m p o s i t i o n ; see H e l d 1983, p p . 2 1 - 2 2 .
23. L e o n a r d o d a V i n c i ' s w a l l p a i n t i n g i n the S a l a d e l G r a n C o n s i g l i o o f
t h e P a l a z z o V e c c h i o , F l o r e n c e , b e g u n a b o u t 1503 a n d

abandoned

b y L e o n a r d o i n 1506, was p r o b a b l y k n o w n t o R u b e n s i n t h e late 1590s

33. R u b e n s , Battle

of the Greeks and Amazons

(ca. 1 6 0 2 - 0 4 , p e n a n d b r o w n

i n k o v e r traces o f g r a p h i t e , 25.1 x 4 2 . 8 c m [ 9 % x J6 /8 i n . ] ; L o n d o n ,
7

B r i t i s h M u s e u m , i n v . 1895.9.15.1045), see N e w Y o r k 2 0 0 5 , p p . 8 8 - 9 0 ,
cat. no. 12; The Battle of the Amazons (oil o n canvas, 89 x 135.5 cm [35 x
53 /8 i n . ] ; p r i v a t e c o l l e c t i o n ) , see L o n d o n 2 0 0 5 , p p . 4 8 - 4 9 , cat. n o . 4
3

( d a t e d 1 6 0 3 - 0 5 , b u t p o s s i b l y e a r l i e r ) ; a n d The Battle

of the

Amazons

(see f i g . 36). T h e last w o r k w a s o w n e d b y t h e A n t w e r p c o l l e c t o r

C o r n e l l s v a n d e r G e e s t ; see R e n g e r a n d D e n k 2 0 0 2 , p p . 350-55.

RUBENS AND

BRUEGHEL

51

2
Peter Paul Rubens and Jan Brueghel the Elder

The Return from War: Mars Disarmed by Venus

ca. 1 6 1 0 - 1 2

O i l on panel, 127.3 x 163.5 cm (50 Vs x 64 /s in.)

Los Angeles, J. Paul Getty Museum, acquired in honor of John Walsh,
3

2000.68

H o u s e , W i m b l e d o n , E n g l a n d ; given by

P R O V E N A N C E

Possibly collection o f Ferrante Spinelli,

N a p l e s , 1654; p o s s i b l y p r i v a t e c o l l e c t i o n ,
Italy, eighteenth century; perhaps w i t h
t h e d u k e o f M a n t u a ; ca. 1890, p u r c h a s e d b y
the P e n n i n g t o n - M e l l o r family, Castello
di L u n g h e z z a ; b r o u g h t b y the f a m i l y
t o E n g l a n d , 1911, a n d t h e n t o F r a n o n , the
Pennington-Mellor property in Biarritz;

M a l c o l m M u n t h e t o the P e n n i n g t o n - M e l l o r
M u n t h e C h a r i t y T r u s t i n 1981; s o l d t o the
J. P a u l G e t t y M u s e u m , 2 0 0 0
LITERATURE

Woollett 2001; V a n M u l d e r s 2004, pp. 70,

7 4 ; D o h e r t y 2 0 0 5 ; H o n i g 2 0 0 5 , fig. 14;
V a n M u l d e r s 2 0 0 5 ; R o s e n t h a l 2 0 0 5 , p p . 73-75

transferred f r o m B i a r r i t z to E n g l a n d i n 1940
by H i l d a P e n n i n g t o n - M e l l o r ; by inheritance
to her s o n M a j o r M a l c o l m M u n t h e , M u c h
M a r c l e at H e l l e n s , n e a r L e d b u r y , H e r e f o r d
s h i r e , a n d t r a n s f e r r e d b y 1953 t o

Southside

HIS A M B I T I O U S A L L E G O R Y W A S O N E OF T H E

first joint projects of Rubens and Brueghel's resumed

partnership, following Rubens's decision to remain
in Antwerp in 1 6 0 9 . The Return from War: Mars Disarmed
by Venus highlights the specialties of both artists and reveals
the accommodating nature of their exceptional working
method. In this, one of their largest collaborative works, the
artists adapted the scale of their contributions, with
Brueghel painting exceedingly large pieces of armor and
Rubens adopting an unusual intermediate figure scale.
Significantly, in the revision of the right side of the panel,
Rubens introduced figures over finished pieces of furniture
and small objects, thus altering the subject but not, appar
ently, the firm friendship upon which the partnership was
based. Rubens and Brueghel brought together Flemish and
Italian Renaissance iconography as easily as two different

52

R U B E N S

A N D

B R U E G H E L

pictorial styles in a composition that highlights the genius

of both painters.
The Return from War started out on the easel of Brueghel,
who painted the cavernous interior and the foreground
accoutrements. The ruined, vaulted space is a modified ver
sion of the dilapidated forge Brueghel developed between
1606 and 1 6 0 8 . As in earlier compositions, the Los Angeles
panel features a long corridor leading to the landscape out
side and various bays inside housing the forge and smithy
(the many figures working in these recesses are by his hand).
Many drawings from Brueghel's Italian sojourn, particularly
from the period of his residence in Rome ( 1 5 9 2 - 9 4 ) , attest
to his interest in the majestic remains of antiquity and in par
ticular to the rhythm and texture of the arched corridors of
the Colosseum and Baths of Diocletian (see figs. 6 and 7 ) .
He was further inspired by the fanciful re-creation of a vaulted
1

53

ruin as the setting for the Forge of Vulcan by the Antwerp

painter Pauwels Franck, called Paolo Fiammingo ( 1 5 4 0 1596), who was active in Venice about 1570 (see fig. 7 8 ) .
While Brueghel reversed the location of the main features of
the setting (for example, the smithy and the mill wheel) in
the Allegory of Fire (cat. no. 17) and related compositions, in
The Return from War the position of the main figure group
on the right and the display of precious articles (subsequently
obscured by Rubens, see below) correspond to the Fiam
mingo drawing. The Prophesy of Isaiah (cat. no. 18), a collabo
rative work by Brueghel and Hendrick van Balen, features a
similar alcove on the right.
However, Brueghel made key changes to the vaulted set
ting for The Return from War, abandoning the picturesque
arching heights that dwarf the figures and foreground debris
for an interior that is more circumscribed and enclosed. N o t
only are the pieces of armor larger, in keeping with the scale
of a substantial figure group, but they have been carefully
selected for their rich surfaces and complex forms. Beautiful
pieces of Milanese-style parade armor predominate, along
with copper vessels, minutely described objects that include
a crossbow and winders (cranequins), a powder horn, a
spanner, and a wheel-lock gun. Most of these items can be
found in earlier allegories of Fire and in the Prophesy of
Isaiah. Surviving sheets of figure studies, apparently from
life, as well as studies for birds and hunting implements (see
fig. 6 4 ) , suggest that Brueghel kept drawings in the studio
for reference. Although Antwerp was an important center
for the fabrication of armor, Brueghel may have studied the
armor firsthand in the archducal armory in Brussels,
although specific archducal garnitures are not represented, as
they are in the Allegory of Touch (see fig. 5 6 ) . The shield
on the right with a blue tasseled fringe, its interior surface
and decorative rivets broadly described, while painted
by Rubens, was probably a prop in Brueghel's studio and
appears face up in the immediate foreground of the Prophesy
of Isaiah. Brueghel took a playful approach to the main heap
of armor, showing his technical virtuosity in the evocation
of edges and dark interior spaces. O n this scale, the liveliness
and crisp impasto of his brushwork reveal the essentially
painterly nature of his technique.
Brueghel painted many objects in the alcove beneath the
figures of Mars, Venus, and her helpers, which are only
partially visible with the naked eye but have been revealed
by X-radiography and infrared photography (see figs. 123 and
1 2 4 ) . From left to right they include a three-legged copper
3

bowl of glowing embers and a triangular wooden stool with

a tazza of grapes on the seat. A little higher up are a group
of small items, including a shell, a porcelain bowl, a candle
stick, clippers, an overturned decorated glass, a lobed pewter
container, and a circular piece of gilt plate, perhaps a salver,
leaning against the wall; a wooden bench stands diagonally
in the right corner. A l l of these elements appear to have
been brought to a finished state by Brueghel.
When Rubens received the panel, he revised the alcove
by covering many of these objects with a layer of gray paint,
neatly sidestepping the cranequin in the foreground and
following the barrel of the musket. The standing figures of
Mars and Venus must represent an acute shift in the original
design, as they do not resemble the single roughly under
drawn figure, visible with infrared reflectography, with its
bent posture and smaller scale (see fig. 121). Together with
the forge setting, the presence of the legged brazier allows
for the possibility that the scene was planned as a Venus in
the Forge of Vulcan. This distinctive vessel of burning
embers is found near Cupid and Venus in several of the
Venus in the Forge of Vulcan scenes Brueghel painted with
Van Balen (see, for example, fig. 7 6 ) . However, in his
conceptual partnership with Brueghel, Rubens's substantial
alteration was in keeping with his independent contribution
to the commission. More than simply adjusting the subject
with the addition of standing figures, Rubens eliminated
extraneous attributes that did not support the new theme.
As we shall see, there is every reason to believe that Rubens
discussed the transformation of the theme with Brueghel,
whose later contributions served to enhance it.
With Rubens's contribution of a figure group based on
antique and Renaissance sources, Vulcan's forge became the
setting for an allegory of Peace. Leaning into his embrace,
the nude Goddess of Love fixes the G o d of War with a dis
arming gaze. Venus divests her returning lover of his armor
as he stands relaxed and oblivious to her cupids playfully
stealing away his martial emblems. The untying of the war
god's buskin, for example, is a reference to his binding
by the fetters of love and conveys the peaceable hope that
Love is more powerful than Strife. Often, the allegory
of Mars and Venus was treated as an idyll that transpires
in a landscape where Mars's relaxation, and even sleep, was
emphasized. Rubens himself later treated the theme in
a painting now lost. Ironically, in The Return from War,
while the disorder of discarded musket, crossbow, and can
surrounding the illicit lovers emphasizes the halt to
8

10

11

12

13

14

RUBENS AND

BRUEGHEL

55

F I G U R E 37 O t t o v a n V e e n ( c a . 1 5 5 6 - 1 6 2 9 ) , " L o v e l y c k e t h d a r k n e s s "
( C E L A R I V V L T S V A F V R T A V E N U S ) , Amorum

Emblemata

(Antwerp,

The panel subsequently returned to Brueghel, who inte

grated the figure group into the interior and adjusted the
still-life attributes to support an allegory of Peace. Only
those objects specifically associated with the figures or neces
sary for expanding upon the consequences of Peace were
painted in this second campaign: in the foreground the tools
relating to the armorer's craft (square, compass, clippers,
scales, tweezers) and in the right corner the pocket watch
and bowl of grapes (reintroduced from Brueghel's initial
treatment), both of which allude to the passage of time and
the impermanence of Peace. Smaller objects related to the
activities of the forge were added in a subdued tone between
Brueghel's pile of armor and the putto wresting away Mars's
sword, including an anvil, which sits prominently behind
the war god's hand. This key element was part of the long
standing iconography of war, as exemplified by a sixteenthcentury print of the Art of War (fig. 39), which also includes
a cannon and evidence of the armorer's craft. Perhaps, in
this last phase, Brueghel also added the prominent, but not
incongruous, pair of guinea pigs to the foreground as the
exotic embodiment of fruitfulness that accompanies Peace.
While the earliest provenance of The Return from War
remains to be discovered, the substantial size of the panel, its
shared authorship by Antwerp's preeminent painters, and
the delightfully intertwined political allegory and theme of
love strongly suggest that it was a specific commission, likely
for the archducal court if not for Albert and Isabella them
selves. The Return from War celebrates the Twelve Years'
Truce of 1 6 0 9 , brokered by Archduke Albert, which brought
hostilities between the Protestant Northern provinces and
the Catholic Southern Netherlands to a halt. The occasion
prompted new hope, as Rubens noted in his letter to Johann
Faber in Rome just one day prior to the signing of the
treaty: "The peace, or rather, the truce for many years will
without doubt be ratified, and during this period it is
believed our country shall flourish again." The Los Angeles
panel is one of a small group of paintings to treat the theme
of peace following the signing of the treaty. The Union of the
Scheldt River and the City ofAntwerp (Scaldis and Antwerpia)
( 1 6 0 9 ; Antwerp, Koninklijk Museum voor Schone Kunsten)
by Abraham Janssens (ca. 1 5 7 5 - 1 6 3 2 ) was commissioned by
the Antwerp magistracy to decorate the Statenkamer (State
Room) of Antwerp City Hall, where the treaty was signed on
April 10 and ratified on April 14, 1 6 0 9 . Rubens's Adoration of
the Magi (Madrid, Museo Nacional del Prado) celebrated the
beginning of the new era and the bounty it was expected to
18

1608).

Getty Research Institute, Special Collections

19

war, the distant fires of Vulcan's forge ensure that these

armaments increase, a reminder that the war god's powers,
although tempered by love, can be reclaimed. The Return
from War also reflects the contemporary interest at the
Brussels court for playful and allusive allegories of love, as
demonstrated by Otto van Veen's influential Amorum Emblemata of 1608. The emblem portraying Cupid's preference
for seclusion and darkness, represented by a dark grotto
(fig. 37), parallels the meeting of Mars and Venus in The
Return from War.
Rubens may not have looked to a single source for the
figure of Venus. The cross-legged pose of the goddess appears
in various antique sources, particularly on sarcophagi. In
this work, together with her white mantle and jeweled girdle,
it supports her characterization as Chaste Love. The power
ful figure of Mars, particularly the foreshortening of his baton
arm, reflects the influence of Michelangelo on Rubens's early
work in Antwerp. The intertwined pose of Mars and Venus,
and especially her removal of one of the god's key martial
emblems, his plumed helmet, may have been suggested
to Rubens by a gem carved with a scene showing Hercules
Crowned by Minerva. Rubens used the sinuous posture and
overhead gesture of the goddess (in reverse) again almost
immediately for The Crowning of Virtue (fig. 3 8 ) .
15

16

1 7

56

RUBENS A N D BRUEGHEL

20

F I G U R E 38 Peter P a u l R u b e n s , The Crowning

p a n e l , 221.5

of Virtue,

c a . 1613-14. O i l o n

201 c m (87 V4 x 79 Vs i n . ) . M u n i c h , A l t e P i n a k o t h e k , i n v . 9 9 7

F I G U R E 39 F i l i p s G a l l e after F r a n s F l o r i s (ca. 1519/20-1570), The Art

of War. E n g r a v i n g , 205 x 2 4 6 m m ( 8 / 8 x 9 / s i n . ) . V i e n n a , G r a p h i s c h e
]

Sammlung Albertina

afford the city and was likewise commissioned by the magis

trates for the same gallery. The topic remained relevant
years after the signing, as indicated by Janssens's later com
position Peace and Plenty Binding the Arrows of War ( 1 6 1 4 ;
Wolverhampton, Municipal Museum and Art Gallery). The
Return from War may have been known to the Dutch artist
Adriaen van de Venne ( 1 5 8 9 - 1 6 6 2 ) , whose The Treves (Allegory
of the Twelve Tears^ Truce) ( 1 6 1 6 ; Paris, Musee du Louvre)
combines allegory and history in the form of portraits of di g
nitaries from the Northern and Southern Netherlands in a
detailed composition reminiscent of Brueghel's style, replete
with its own still life of discarded armor.
Alongside the primary political allegory in The Return
from War, the inventively combined efforts of Rubens and
Brueghel also give rise to an additional, sensual, layer of
meaning. There are delightful visual puns, such as the phall ic
cannons to the left of Mars and the loose bridles, added by
Brueghel after Rubens's revision, hanging next to the
21

22

aggressively seductive goddess. The setting of Vulcan's forge

contributes to the theme of the senses, and the fire, armor,
and weapons each connote pain or protection from it. A l l of
these elements, and the ancient structure, were later invoked
in Brueghel and Rubens's Allegory of Touch (see fig. 56).
Brueghel's calligraphic handling of metal surfaces rivals and
contrasts with Rubens's smooth breastplate, its own cold,
hard surface juxtaposed with the creamy, opulent flesh
of Venus. While this painting's exceptional tactility adds an
additional dimension to the allusion to the sense of touch,
it also clearly demonstrates how Brueghel's graphic brushwork complements Rubens's broad handling, creating a
setting that envelopes the figures and enables them to inhabit
the space.
Until recently, The Return from War: Mars Disarmed by
Venus was only known from a print of 1778 by Jean-Jacques
Avril (fig. 4 0 ) , which may represent a second version of
the subject, as it shows the main armor still life having been

RUBENS

AND BRUEGHEL

57

company drinking

( r e c t o ) , Five figures seen from behind and Other

figures

(verso) ( C h r i s t i e ' s , L o n d o n , J u l y 6, 2 0 0 4 , l o t 163); s o m e o f these

figures c o r r e s p o n d t o t h o s e i n B r u e g h e l ' s V i l l a g e S c e n e (1612; M u n i c h ,
A l t e P i n a k o t h e k , i n v . 1884). F o r a sheet d e p i c t i n g a l a r g e v a r i e t y
o f birds, perhaps i n anticipation o f an allegory o f A i r (Braunschweig,
H e r z o g A n t o n U l r i c h - M u s e u m ) a n d a sheet o f h u n t i n g i m p l e m e n t s
(fig. 6 4 i n t h i s v o l u m e ) , see W i n n e r 1972, p . 159, fi g. 38, a n d p . 146,
fig. 127.
6. F o r the a r m o r d e p i c t e d i n the Allegory

of Touch, see B . W e l z e l ,

" A r m o u r y a n d A r c h d u c a l I m a g e : T h e Sense o f T o u c h f r o m the

F i v e Senses o f J a n B r u e g h e l a n d Peter P a u l R u b e n s , " i n B r u s s e l s
1 9 9 8 - 9 9 , p p . 1 0 0 - 1 0 2 . F o r t h e B r u s s e l s a r m o r y , see T e r l i n d e n 1961
a n d Wop ens 1992.
7. See the essay b y D o h e r t y , L e o n a r d , a n d W a d u m i n t h i s v o l u m e ,
pp. 230-31.
8. T h e s t o o l , b e n c h , a n d c r e d e n z a g r o u p i n g appears i n m a n y o f
B r u e g h e l ' s p a i n t i n g s o f V e n u s i n t h e F o r g e o f V u l c a n a n d i n the
FIGURE 4 0
Mars

J e a n - J a c q u e s A v r i l (1744-1831) after P e t e r P a u l R u b e n s ,

au Retour de la Guerre,

Allegory

1778. E n g r a v i n g , 453 x 576 m m ( 1 7 % x 22V8

of Fire e x e c u t e d b y J a n B r u e g h e l t h e E l d e r a n d H e n d r i c k

v a n B a l e n b e t w e e n 1608 a n d 1623; see E r t z 1979, n o s . 191, 252, 254, 277,

in.). S t u t t g a r t , S t a a t s g a l e r i e , G r a p h i s c h e S a m m l u n g , i n v . A 9 8 / 6 7 7 6 , c ( K K )

382; a n d W e r c h e 2 0 0 4 , n o s . A 136, A 1 4 0 , A 162, A 163, A 164, A 165.

I t also appears i n the Allegory

of Fire c o m p o s i t i o n s V a n B a l e n e x e c u t e d

w i t h J a n B r u e g h e l t h e Y o u n g e r ; see W e r c h e 2 0 0 4 , p p . 194, 195,

modified with the addition of a furled standard. The com

position was evidently known in Antwerp, where a painter
familiar with the early works of Anthony van Dyck included
the figure of Venus among other selected motifs in an oil
sketch dating from about 1625. Similar figures of Mars and
Venus appear in the Allegory of Fire from the late 1620s by
Hendrick van Balen and Jan Brueghel the Younger. A T W

n o s . A 1 4 4 a n d A 148.

23

24

25

9. See D o h e r t y , L e o n a r d , a n d W a d u m , p . 231.
10.

I t is n o t p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r a n y o t h e r figures w ere p l a n n e d
T

d u e t o the d e n s i t y o f the p a i n t layers i n the area o f t h e f i g u r e o f M a r s .

See D o h e r t y , L e o n a r d , a n d W a d u m , p . 230.
11. N o t a b l y i n the c o m p o s i t i o n e s t a b l i s h e d w i t h t h e 1606 Allegory

of Fire

n o w i n L y o n a n d r e l a t e d t r e a t m e n t s o f the t h e m e . See n o t e 1 a b o v e .
12. T h i s i d e a h a d b e e n e x p r e s s e d b y L u c r e t i u s i n De rerum

natura

( 1 . 3 0 - 4 4 ) . F o r the i c o n o g r a p h y o f V e n u s a n d M a r s a n d t h e t h e m e o f
Peace, see W i n d 1958, p a r t i c u l a r l y p p . 8 2 - 8 8 . See also B a u m s t a r k 1974,
p p . 177-201. T h e m o t i f o f t h e fetters is e l o q u e n t l y c o n v e y e d i n a

NOTES

p a i n t i n g b y P a o l o V e r o n e s e , Mars
1. The Allegory

of Fire ( s i g n e d a n d d a t e d B R V E G H E L / 1 6 0 6 , o i l o n p a n e l ,

4 6 x 83 c m [18Vs x 32 /8 i n . ] ; L y o n , M u s e e des B e a u x - A r t s , i n v . 75)

S

New

and Venus United

by Love (1576-82;

Y o r k , M e t r o p o l i t a n M u s e u m o f A r t , i n v . 10.189), w h i c h w a s

i n t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f R u d o l f I I i n P r a g u e . R u b e n s r e t u r n e d t o the t h e m e

a p p e a r s t o be t h e earliest e x a m p l e o f t h i s s e t t i n g i n B r u e g h e l ' s o e u v r e .

o f Peace a n d the a g e n c y o f V e n u s a g a i n i n a l o s t canvas (see n o t e 14

See p p . 6 - 9 a n d cat. n o s . 17 a n d 18 i n t h i s v o l u m e .

b e l o w ) , i n The Council

of the Gods (1625; P a r i s , M u s e e d u L o u v r e ) ,

o n e o f the p o l i t i c a l a l l e g o r i e s he d e v i s e d f o r M a r i e d e ' M e d i c i ,
2. F o r B r u e g h e l ' s d r a w i n g o f r u i n s , see W i n n e r 1961, p p . 1 9 1 - 9 7 ; W i n n e r
1972, e s p e c i a l l y p p . 1 2 2 - 3 8 ; a n d B e d o n i 1983, p p . 2 9 - 3 8 .

a n d i n Venus, Mars,

and Cupid

(ca. 1630; D u l w i c h P i c t u r e G a l l e r y ,

inv. dpg285). H o w e v e r , the i n t i m a c y o f these scenes is d r a m a t i c a l l y

t o r n a s u n d e r i n the Horrors

3. S o l d S o t h e b y ' s , A m s t e r d a m , N o v e m b e r 4 , 2 0 0 3 , l o t . 7.

of War (1637-38; F l o r e n c e , P a l a z z o P i t t i ) ,

where, a c c o r d i n g to R u b e n s , " M a r s . . . rushes forth w i t h shield a n d

4 . F o r a v i e w o f t h e c r o s s b o w w i t h t h e w i n d e r a t t a c h e d , see V a n d e r

pays l i t t l e h e e d t o V e n u s , h i s m i s t r e s s , w h o , a c c o m p a n i e d b y h e r

2001,

A m o r s a n d C u p i d s , strives w i t h caresses a n d e m b r a c e s t o h o l d h i m .

a n d f o r the " a l i a

fiamminga"

t y p e m a d e i n A n t w e r p , see H o f f

1978, p . 31; a n d V a n d e r S l o o t 1959, p . 112. F o r H a b s b u r g a r m o r ,

M a r s is d r a g g e d f o r w a r d b y the f u r y A l e k t o , w i t h a t o r c h i n h e r h a n d .

see Q u i n t a n a L a c a c i 1987 a n d S o l e r d e l C a m p o 2 0 0 0 a n d the l i t e r a t u r e

N e a r b y are m o n s t e r s p e r s o n i f y i n g P e s t i l e n c e a n d F a m i n e , t h o s e i n s e p a

therein. I thank L i l l i a n H s u , Getty M u s e u m undergraduate intern,

r a b l e p a r t n e r s o f W a r " (letter t o J u s t u s S u s t e r m a n s , A n t w e r p , M a r c h

for h e r h e l p i d e n t i f y i n g these i t e m s .
5. See, f o r e x a m p l e , J a n B r u e g h e l t h e E l d e r , A crowded beer stall
studies of elegant figures drinking

58

b l o o d - s t a i n e d s w o r d , t h r e a t e n i n g t h e p e o p l e w i t h g r e a t disaster. H e

S t o c k 1991, p . 357. F o r w h e e l - l o c k f i r e a r m s , see p a r t i c u l a r l y R i m e r

RUBENS A N D

BRUEGHEL

12, 1638): M a g u r n 1955, p p . 4 0 8 - 9 , letter 2 4 2 ( " M a r t e . . . v a c o l l o

with

and of two monks a priest and An

elegant

s c u d o e l a spada i n s a n g u i n a t a m i n a c c i a n d o ai p o p o l i q u a l c h e g r a n r u i n a ,
c u r a n d o s i p o c o d i V e n e r e sua d a m a , c h e s i s z f o r z a c o n c a r e z z e e d

abbracciamenti a ritenerlo, accompagnata dalli suoi A m o r i e C u p i d i n i .

a p p e a r e d i n the e q u e s t r i a n p o r t r a i t o f the D u k e o f L e r m a (1603;

D a l F altara b a n d a M a r t e v i e n t i r a t o d a l l a f u r i a A l e t t o , c o n u n a face i n

M a d r i d , M u s e o N a c i o n a l d e l P r a d o , i n v . 3137). F o r the i m p o r t a n c e o f

m a n o . M o s t r i a c c o n t o , c h e s i g n i f i c a n o l a Peste e l a F a m e , c o m p a g n i

the g r a y h o r s e i n B r u e g h e l ' s w o r k , see K o l b 2 0 0 5 , p p . 6 7 - 7 3 .

i n s e p e r a b i l i d e l l a G u e r r a " : R o o s e s a n d R u e l e n s 1 8 8 7 - 1 9 0 9 , v o l . 6,
p . 2 0 8 ) . F o r the t h e m e o f Peace i n R u b e n s ' s o e u v r e a n d p o s s i b l e c o n
n e c t i o n s w i t h h i s p e r s o n a l h o p e s a n d d i p l o m a t i c a c t i v i t i e s , see

21. F o r the Janssens p a i n t i n g , see J. V a n d e r A u w e r a i n A n t w e r p 1993,

B a u m s t a r k 1974; R o s e n t h a l 1993, p p . 1 0 3 - 5 ; R o s e n t h a l 2 0 0 0 ; P o e s c h e l
2001; and Werner 2004.
13. See, f o r e x a m p l e , S a n d r o B o t t i c e l l i , Mars
and Amor

p p . 1 4 6 - 4 7 . F o r the S t a t e n k a m e r c o m m i s s i o n s , see M a d r i d 2 0 0 4 .
22. T h e p a i n t i n g is d i s c u s s e d i n B o l 1989, p p . 4 1 - 4 3 , fig- 27.

and Venus (ca. 1485; L o n d o n ,

N a t i o n a l G a l l e r y o f A r t , i n v . N G 915) a n d P i e r o d i C o s i m o , Venus,
Mars,

2 0 . L e t t e r o f A p r i l 10, 1 6 0 9 ; see M a g u r n 1955, p p . 5 2 - 5 3 .

(ca. 1505; B e r l i n , G e m a l d e g a l e r i e , i n v . 107).

23. T h e text b e l o w the t i t l e reads: " D a n s les bras caressans de la b e l l e

D e e s s e , L e d i e u M a r s l a n g u i s s a i t b r u l a n t et d e s a r m e , E t , le f r o n t rayo n n a n t de l a p l u s d o u c e ivresse, II g o u t o i t a l o n g s t r a i t s le b o n h e u r
d ' e t r e a i m e . " It is also p o s s i b l e t h a t A v r i l m o d i f i e d the c o m p o s i t i o n f o r

14. C a . 1617, f o r m e r l y S c h l o f i K o n i g s b e r g , K a l i n i n g r a d , n o w at S t .
P e t e r s b u r g , State H e r i t a g e M u s e u m ; see E v e r s 1 9 4 4 , fig . 292. T h i s

the p r i n t , w h i c h also exists w i t h o u t the verse ( S t u t t g a r t , S t a a t s g a l e r i c ,

w o r k is d i s c u s s e d b y B a u m s t a r k 1974, p p . 1 7 7 - 7 8 ; a n d V a n G e l d e r

G r a p h i s c h e S a m m l u n g , inv. A 9 8 / 6 7 7 6 , b [ i a c ] ) . I a m g r a t e f u l t o H a n s

1950/51, p p . 115-16.

M a r t i n K a u l b a c h , G r a p h i s c h e S a m m l u n g , Staatsgaleric Stuttgart, for

15. T h e s t a n d i n g f e m a l e n u d e , legs c r o s s e d , appears e a r l y i n R u b e n s ' s o e u

vre in Adam
and Omphale

and Eve (ca. 1599; A n t w e r p , R u b e n s h u i s ) a n d i n

Hercules

( 1 6 0 2 - 0 5 ; P a r i s , M u s e e d u L o u v r e , i n v . 854).

his k i n d assistance w i t h these p r i n t s . S m i t h ( 1 8 2 9 - 4 2 , p p . 3 0 6 , 396,

n o . 1122) was a w a r e o f the c o m p o s i t i o n as a r e s u l t o f the A v r i l e n g r a v
i n g , as was R o o s e s ( 1 8 8 6 - 9 2 , v o l . 4 , p p . 5 2 - 5 3 ) , w h o c i t e d the l i k e l y
p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r . E l l i s W a t e r h o u s e m a d e n o t e o f

16. R u b e n s was a n a v i d c o l l e c t o r o f g e m s , a n d s u c h a g e m w a s i n h i s c o l

the p r e s e n t p a i n t i n g i n 1953 d u r i n g a v i s i t t o M u c h M a r c l e at H e l l e n s ,

l e c t i o n ; see N e v e r o v 1979, p . 4 3 2 ; a n d A n t w e r p 2 0 0 4 , p p . 287, 289.

n e a r L e d b u r y , a P e n n i n g t o n - M e l l o r p r o p e r t y , i d e n t i f y i n g it as the

A g e m o f s i m i l a r d e s c r i p t i o n is m e n t i o n e d b y R u b e n s i n a letter

w o r k c a t a l o g u e d b y S m i t h as n o . 1122, a l t h o u g h a p p a r e n t l y w i t h o u t

t o A n t o i n e P e i r e s c ( M a y 1628); see V a n d e r M e u l e n 1994, v o l . 1,

p p . 2 0 6 - 7 , n o . 4- T h e h e l m e t d e p i c t e d i n The Return from War,

while

s i m i l a r t o s i x t e e n t h - c e n t u r y e x a m p l e s , is d i s t i n c t f r o m the N e g r o i i style h e l m e t p o s s e s s e d b y R u b e n s a n d u s e d i n h i s Portrait

as the God Mars

of a

Man

(ca. 1 6 2 0 - 2 5 ; p r i v a t e c o l l e c t i o n ) ; see B o s t o n -

T o l e d o 1 9 9 3 - 9 4 , pp. 2 8 7 - 8 9 ; N e w Y o r k 1 9 9 8 - 9 9 , pp. 152-54; a n d

Karcheski 2001.
17. R e n g e r a n d D e n k 2 0 0 2 , p p . 3 7 6 - 7 9 . The Crowning

seeing it ("Account o f Pictures i n B r i t i s h Private C o l l e c t i o n s June

1 9 5 3 - A u g . 1955" [p. 35], B o x 6, F o l d e r 3, E l l i s K i r k h a m W a t e r h o u s e
N o t e b o o k s a n d R e s e a r c h F i l e s , 1 9 0 1 - 1 9 8 7 [ b u l k ca. 1 9 2 4 - c a . 1979],
G e t t y R e s e a r c h I n s t i t u t e , R e s e a r c h L i b r a r y , a c c e s s i o n n o . 8 7 0 2 0 4 ) . See
V a n M u l d e r s 2 0 0 5 , p. 199 ( w h i c h a p p e a r e d t o o late t o be a d d r e s s e d
here) f o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f t w o c o p i e s a n d a v a r i a n t o f t h i s c o m p o s i t i o n .
2 4 . U n k n o w n s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y F l e m i s h artist, Studies for the

of Virtue

is o n e o f a

g r o u p o f a l l e g o r i c a l p a i n t i n g s f r o m a b o u t 1614 i n w h i c h R u b e n s p o r

Martyrdom

of Saint Sebastian and Venus (ca. 1625 [ r e v i s e d t i t l e a n d d a t e ] , o i l o n

p a p e r l a i d d o w n o n canvas, 63.5 x 56 c m [25 x 22 i n . ] ; B a s e l ,

t r a y e d scenes f r o m the life o f the C h r i s t i a n K n i g h t a n d the V i r t u o u s

C o l l e c t i o n L u d w i g G e i g e r ) . T h i s ricordo was a t t r i b u t e d t o A n t h o n y

S o l d i e r . C r e a t e d o n a m o n u m e n t a l scale, these w o r k s are c h a r a c t e r i z e d

v a n D y c k b y A . S c h u g ( 1 9 8 5 - 8 6 , p. 147, p i - 32). U n t i l n o w , the f e m a l e

b y s t r o n g l y l i t , p o w e r f u l figures. See V a n d e r A u w e r a 1985 a n d

figure

R o s e n t h a l 1993.

u n i d e n t i f i e d s o u r c e ; see S c h u g , i b i d . , a n d C h r i s t o p h e r B r o w n i n

18. T h i s is o n e o f a series o f e i g h t p r i n t s o f H u m a n A c t i v i t i e s , p r e s u m a b l y
d e s i g n e d b y F r a n s F l o r i s , t h o u g h o n l y o n e is d a t e d 1 5 7 4 (after the

o n the sheet has b e e n i d e n t i f i e d as a n A n d r o m e d a f r o m an

Y o k o h a m a - S h i z u o k a - O s a k a 1 9 9 0 , p . 1 4 4 , cat. n o . 7.
25. O i l o n c o p p e r , 47.5 x 82.5 c m [18V4 x 32^2 i n . ] ; E n g l a n d , K i n g s t o n

d e a t h o f F l o r i s ) . See V a n de V e l d e 1975, v o l . 1, p p . 4 2 8 - 2 9 , n o . P129;

L a c y , N a t i o n a l T r u s t , p r i v a t e c o l l e c t i o n . See W e r c h e 2 0 0 4 , v o l . 1,

v o l . 2, f i g . 282. T h e i n s c r i p t i o n o n the p r i n t , " M a u o r t i s B e l l o n a s o r o r

p . 195, n o . A 148; v o l . 2, p . 4 2 2 .

. . . n u d u s m e m b r a P y r a e m o n , " is f r o m V i r g i l ' s Aeneid,

a source w h i c h

i n f l u e n c e d B r u e g h e l ' s i n v e n t i o n o f the v a u l t e d f o r g e i n t e r i o r . See

cat. n o . 17.
19. T h e g u i n e a p i g s w e r e p a i n t e d f r o m life a n d a p p e a r i n m a n y c o m p o s i
t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g cat. n o s . 4 , 6, 12, 21, a n d 26 i n t h i s v o l u m e , a n d
n o t a b l y i n the e a r l y large Venus o f 1600 p a i n t e d w i t h H e n d r i c k v a n
B a l e n (St. P e t e r s b u r g , State H e r m i t a g e M u s e u m , i n v . 3256). T h e
a n i m a l s w e r e first i n t r o d u c e d t o E u r o p e f r o m S o u t h A m e r i c a , p o s s i b l y
v i a W e s t A f r i c a a b o u t 1580. See Z e u n e r 1963, p p . 4 3 6 - 3 7 , 4 3 9 ; W e i r
1974, p p . 4 3 7 - 3 8 ; a n d V e r n o n N . K i s l i n g , Jr., " A n c i e n t C o l l e c t i o n s
and Menageries: Earliest L i v e N e w W o r l d A n i m a l s Sent to E u r o p e a n
M e n a g e r i e s , " i n K i s l i n g 2 0 0 1 , p . 35. F o r the a r r i v a l o f n e w species
i n E u r o p e f r o m the N e w W o r l d , see K o l b 2 0 0 5 , p p . 1 7 - 2 0 . B r u e g h e l
b o r r o w e d the m a g n i f i c e n t g r a y h o r s e f r o m R u b e n s , w h e r e it first

RUBENS AND

BRUEGHEL

59

3
Peter Paul Rubens and Jan Brueghel the Elder

The Feast of Acheious

ca.

1614-15

O i l on panel, 109.5 x 165.7 cm ( 4 3 V 8 x 65V4 in.)

New York, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of Alvin and Irwin Untermyer
in memory of their parents, 1 9 4 5 , inv. 45.141

E r t z 1979, p p . 415, 613, n o . 335; L i e d t k e 1984,

PROVENANCE

Basile de S c h l i c h t i n g c o l l e c t i o n , Paris, 1906;

p p . 1 9 4 - 9 8 ; L i e d t k e i n V l i e g h e 1992,
p p . 1 9 0 - 9 2 ; V a n M u l d e r s 2 0 0 0 , p p . 113, 118

J u l i u s B o h l e r (art d e a l e r ) , M u n i c h , 1910;
Samuel Untermyer collection, N e w York,

EXHIBITIONS

1912 (sale, N e w Y o r k , P a r k e B e r n e t , M a y 10,

1 9 4 0 , l o t 52, b o u g h t i n ) ; A l v i n a n d I r w i n

N e w Y o r k 1919, cat. n o . 21; D e t r o i t 1936,

cat. n o . 5; N e w Y o r k 1973; N e w Y o r k 1977,

Untermyer collection, 1940-45

cat. n o . 388; D o r d r e c h t 2 0 0 0 - 0 1 , cat. n o . 6 6

LITERATURE

H e l d i 9 4 i ; W e h l e 1 9 4 6 ; D e M a e y e r 1955,
p p . 4 7 - 4 8 , 118; S p e t h - H o l t e r h o f f 1957,
p . 88; V a n P u y v e l d e 1 9 6 4 ; M u l l e r H o f s t e d e
1968, p . 225; A l p e r s 1971, p p . 9 3 - 9 4 , 162;

N T H E LATE SIXTEENTH CENTURY, T H E B A N Q U E T

of the Gods became a popular subject in Haarlem and

Utrecht among such artists as Hendrick Goltzius
( 1 5 5 8 - 1 6 1 7 ) , Cornelis van Haarlem ( 1 5 6 2 - 1 6 3 8 ) , Abraham
Bloemaert ( 1 5 6 6 - 1 6 5 1 ) , and Joachim Wtewael ( 1 5 6 6 - 1 6 3 8 ) .
In 1587 Goltzius introduced the theme in the North with
his phenomenal print of The Wedding of Cupid and Psyche
after Bartholomeus Spranger ( 1 5 4 6 - 1 6 1 1 ) . A Banquet of the
Godswhich could depict any one of a number of stories
from classical mythologyprovided the artist with an
opportunity to portray an array of nude figures in a variety
of poses ranged around a sumptuous banquet table. In
1550 the Antwerp master Frans Floris (ca. 1 5 1 9 / 2 0 - 1 5 7 0 )
had painted a Banquet of the Gods on a monumental scale
with large figuresdressed as well as nudefilling the
picture plane. It was, however, the influence exerted by the
1

60

RUBENS

A N D BRUEGHEL

above-mentioned Mannerist masters, and also Hans

Rottenhammer, that popularized the theme in the Southern
Netherlands from about 1 6 0 0 onward. In Brussels it was
depicted by Hendrick de Clerck and in Antwerp by Hendrick
van Balen, often in collaboration with Jan Brueghel the
Elder, who painted the fantasy landscapes and richly laid
tables. The earliest dated Banquet of the Gods by Van Balen
and Brueghel is The Wedding ofPeleus and Thetis, dated 1608
(fig. 4 1 ) . About 1 6 1 4 - 1 5 Brueghel collaborated with Rubens
on The Feast ofAcheious, a Banquet of the Gods that is
considerably larger than earlier Flemish cabinet paintings.
Ovid recounts in the Metamorphoses ( 8 . 5 4 7 - 6 1 9 ) the story
of Theseus, son of the king of Athens, who was returning
home after his adventures in Crete and Calydon when
he came to the rain-swollen river called Acheious. The river
god advised Theseus and his traveling companions against
3

61

appeared and served them from her bounteous horn with

all autumn's harvest" (Metamorphoses 9 . 8 0 - 9 2 ) . In the paint
ing, two nymphs approach from the left, carrying a cornu
copia, and a third nymphher water-drenched blonde hair
matted on her backlifts out of the water a large conch
filled with shellfish.
While this water nymph is seen from the back, Rubens
depicted Theseus frontally and his friend Lelex from the
side. These figures derive from drawings he made in Italy of
antique statues, including the Torso Belvedere in Rome.
Rubens varied not only the poses of his idealized nude
figures and the angle from which they are seen but also the
flesh tones: the women and young men are pale, while the
bearded men have darker complexions.
Brueghel based his cave setting on earlier Banquets of the
Gods made in collaboration with Van Balen, including depic
tions of the Wedding of Peleus and Thetis, the Wedding of
Bacchus and Ariadne, the Feast of Acheious, and Banquets
of the Gods set in sea caves. In these paintings he had tried
out various motifs, such as the arched caves lined with
shells, the gifts brought forth from the water, and the ban
quet table with costly vessels displayed on an oriental carpet
and white tablecloth. This last motif can in fact be traced
to Goltzius's influential print after Spranger. In all likeli
hood, The Feast ofAcheious on which Van Balen collaborated
with Jan Brueghel the Younger (fig. 4 2 ) was based on a
lost work he had earlier made with Jan Brueghel the Elder.
The wide-ranging variety of Rubens's figures and the
wealth of detail in Brueghel's scenery, as well as the large
dimensions of the panel, make The Feast ofAcheious an
extremely ambitious workundoubtedly the result of close
consultation and mature deliberation. Brueghel created
a highly imaginative cave landscape in which the river flows
right up to the foreground. The two figures emerging from
the water at the lower left, as well as the elements depicted
in the foregroundwater lilies, shells, and fishall serve to
emphasize the scene's aquatic surroundings. The table laid
with sumptuous farefeaturing oysters, lobsters, and roast
gamemust have been painted after Rubens completed his
figures. It is clear, for example, that the oysters were painted
around the outstretched fingers of Theseus's left hand and
that the wineglasses were later placed in the figures' hands.
Many detailssuch as the cornucopia carried by the
nymphs, the shellfish proffered by the blonde nymph, the
lobster on the arm of the bearded sea creature at the lower
left, the jug held by the servant pouring wine, and the
8

F I G U R E 41 J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r a n d H e n d r i c k v a n B a l e n , The

Wedding

ofPeleus and Thetis, 1608. O i l o n c o p p e r , 4 4 x 61 c m (17V8 x 2 4 i n . ) .

D r e s d e n , Staatliche K u n s t s a m m l u n g , Gemaldegalerie A l t e Meister, inv. 920

10

crossing and invited them to join him at table. Theseus

was entertained in "the river-god's dark dwelling, built of
porous pumice and rough tufa; the floor was damp with
soft moss, conchs and purple-shells paneled the ceiling." After
the banquet, Theseus asked Acheious to tell him about the
islands in the river, which used to be naiads. One of them,
Perimele, had been the object of the river god's love. When
he robbed her of her maidenhood, her father had been
so incensed that he hurled her from a cliff into the sea in an
attempt to kill her. Acheious, however, prayed to Neptune
to save her, whereupon "a new land embraced her floating
form and a solid island grew from her transformed shape."
Rubens placed the river god in the middle of the picture,
pointing to the island in the background while looking at
young Theseus, seated opposite him at the table. Sitting next
to Theseus is his bosom friend Pirithous, who turns to him
impatiently. H e laughs at Acheious, calling his stories "fairy
tales," but Theseus's older companion Lelex, seated at the
right, upbraids him, saying, "The power of heaven is indeed
immeasurable and has no bounds...." Acheious then told the
assembled company how he had transformed himself into
a savage bull to fight the brave Hercules, who eventually laid
him low and broke off one of his horns, which the naiads
filled with fruit and flowers. A t this point in Acheloiis's story,
a nymph, "one of the attendants with locks flowing free,

62

RUBENS AND

BRUEGHEL

11

willow wreath in Acheious' hair (covering the wound in his

head where Hercules had torn off his horn) were painted
by Brueghel in the final stages. Compared with most of
the other paintings on which these two masters collaborated,
Rubens's contribution to this complex composition is very
great indeed. Although this might lead one to suspect that he
initiated the project, the type of depictiona Banquet of
the Gods set against a cavelike backdropmost likely stems
from the repertoire that Brueghel developed together with
Hendrick van Balen. A v S
12

W e r c h e 2 0 0 4 , n o s . A 5 7 - 5 9 ( A 58 a n d A 59 w i t h J a n B r u e g h e l t h e
Y o u n g e r , The Feast of Acheious),
The Wedding

A 6 1 - 6 2 ( w i t h J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r ,
A 110-12 ( A n o a n d A H I w i t h

of Bacchus and Ariadne),

J a n B r u e g h e l t h e E l d e r , A 112 w i t h J a n B r u e g h e l the Y o u n g e r , The

Wedding

ofPeleus

and Thetis), A 1 1 6 - 2 2 ( A 117-21 w i t h J a n B r u e g h e l

the E l d e r , B a n q u e t s o f the G o d s ) , A 1 2 3 - 2 6 ( A 125 a n d A 126 w i t h

J a n B r u e g h e l t h e E l d e r , B a n q u e t s o f the G o d s i n a sea s e t t i n g ) .
5. See W e r c h e 2 0 0 4 , n o . A n o .
6. L i k e Diana

by Jan B r u e g h e l the E l d e r and R u b e n s

at the Hunt

(cat. n o . 10), t h i s p a i n t i n g is p i c t u r e d i n an Allegory

by

of Painting

J a n B r u e g h e l the Y o u n g e r ( P h o e n i x - I C a n s a s C i t y - T h e H a g u e
1 9 9 8 - 9 9 , cat. n o . 8).
7. F o r t h e passages q u o t e d i n t h i s p a r a g r a p h , see O v i d ,

NOTES

Books I-VJII,

p p . 4 4 5 - 4 9 ; a n d O v i d , Metamorphoses,

Metamorphoses,
Books

IX-XV,

p . 9 ( L o e b C l a s s i c a l L i b r a r y , C a m b r i d g e , M a s s . , a n d L o n d o n , 1994).
1. See V a n T h i e l 1999, n o . 159; R o e t h l i s b e r g e r a n d B o k 1993, n o s . 12 a n d
2 4 ; a n d L o w e n t h a l 1986, n o s . A 4 , 2 0 , 3 0 , 4 9 , 50, a n d 53, see also
n . 2. C o m p a r e also D i r c k B a r e n d s z ' s p r i n t Mankind

before the Flood o f

ca. 1580 ( A m s t e r d a m 1986, cat. n o . 309.1).

M e u l e n 1 9 9 4 , v o l . 1, p. 4 8 ; v o l . 2, p p . 5 6 - 5 9 ; a n d v o l . 3, figs. 7 5 - 7 9 ;

2 0 0 3 - 0 4 , cat. n o . 28.

see also A n t w e r p 1993, p p . 1 2 4 - 2 7 .

of the Gods (1550; A n t w e r p , K o n i n k l i j k M u s e u m

v o o r S c h o n e K u n s t e n , i n v . 956); a n d H a n s R o t t e n h a m m e r , Banquet

of

the Gods ( 1 6 0 0 ; S t . P e t e r s b u r g , S t a t e H e r m i t a g e M u s e u m , i n v . 6 8 8 ) ;
see S c h l i c h t e n m a i e r 1988, n o . G 1 37; a n d W e r c h e 2 0 0 4 , fig. 30.
4 . See, f o r e x a m p l e , H e n d r i c k de C l e r c k a n d J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r , The
Wedding

ofPeleus

M e u l e n 1 9 9 4 , v o l . 3, figs. 1 0 2 - 4 ; f o r t h e a n t i q u e statue o n w h i c h
T h e s e u s was m o d e l e d (at t h a t t i m e i n F l o r e n c e , b u t n o w l o s t ) , see
L i e d t k e 1984, p p . 1 9 5 - 9 6 , n . 8; f o r the T o r s o B e l v e d e r e , see V a n d e r

2. A m s t e r d a m 1 9 9 3 - 9 4 , cat. n o . 2; a n d A m s t e r d a m - N e w Y o r k - T o l e d o

3. F r a n s F l o r i s , Banquet

8. F o r d r a w i n g s after R u b e n s o f an a n t i q u e f e m a l e t o r s o , see V a n d e r

and Thetis ( P a r i s , M u s e e d u L o u v r e , i n v . R F 1 9 4 5 - 1 7 ) ,

a n d H e n d r i c k d e C l e r c k , The Feast of Acheious

(Madrid, Museo

9. See n o t e 4 a b o v e .
10. T h e s e a r c h e d caves c o u l d h a v e b e e n i n s p i r e d b y t h e a r c h e d

architecture

o f r u i n s seen i n the w o r k o f H a n s R o t t e n h a m m e r (see n o t e 3 a b o v e ) .

11. See W e r c h e 2 0 0 4 , n o . A 58.
12. See O v i d , Metamorphoses,

Books IX-XV,

pp. 3-9 (Loeb Classical

L i b r a r y , C a m b r i d g e , M a s s . , and L o n d o n , 1994).

N a c i o n a l d e l P r a d o , i n v . 2071). R e g a r d i n g H e n d r i c k v a n B a l e n , see

FIGURE 42

H e n d r i c k van Balen and

J a n B r u e g h e l the Y o u n g e r , The Feast of

Acheious,

1 6 1 0 - 2 0 . O i l o n p a n e l , 55.9 x 92.7 c m
(22 x 3 6 A i n . ) . D a y t o n ( O h i o ) A r t I n s t i t u t e ,
]

G i f t o f M r . R o b e r t B a d e n h o p , i n v . 1957.137

RUBENS

AND

BRUEGHEL

63

4
Jan Brueghel the Elder and Peter Paul Rubens

The Garden of Eden with the Fall of Man

ca.

1617

O i l on panel, 74.3 x 114.7 cm (29V4 x 45Vs in.)

The Hague, Royal Picture Gallery Mauritshuis, inv. 253

L e i d e n , S e p t e m b e r 8, 1766, l o t 1; c o l l e c t i o n

I NSCRI P T I O N S

A t l o w e r left, P E T R I P A V L I . R V B E N S F I G R . ;
at l o w e r r i g h t , I B R V E G H E L F E C . [ I a n d B i n

1766;

1996; V a n M u l d e r s 2 0 0 0 , p p . 114, 118;

Gallery o f Stadholder W i l l e m V, The

Hague,

W a d u m 2001; Tamis 2 0 0 1 - 0 2 ; W a d u m

1774-95; M u s e e N a p o l e o n (Musee d u

l i g a t u r e ] ; o n the reverse, panelmaker's m a r k ,

L o u v r e ) , P a r i s , 1795-1815; G a l l e r y o f

G G [in ligature]

W i l l e m V , T h e H a g u e , 1815-22;
PROVENANCE

Mauritshuis,

K o l b 2005, pp.
EXHIBITIONS

2 0 0 4 a (not i n catalogue)

A d r i a a n W i t t e r t van der A a c o l l e c t i o n ,

2002;

78-80.

E s s e n - V i e n n a 2 0 0 3 , cat. n o . 106; A n t w e r p

s i n c e 1822

P o s s i b l y J o h a n de B y e c o l l e c t i o n , L e i d e n ;

n o . 308; B r o o s 1993, p p . 8 8 - 9 5 ; B e a u j e a n

of Stadholder W i l l e m V, The Hague,

LITERATURE

H o u b r a k e n 1718-21, v o l . 1, p . 87; C a m p o

L e i d e n , 1710; P i e t e r de l a C o u r t v a n d e r V o o r t

W e y e r m a n 1 7 2 9 - 6 9 , v o l . 1, p . 348; H o e t

c o l l e c t i o n , L e i d e n , 1 7 1 0 - 3 9 ; A l l a r d de l a

a n d T e r w e s t e n 1 7 5 2 - 7 0 , v o l . 3, p . 542; V o n

C o u r t van der V o o r t c o l l e c t i o n , L e i d e n ,

U f f e n b a c h 1753-54, v o l . 3, p . 4 2 1 ; T h o r e -

1739-55; C a t h a r i n a de l a C o u r t v a n d e r V o o r t -

B i i r g e r 1 8 5 8 - 6 0 , v o l . 1, p p . 2 8 8 - 8 9 ; D r o s s a e r s

B a c k e r c o l l e c t i o n , L e i d e n , 1 7 5 5 - 6 6 , sale,

a n d L u n s i n g h S c h e u r l e e r 1 9 7 4 - 7 6 , v o l . 3,
p p . 2 0 2 - 3 ; E r t z 1979, p p . 236, 245, 391,

N 1766,

WHEN

STADHOLDER

WILLEM

BOUGHT

The Garden of Eden for the considerable sum of 7,350

guilders at the sale of the De la Court van der Voort
collection, he could feel sure he had done the right thing
by recalling the high praise expressed for this panel by
the artists' biographer, Arnold Houbraken. In his Groote
Schouburgh of 1718, Houbraken called the painting: "the
most outstanding in Art that I have seen by him [Brueghel]
is the so-called paradise at Mr. De la Court van der Voort's
in Leiden, in which a multitude of divers animals appear
in the most ingenious way in a landscape painted no less
ingeniously, with Adam and Eve rendered in the greatest of
detail by Rubens." In 1729 Houbraken's younger colleague
Jacob Campo Weyerman enlarged upon this encomium
by adding that "this glorious work of art... was conceived
and painted in collaboration by Rubens and Brueghel, each
2

64

BRUEGHEL

AND RUBENS

master having challenged the other, as though in a competi

tion, to do his utmost." In short, both of these renowned
Antwerp masters felt honored to be collaborating on this
masterpiece. "Both [contributions] incomparable" were the
words used by the German traveler Zacharias von Uffenbach
to praise the work of these two friends and artists, whose
painting he had admired in 1711 at De la Court's in Leiden.
In buying this perfectly preserved painting, the stadholder
had acquired an outstanding example of the collaborative
efforts of these two mastersthe only painting, moreover, to
bear both their signatures.
Inscribed at the lower right edge of the panel is
I B R V E G H E L F E C , and at the lower left, in larger capitals,
P E T R I P A V L I . R V B E N S F I G R . The use of the genitive case
and the designation F I G R suggests that the latter inscription
should be translated as: "the figures belong to [i.e., are the
3

65

work of] Peter Paul Rubens." As far as we know, this is the

only example of an inscription that reveals the division of
labor in a collaborative work of this kind. Rubens, for that
matter, must have been responsible not only for the figures
of Adam and Eve but also for the brown horse next to Adam
and the serpent in the tree of the knowledge of good and
evil. It has been assumed, because both signatures appear
in the same red-brown paint, that Brueghel applied Rubens's
name as well as his own upon completion of the painting.
The letters of Rubens's signature are larger, however, and
were applied with a finer brush, so it is conceivable that
the two painters, after approving the result, applied their
signatures at the same time from the same palette.
Burned into the back of the panel is a panelmaker's mark,
which gives some basis for dating the work. It is the mark
of Guilliam G a b r o n G G interlaced with a floral motif
who since 1609 had been registered with the Antwerp guild
as a tafereelmaker (panelmaker). H e used this mark from 1614
to 1626. From 1617, the brand of the city of Antwerp would
also have been burned into the panel. Its absence here sug
gests a tentative dating to between 1614 and 1617, although
the lack of the Antwerp brand could also be explained by
the fact that the panel was ordered specially as a support
for this painting, thereby possibly escaping the notice of the
guild's inspectors. Dendrochronological research recently
carried out on the wood indicates 1612 as the earliest possible
dating but suggests 1622 or after as more plausible. The
traditional dating of the painting to about 1617 is therefore
still acceptable.
The Garden of Eden with the EM ofMan fits into a series
of animal pictures in which Brueghel concentrated on making
true-to-life depictions of all God's creatures. The earliest
example is a paradise landscapenow in the Galleria Doria
Pamphilj in Romewith the creation of Adam in the back
ground (fig. 75). Brueghel signed this work and dated
it 1594, which means it originated during his stay in Rome.
The Staatsgalerie Neuburg an der Donau has a paradise scene
by Jan Brueghel to which the Brussels painter Hendrick de
Clerck contributed the figures of Adam and Eve (cat. no. 16).
Its strong resemblance to such works as the 1594 painting
means that we can assume it was painted early on, probably
not long after Brueghel's return from Italy in the autumn of
1596 (De Clerck had already returned from his Italian
sojourn about 1590). This small round painting shows the
same moment in the story of the Creation as the Garden
of Eden in the Mauritshuis; moreover, the way in which Eve
6

10

11

66

BRUEGHEL

AND RUBENS

reaches up to grasp the apple is very similar. Thus, some

twenty years before Brueghel portrayed this subject with
Rubens, he had already collaborated with another artist on a
scene of the Garden of Eden.
The story of the animals entering Noah's ark also provided
a pretext for depicting a wide variety of species (see cat.
no. 2 6 ) . Moreover, in his series of the Four Elements,
Brueghel seized the opportunity offered by Water to depict
both fish and shellfish; similarly, the representation of Air
was the perfect occasion to portray countless birds. Just as
his flower paintings gave him the chance to depict, in ency
clopedic fashion, every bloom known to him, the story of the
Creation provided the ideal setting for all kinds of animals
indigenous as well as exoticnearly all of which he probably
studied from life. Before this time, such artists as Albrecht
Durer ( 1 4 7 1 - 1 5 2 8 ) , Hans Bol ( 1 5 3 4 - 1 5 9 3 ) , and Jacques de
Gheyn ( 1 5 6 5 - 1 6 2 9 ) had painstakingly depicted animals from
life, but Brueghel placed them in their natural habitat, demon
strating as well his keen observation of their movements
and behavior. Here, for example, the dogs bark at quacking
ducks, the felines frolic, the guinea pigs nibble beans, and
the heron is poised to catch fish in the shallow water.
As in the painting in Neuburgbut in contrast to
Brueghel's paradise scenesthe portrayal of the first couple
is an important part of the Mauritshuis painting. Adam and
Eve are depicted on the left, beneath the tree of the knowl
edge of good and evil, on which grow not only apples but
other fruits as well. O n the opposite side of the brook,
emerging in the middle from the wooded landscape, another
treethe tree of lifeis heavily laden with fruit. According
to Genesis 2 : 8 - 1 4 , the tree of life and the tree of the knowl
edge of good and evil stood in the middle of the Garden
of Eden, and a river sprang forth that watered this paradise.
Here, Eve gives Adam an apple while reaching up to take the
apples offered to her by the serpent coiled around a branch.
On the left, behind Adam, a monkey bites into an apple.
This animal, which apes human behavior, stands for sin. It
traditionally plays a role in depictions of the Fall of Man,
together with the cat, here rubbing its head against Eve's leg.
According to the doctrine of the Four Humors, the sanguine
monkey next to Adam is the hothead who cannot resist
temptation, whereas Eve's choleric cat is a symbol of cruel
cunning. In the dark green foliage behind Adam and Eve,
several bunches of grapes catch the light; in Christian
symbolism they refer to Christ's death on the cross (as wine
represents his blood), a prefiguration of the redemption
12

13

14

15

16

17

of humankind from its innate sinfulness, the consequence of

the F a l l . Depicted here is the moment just before the
eating of the forbidden fruit, when all the animals in para
dise were still living together in harmony and Adam and
Eve were naked.
Brueghel, who likely took the initiative in this project,
laid in the composition by means of an underdrawing, using
only a few lines to sketch in the contours of the landscape
on the primed panel. A couple of zigzagging lines repre
senting the right bank of the brook were all he needed to
indicate its course, and a few semicircular lines sufficed to
suggest the clearing in the woods. H e drew one or two diag
onal lines to sketch the landscape running into the distance
in the right background. The position of the trees to the
right of the couple in the middle distance are also indicated
in Brueghel's underdrawing, though he did not follow
it exactly when painting. In addition to the broad lines of
the landscape in the right half of the painting, Brueghel's
underdrawing included a number of animals: the dogs at
the water's edge were drawn briskly and schematically, but
when painted they were placed lower down and more to
the left. The dog on the right seems, in the underdrawing,
to have its tail between its legs instead of up in the air.
Moreover, the peacocks appear in the underdrawing, but in
the painting their feet are placed more to the left. Finally,
the cat rubbing its head against Eve's leg also appears in the
preliminary sketch, but here, too, the underdrawing seems
not to have been followed precisely during the painting
process. It is not known why so few animals were sketched
in at this stage. That Rubens's figures were also positioned
according to an underdrawing is suggested by the fact that
Brueghel knew where to place his cat. However, the brownish
paint Rubens often used for underdrawings cannot be
detected with an infrared camera, nor was it observed here
with the microscope.
In any case, it was Rubens who began to paint, once the
overall design of the picture had been established. H e ren
dered the play of light on Adam and Eve's skin with subtle
nuances of his palette. The shadow cast by the horse on
the upper part of Adam's body is the effect of a dark underpainting, applied in places deliberately to shine through
the uppermost paint layer. To prepare a place for his figures,
Rubens rapidly applied thin, fluid paint to render the tree
trunk and the rock on which Adam sits. That Rubens is also
the author of the brown horse was mentioned as early as
1766 in the De la Court auction catalogue. While Brueghel
18

19

20

21

22

painted his animals in opaque paint, applying small brush

strokes clearly distinguishable from one another, Rubens
used transparent layers of paint that allow the underlying
layers to remain visible. The serpent also displays Rubens's
typical manner of painting. When Rubens had finished his
part, Brueghel took over and applied a green tone as a basis
for the landscape. Then he painted the sky, leaving reserves
for the trees; by painting the outermost leaves over the blue
of the sky he created the effect of light shining through the
leaves. H e went on to paint the larger animals and then
worked up the landscape surrounding them; only the ostrich
and a few of the smaller animals were painted on the dry
background. Working mostly from front to back in this way,
Brueghel could insure that his colors stayed bright; he thus
avoided the disturbing effect created by underlying colors
shining through paint layers that have become more trans
parent with time. Brueghel integrated Rubens's contribution
into the composition by applying small retouches along the
contours. The long strands he added to Eve's hair overlap
part of the flying teal and a few grass stalks. Brueghel also
added long strands to the mane of Rubens's horse and made
the cat's ear overlap Eve's calf. H e integrated Rubens's tree
trunk into the picture by endowing it with countless twigs
and leaves. The detailing on the serpent's headwith its
pointed earsand a few strokes along its contours seem to
betray the hand of Brueghel, who could also be responsible
for some of the pastose accents in Rubens's horse.
23

Rubens's depiction of the Fall is based on late-sixteenthcentury printsafter Marten de Vos ( 1 5 3 2 - 1 6 0 3 ) , Agostino
Carracci ( 1 5 5 7 - 1 6 0 2 ) , and Adam Elsheimer ( 1 5 7 8 - 1 6 1 0 )
which apparently record an older prototype. It is not
entirely clear which of these prints Rubens had in mind, but
the story is usually portrayed in roughly the same way: Adam
sits under the tree of the knowledge of good and evil; next
to him stands Eve, who hands him an apple while reaching
up to take an apple offered to her by the serpent in the tree.
In portraying Adam's athletic body, Rubens was inspired by
the Torso Belvedere, an antique statuewhich he drew dur
ing his stay in Romethat crops up frequently in his work.
Brueghel based the earthly paradise behind Adam and
Eve on a design he had used several times with great success:
a wooded landscape with a few trees in the foreground
(including bare branches on which birds perch), a clearing,
and a vast prospect unfolding in the left or right back
ground. A paradise landscape painted by Brueghel in 1612,
now in the Galleria Doria Pamphilj in Rome, seems to have
24

25

26

BRUEGHEL

AND

RUBENS

67

F I G U R E 4 3 J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r , The
of Eden,

Garden

1612. O i l o n p a n e l , 50.3 x 80.1 c m

( i 9 A x 31V2 i n . ) . R o m e , G a l l e r i a D o r i a
3

P a m p h i l j , i n v . F C 341

been the immediate forerunner of the present painting

(fig. 4 3 ) . In depicting the animals, Brueghel must have
drawn upon his own stock of studies: numerous animals are
depicted in exactly the same way in other of his paintings.
Some of the animals are also to be found in the few surviv
ing animal studies by his hand. The monkey biting into
an apple, for example, appears in the oil sketch in Vienna
(cat. no. 2 8 ) ; the surf scoter (the black duck with white on
the back of its head) is based on an example in an oil sketch
on panel displaying ducks and birds (fig. 4 4 ) ; the toucan in
the center derives from a bird study in o i l ; the deer appear
on a recently discovered sheet with studies drawn in ink
(fig. 4 5 ) . These sketches reveal yet again that Brueghel
based his animals primarily on his own observations of
nature and that he had seen nearly all these animals at first
hand. The exceptions are the romping tiger and leopard,
the lion, and the white horse in the background, which are
based on examples by Rubens that Brueghel often copied
in his animal paintings. Rubens, in turn, based his studies
of lions and horses on examples from antiquity and the
Renaissance, as well as on live specimens.
The penchant for encyclopedic detaildemonstrated by
Brueghel in his paradise landscapes, flower pieces, and series
of the Four Elements and the Five Sensesis deeply rooted
in his time: an era in which new discoveries were the order
of the day and there was great optimism about the possibility
27

28

29

30

31

32

68

BRUEGHEL

AND RUBENS

of acquiring complete knowledge and understanding of

nature. Scores of explorers voyaging to newly discovered,
far-off lands brought home unknown species of plants and
animals, which were studied and recorded by scientists
and avidly collected by enthusiasts, aristocratic or otherwise.
Publications appearing in the second half of the sixteenth
century were the first to classify the animal species, offering
systematic descriptions accompanied by illustrations. These
publications were based on the Historia naturalis (A.D. 77)
by Pliny, who in turn based his descriptions of animals,
birds, and fish on his observations of real-life specimens. The
huge popularity of Pliny's encyclopedia, first printed in 1 4 6 9 ,
led to its translation into various languages over the course
of the sixteenth century. In 1551 the Swiss naturalist Conrad
Gesner published his Historia animalium, followed by the
encyclopedia of nature published by the Bolognese professor
Ulisse Aldrovandi in 1599. If Brueghel did not own these
influential works himself, he could have consulted them in
Rubens's library. H e would also have had easy access
to the prints of naturalia published in Antwerp by Nicolaas
Bruyn (1571-1656) and Adriaen Collaert (ca. 1 5 6 0 - 1 6 1 8 ) .
Brueghel's paradise scenes may be viewed as painted
encyclopedias of the animal kingdom, his depictions of the
various species being based primarily on empirical knowl
edge. Moreover, his exact rendering of the animals' colors is
an aspect that was lacking in the illustrated encyclopedias.
33

34

3 5

It was precisely the dazzling range of colors in the natural

world that appealed to the imagination, as evidenced, for
example, by the writings of Cardinal Federico Borromeo,
one of Brueghel's most important patrons. According to
this Italian theologian, all aspects of the visible and natural
world were made manifest through color, and it was nature's
rich palette that led to the recognition of God as the
supreme painter. Karel van Mander expressed the same idea
in his 1 6 0 4 treatise Den Grondt der edel vrij Schilder-const: "In
the beginning, when all created things... were given their
colors by this supremely skillful painter and image-maker /
how could the source of color prove more liberal?"
In 1 6 0 4 Brueghel had been in Prague, where, at the
menagerie of Emperor Rudolf II, he was able to observe
countless exotic animals and birds. Closer to home, in
Brussels, he had access to the archducal zoological gardens
with their aviaries and fish ponds. In 1621 Brueghel wrote
to Borromeo about a painting he had made in which "the
birds and animals were done from life from several of Her
Serene Highness's specimens." Moreover, Antwerp, where
Brueghel lived, was an important harbor, a point of arrival
for costly goods from the New World and a place where
exotic animals were no doubt seen with regularity. The pres
ent painting features a host of exotic birds, often depicted in
pairs, as well as such indigenous European species as the
pheasant, heron, curlew, goldfinch, swallow, stork, swan,
teal, tawny owl, hoopoe, sparrow hawk, spotted wood
pecker, and golden oriole. In the left foreground is a wil d
turkey, which the Spanish first brought from the Americas
in the early sixteenth century, and on Eve's right is a pair o f
peacocks, a bird native to India, whose magnificent plumage
made it a favorite in aristocratic collections. Like the Afric an
ostrich, these birds, which cannot fly, make their nests on
the ground. In addition to two toucans and a splendid pair
of purple gallinules in the right foreground, Brueghel also
painted various parrots, whose ability to speak links them to
the earthly paradise, where all animals still had the capacity
for speech. Swimming in the brook, besides a carp and
a pike, is a male surf scoter native to North America (see
fig. 4 4 ) ; the dogs at the water's edge bark at a teal and a
Barrow's goldeneye. Particularly eye-catching are the birds
of paradise, one on the ground at Adam's feet and the other
in flight, seen against the blue sky. Since their discovery in
New Guinea by the Portuguese in the early sixteenth century,
these animals had been known in Europe only as stuffed
specimens with their feet removed. Their seeming lack of
36

37

38

39

40

FIGURE 44

J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r , Sketches of Ducks and Birds,

ca. 1615.

O i l o n p a n e l , 2 4 x 34.5 c m (9V2 x 13Vs i n . ) . P r e s e n t w h e r e a b o u t s u n k n o w n

F I G U R E 4 5 J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r , Studies of Deer in Various

Positions,

ca. 1615. P e n a n d b r u s h i n b r o w n i n k , 13.5 x 19.7 c m (5V4 x 7 /4 i n . ) .

3

H a b o l d t & C o m p a n y , N e w York and Paris, 2 0 0 1 - 0 2

41

42

BRUEGHEL

AND RUBENS

69

feet led to the assumption that they were perpetually in

flightin paradise, as it were. Brueghel was the first to
depict this bird in its entirety, feet and all, having included
flying, footless specimens in 1613 in The Entry of the Animals
into Noah^sArk (cat. no. 2 6 ) . In the meantime, he had
evidently been able to study a live specimen, presumably in
the well-stocked aviaries of Archdukes Albert and Isabella.
Various documents reveal that the archducal couple kept
a great many birds: in 1605, for example, they received from
Isabella's brother, Philip III, various parrots and also mon
keys; in 1612 they bought nineteen parakeets and three
guinea pigs; the animals they acquired in 1615 included
crows, a red macaw, and a toucan; and in 1617 their collec
tion was augmented with a large number of canaries.
Guinea pigs, first brought to Europe from the Americas
in the early sixteenth century, nearly always appear in
Brueghel's animal paintings. Apparently, just after returning
from Italy, he had not yet seen a live specimen, becausein
contrast to the guinea pigs Brueghel painted later onthe
guinea pig at Eve's feet in the Neuburg painting (cat. no. 16)
does not look very lifelike. The other small animals in the
foreground includein addition to the rabbits, the squirrel,
the European tortoise, and the salamander and toads in the
right foregrounda squirrel monkey (with the apple) and
a capuchin monkey, both native to South America. The
hen and the roosterpeacefully pecking in front of the lion's
pawsare domesticated animals and belong in a separate
category, along with the goats, pigs, sheep, cats, dogs,
horses, and dromedaries. Additionally, there are foxes, ele
phants, a crocodile, a wolf, and a llama. The eye can roam
forever and still fail to detect some of the animals, such as
the tiny insects in the foreground.
The story of the Fall of M a n provided the ideal context
for Brueghel's artistic discovery of nature. His representa
tions of paradise depict the animal kingdom in its harmoni
ous state of perfection before the Fall. In those days, it was
widely believed that the Fall of M a n had also precipitated
the loss of knowledge of God's Creation, as well as the
loss of the language in which Adam had named the animals.
Alongside the study of nature, the book of Genesis was
therefore viewed as a source of true knowledge of Creation,
and the identification and naming of the species was con
sidered the first step toward this renewed understanding.
The collectors who acquired Brueghel's depictions of para
dise must have considered their religious message of prime
importance, for his paintings praise God's Creation in
43

all its variety and abundance. The individual animals usually

carry no symbolic meaning, but as a whole they underscore
the glory of God's Creation, whichthrough the fault of
humankind, as represented herecan no longer be experi
enced in its perfect state. The earthly paradise may have been
lost, but the successive owners of this paintingstarting
with the first, unknown, collectorcould consider them
selves extremely fortunate in possessing an undisputed mas
terpiece from the collaborative oeuvre of these illustrious
painters and friendsRubens and Brueghel. A v S

NOTES

44

70

B R U E G H E L

A N D

R U B E N S

1. H o u b r a k e n 1718-21, v o l . 1, p . 87.
2. "het a l l e r u i t m u n t e n s t e

i n K o n s t dat i k van h e m [Brueghel] gezien heb

is het z o o g e n a a m d e p a r a d y s , b y d e n H e e r L e C o u r t v a n d e r V o o r t ,
t o t L e i d e n , w a a r i n z i g een m e n i g t e v a n a l l e r h a n d e D i e r e n o p ' t
a l l e r k o n s t i g s t , i n een n i e t m i n k o n s t i g g e s c h i l d e r t l a n d s c h a p d o e n z i e n :
e n de A d a m e n E v a o p ' t a l l e r u i t v o e r i g s t d o o r R u b b e n s

geschildert.":

H o u b r a k e n 1718-21, v o l . 1, p . 87. I n the sale c a t a l o g u e o f S e p t e m b e r 8,

1766, H o u b r a k e n was c i t e d as a r e c o m m e n d a t i o n . A c o l l a b o r a t i v e
p a i n t i n g b y B r u e g h e l a n d R u b e n s h a d p r e v i o u s l y b e e n i n the posses
s i o n o f the H o u s e o f O r a n g e : i n 1677 W i l l e m H I b o u g h t a
and Pomona

Vertumnus

b y the t w o artists. T h i s p a i n t i n g a n d o t h e r w o r k s d e c o

r a t i n g H e t L o o Palace w e r e s o l d at a u c t i o n i n A m s t e r d a m i n 1713; its

p r e s e n t l o c a t i o n is u n k n o w n . See J o n c k h e e r e 2 0 0 4 - 0 5 , p . 193.
3. " o v e r h e e r l i j k K o n s t s t u k . . . is i n k o m p a g n i e g e o r d o n n e e r t e n
g e s c h i l d e r t b y R u b e n s e n b y B r e u g e l , w e l k e b e y d e M e e s t e r s als o m
s t r i j d h e b b e n g e p o o g t o m m a l k a n d e r e n daar o p te v e r p l i g t e n . " :
C a m p o W e y e r m a n 1 7 2 9 - 6 9 , v o l . 1, p . 348.
4 . " B e y d e s u n v e r g l e i c h l i c h " : V o n U f f e n b a c h 1753-54, v o l . 3, p . 421.
T h i s is the o l d e s t r e c o r d o f the p a i n t i n g .
5. F o r a t r a n s c r i p t i o n , see M a u r i t s h u i s 1935, p . 297.
6. O n t h i s subject, see T a m i s 2 0 0 1 - 0 2 , p . 112.
7. See, a m o n g o t h e r s , W a d u m 2 0 0 1 , p . 25; T a m i s 2 0 0 1 - 0 2 , p . 112; a n d
W a d u m 2 0 0 2 , p . 1.
8. F o r a s i m i l a r s i g n a t u r e o f R u b e n s , see h i s Rest on the Plight

into Egypt

(1614; K a s s e l , S t a a t l i c h e M u s e e n , G e m a l d e g a l e r i e A l t e M e i s t e r ,
inv. G K 87); K a s s e l - F r a n k f u r t 2 0 0 4 , cat. n o . 1. R u b e n s , i n c i d e n t a l l y ,
s e l d o m signed his paintings.
9. See the essay b y D o h e r t y , L e o n a r d , a n d W a d u m i n t h i s v o l u m e .
10. D r . P e t e r K l e i n , U n i v e r s i t y o f H a m b u r g , r e p o r t d a t e d A p r i l 2 9 , 2 0 0 5 .
11. See E s s e n - V i e n n a 1 9 9 7 - 9 8 , cat. n o . 36.
12. R e g a r d i n g t h i s g e s t u r e , c o m p a r e The Garden

of Eden o f 1566 b y F r a n s

P o u r b u s the E l d e r ( 1 5 6 9 - 1 6 2 2 ) ; see B r o o s 1993, P- 93, fig- 5-

13- J a n B r u e g h e l ' s first k n o w n p a r a d i s e scene s h o w i n g the a n i m a l s enter

26. See T a m i s 2 0 0 1 - 0 2 , p. 126, n . 19. C o m p a r e cat. n o s . 3 a n d 5 i n t h i s

volume.

i n g N o a h ' s ark dates f r o m 1596; see A n t w e r p 1998, cat. n o . 36.

27. See W a d u m 2 0 0 2 , p. 2, f ig. 4 ; a n d A n t w e r p 2 0 0 4 , cat. n o . 39.

14. I n the earliest e x a m p l e , d a t i n g f r o m 1 6 0 4 , B r u e g h e l p a i n t e d a l l the

e l e m e n t s o n o n e p a n e l ; see E r t z 1979, n o . n o . See also E r t z 1979,
p p . 3 6 3 - 8 4 ; a n d K o l b 2 0 0 5 , p p . 5 2 - 5 9 . F o r the series r e p r e s e n t i n g

the

F o u r E l e m e n t s , w h i c h B r u e g h e l p a i n t e d f o r B o r r o m e o b e t w e e n 1606
a n d 1621, see J o n e s 1993, p p . 2 3 7 - 3 8 , n o s . 3 4 a - d .

28. See T a m i s 2 0 0 1 - 0 2 , p. 130.

29. K o l b 2 0 0 0 , fig. 16; sale, Paris, G a l l i e r a , N o v e m b e r 23, 1972, l o t 28.
30. T h e p a n e l t h a t E r t z a t t r i b u t e s t o Jan B r u e g h e l the Y o u n g e r is p e r h a p s
a c o p y o f a l o s t s t u d y ; see E r t z 1984, n o . 337.

15. O n t h i s subject, see K o l b 2 0 0 0 .

16. A p r e c u r s o r o f B r u e g h e l ' s a n i m a l d e p i c t i o n s is The Garden

of Eden o f

31. N e w Y o r k - P a r i s 2 0 0 1 - 0 2 , cat. n o . 8. F o r o t h e r a n i m a l s t u d i e s b y

1566 b y F r a n s P o u r b u s the E l d e r (see n o t e 12 a b o v e ) . S t a r t i n g i n a b o u t

B r u e g h e l , see K o l b 2 0 0 0 , figs. 5, 8, a n d 17; a n d K o l b 2 0 0 5 , figs. 16

1 6 0 0 , R o e l a n t S a v e r y f o l l o w i n g the e x a m p l e o f his e l d e r b r o t h e r

a n d 54.

J a c q u e s p a i n t e d p a r a d i s e scenes f o r v a r i o u s p a t r o n s , o n e o f w h o m
w a s E m p e r o r R u d o l f II ( c o m p a r e A m s t e r d a m 1 9 9 3 - 9 4 , cat. n o . 312).
See also C . V a n de V e l d e , " H e t aards Paradijs i n de b e e l d e n d e k u n sten," i n A n t w e r p 1982, p p . 1 6 - 3 5 ; a n d U . K l e i n m a n n , " W o l a g das
Paradies? B e o b a c h t u n g e n z u d e n P a r a d i e s l a n d s c h a f t e n des 16. u n d 17.
Jahrhunderts," i n E s s e n - V i e n n a 2003, pp. 278-85.

32. O n t h i s subject see, a m o n g o t h e r s , B r o o s 1993, p p . 9 0 - 9 3 ; a n d K o l b

2 0 0 5 , PP- 6 5 - 7 2 .
33. O n t h i s subject, see, a m o n g o t h e r s , K o l b 2 0 0 0 , p p . 5 8 - 8 0 ; a n d K o l b
2005, pp. 21-31.
34. See K o l b 2 0 0 5 , P- 85, n . 65.

17. See P. J. J. v a n T h i e l i n A m s t e r d a m 1 9 9 3 - 9 4 , p . 338.

35. C o m p a r e , f o r i n s t a n c e , a p r i n t b y A d r i a e n C o l l a e r t from Avium

vivae

o f 1580 w i t h p u r p l e g a l l i n u l c s a n d d u c k s ( K o l b 2 0 0 5 , fig. 32).

18. See B r o o s 1993, p . 9419. B o t h H o u b r a k e n a n d C a m p o W e y e r m a n (see n o t e s 2 a n d 3 a b o v e )

d e s c r i b e the p a i n t i n g i n t h e i r b i o g r a p h i e s o f J a n B r u e g h e l ; it was

36. B o r r o m e o ' s / tre Libri delle Laudi

Divine,

published posthumously in

1632, was l a r g e l y d e v o t e d t o c o l o r ; see M a r t i n i 1975, p p . 2 6 4 - 6 8 .

later a s s u m e d t h a t R u b e n s h a d t a k e n the i n i t i a t i v e i n c o n c e i v i n g this

O n B o r r o m e o ' s r o l e as an art t h e o r i s t a n d p a t r o n , see, a m o n g o t h e r s ,

c o m p o s i t i o n . O n t h i s subject, see T a m i s 2 0 0 1 - 0 2 , p. 123, n . 4 .

B e d o n i 1983, Q u i n t 1986, a n d J o n e s 1988 a n d 1993.

2 0 . A s r e g a r d s the u n d e r d r a w i n g a n d o t h e r t e c h n i c a l aspects o f the p a i n t

37. " I n ' t b e g i n / als alle g h e s c h a p e n d i n g h e n . . . heeft al z i j n c o l o u r g h e -

i n g , see the essay b y D o h e r t y , L e o n a r d , a n d W a d u m i n t h i s v o l u m e , as

h a d t v a n desen A l d e r c o n s t i c h s t e n B e e l d e n a e r en S c h i l d e r / h o e can d e r

w e l l as W a d u m 2001 a n d 2 0 0 2 ; r e g a r d i n g the u n d e r d r a w i n g , see also

V e r w e n o o r s p r o n g h b l i j e k e n m i l d e r ? " : V a n M a n d e r / M i e d e m a 1973,

T a m i s 2 0 0 1 - 0 2 , fig . 6. T h e p a i n t i n g was e x a m i n e d a g a i n o n M a r c h 10,

v o l . 1, p p . 2 6 6 - 6 7 .

2 0 0 5 , i n the r e s t o r a t i o n s t u d i o o f the M a u r i t s h u i s b y S a b r i n a M e l o n i
a n d A r i a n e v a n S u c h t e l e n w i t h the a i d o f a s t e r e o m i c r o s c o p e ,

and

i n f r a r e d i m a g e s w e r e m a d e w i t h the A r t i s t c a m e r a ( A r t I n n o v a t i o n ,

38. See K o l b 2 0 0 5 , p p . 13-17, p . 83, n . 21.

39. " L i o i t c e l l i , et a n i m a l i s o n f a t t o ad v i v o de a l c u n i d e l l i s c r e n . m a

H e n g e l o ) m o u n t e d w i t h a C C D p r o g r e s s i v e scan i m a g e s e n s o r (1360 x

E n f a n t o " : C r i v e l l i 1868, p. 272. T h i s letter is d a t e d S e p t e m b e r 5, 1621.

1036 p i x e l s ) a n d a S c h n e i d e r K r e u z n a c h X e n o p l a n 1.4/23 m m C C T V -

B e c a u s e A r c h d u k e A l b e r t h a d d i e d o n J u l y 15, 1621, B r u e g h e l m u s t

lens i n N12 w i t h a 1 0 0 0 n m l o n g - w a v e pass filter.

here be r e f e r r i n g t o I s a b e l l a .

21. T h e s e u n d e r d r a w n a n i m a l s w e r e d e t e c t e d o n M a r c h 10, 2 0 0 5 , w i t h
the A r t i s t c a m e r a (see p r e v i o u s n o t e ) . D o r i e n T a m i s , w h o e x a m i n e d
the p a i n t i n g i n 1 9 9 5 t o g e t h e r w i t h C h r i s t i n e v a n M u l d e r s , N i c o
van H o u t , and Jorgen W a d u m b y means o f infrared

reflectography,

u s i n g a H a m a m a t s u c a m e r a , d e t e c t e d e v e n m o r e a n i m a l s i n the

4 0 . W e are i n d e b t e d t o the o r n i t h o l o g i s t s R u u d V l e k a n d M a r d i k L e o p o l d
f o r t h e i r h e l p i n i d e n t i f y i n g the v a r i o u s species o f b i r d s .
41. See P r e s t 1981, p. 31.
4 2 . T h e h i g h p r i c e s p a i d f o r t h i s b i r d ' s feathers p r o m p t e d the

Portuguese

u n d e r d r a w i n g ; see T a m i s 2 0 0 1 - 0 2 , p p . 118-19. See also W a d u m 2 0 0 2 ,

t o keep its n a t i v e h a b i t a t a secret. T h e y m a n a g e d t o d o so u n t i l 1528,

p. 477, n . 6.

w h e n the S p a n i s h finally l a n d e d o n the i s l a n d ; see G i l l i a r d 1969,

22. A u c t i o n , L e i d e n , S e p t e m b e r 8, 1766, n o . 1. See H o e t a n d T e r w e s t e n

1752-70, v o l . 3, p. 542, n o . 1.

4 3 . See also W a d u m 2 0 0 1 , p . 29. I n the late 1630s, R e m b r a n d t m a d e a

23. W a d u m 2 0 0 1 . T a m i s ( 2 0 0 1 - 0 2 , p. 121) w r o n g l y assumes t h a t the

s e r p e n t is b y the h a n d o f B r u e g h e l a n d t h a t R u b e n s a d j u s t e d

p p . 15-16.

the

contours.
2 4 . O n t h i s subject, see E r t z 1979, p. 2 4 6 ; B r o o s 1993, p . 9 0 ; a n d T a m i s

d r a w i n g o f the b i r d o f p a r a d i s e w i t h o u t its feet; see B e n e s c h 1954-57

( e n l a r g e d e d i t i o n 1973), n o . 4 5 6 ; a n d B e r l i n - A m s t e r d a m - L o n d o n
1 9 9 1 - 9 2 , cat. n o . 15.
4 4 . See K o l b 2 0 0 5 , p p . 1 4 - 1 5 .

2 0 0 1 - 0 2 , p p . 114-15, figs. 2 - 4 .
25. R e g a r d i n g t h i s m o t i f , c o m p a r e a p a i n t i n g b y F r a n s P o u r b u s o f the
s a m e subject (see n o t e 12 a b o v e ) .

BRUEGHEL

AND

RUBENS

71

5
Peter Paul Rubens and Jan Brueghel the Elder

Pan and Syrinx

ca. 1617
O i l o n panel, 39 x 59.9 c m (i5 /s x 23 /s i n . ) ;
3

w i t h added strips o f w o o d : 40.3 x 61 c m (15% x 24 in.)

Kassel, Staatliche M u s e e n , Gemaldegalerie A l t e Meister, G K 1229

l o t 27; sale, L o n d o n ( S o t h e b y ' s ) , J u l y 12,

P R O V E N A N C E

S u s a n n a D o u b l e t - H u y g e n s sale, T h e H a g u e ,
N o v e m b e r 6, 1725, l o t 35; A d r i a a n B o u t sale,
T h e H a g u e , A u g u s t n , 1733, l o t 39; H e n d r i c k
van H e t e r e n collection, The H a g u e ; acquired
b y W i l h e l m V I I I o f H e s s e n - K a s s e l , 1747; i n
1813 t a k e n t o P a r i s b y J e r o m e B o n a p a r t e ,
k i n g o f W e s t p h a l i a 1807-13; M u s e e

Napoleon

( M u s e e d u L o u v r e ) , P a r i s , 1814; A l p h o n s e

2001, lot 29; B r e m e n , Galerie N e u s e ,

acquired 2002
LITERATURE

H o e t a n d T e r w e s t e n 1 7 5 2 - 7 0 , v o l . 1, p p . 310,
387; E r t z 1979, p p . 4 1 7 - 1 8 , n o . 384;
E r t z 1984, p p . 7 0 - 7 1 , 81, 4 1 3 - 1 4 , n o . 253
EXHIBITION

G i r o u x sale, P a r i s , F e b r u a r y n - 1 2 , 1851, l o t

Kassel-Frankfurt

159; F . K l e i n b e r g e r (art d e a l e r ) , P a r i s , ca.

additional literature)

2 0 0 4 , cat. n o . 18 ( w i t h

1930; p r i v a t e c o l l e c t i o n , L o n d o n , ca. 1934;

sale, L o n d o n ( S o t h e b y ' s ) , J u n e 14, 1961, l o t
36; sale, L o n d o n ( C h r i s t i e ' s ) , M a r c h 23, 1973,

] H I S PAN AND SYRINX IS T H E S M A L L E S T S U R V I V I N G

collaborative p a i n t i n g by Rubens and Brueghel.

Rubens's figures l o o m large: indeed, they dominate
the picture, i n w h i c h Brueghel's b a c k g r o u n d attracts less
attention than usual. E v e n so, Brueghel's splendid landscape
provides the story w i t h a subtle backdrop. Because the tall
reeds b e h i n d the figures extend b e y o n d the height o f the
picture, the viewer's vantage p o i n t seems to be very close to,
but slightly below, the figures. T h i s lends immediacy to the
threat o f the lecherous satyr f r o m w h o m the n y m p h attempts
to flee. A teal flies off (but turns its head for a last l o o k )
the same b i r d appears to the right o f E v e i n The Garden of

Eden with the Fall ofMan (cat. no. 4 ) a n d frogs dive

i n t o the water to escape f r o m the scene o f violent menace.
O v i d relates i n his Metamorphoses (1.689-712) h o w the
g o d Pan falls i n love w i t h the n y m p h Syrinx. H e pursues her,

72

R U B E N S

A N D

B R U E G H E L

but her escape is b l o c k e d by the B i v e r L a d o n . She is trans

formed i n the nick o f time, and Pan finds h i m s e l f h o l d i n g a
handful o f reeds instead o f a n y m p h . I n another story
from classical mythology, M e r c u r y tells A r g u s the story o f
Pan and Syrinx to l u l l h i m to sleep before k i l l i n g h i m .
There are places i n this p a i n t i n g along the figure's
contours, especially that o f Syrinx's right leg, where one can
discern the b r o w n lines o f Rubens's preparatory d r a w i n g .
H e probably sketched i n the figures i n many o f the paintings
he collaborated o n w i t h Brueghel, to demarcate the area
allotted to their respective contributions. It is not entirely
clear w h i c h o f the t w o masters first t o o k palette and brush to
h a n d , but i n any case the w o r k o f b o t h authors is very w e l l
integrated into the w h o l e . Brueghel thus applied some
blades o f grass i n front o f Syrinx's left ankle and reed stalks
i n the area o f Pan's genitals; i n Pan's left arm, however, the
1

73

uppermost layer of flesh-colored paint was not applied

until after the reeds were in place. Brueghel also painted out
two ducks in the background and made the fingers of
Syrinx's right hand slightly longer (or perhaps painted them
over the edge of the reserve left in the reeds). Finally, short
strokes of greenish paint were added to Pan's beard and
along his chest, as well as to Syrinx's hair, to soften the tran
sition between the different passages.
Rubens seems to have based his figures on examples
from antiquity. Syrinx, for instance, is derived from his own
freely interpreted pen-and-ink version of a well-known
antique statue, the Venus Pudica (fig. 4 6 ) . As in the draw
ing, Syrinx leans slightly forward, covering her genitals with
one hand. While the chaste, statuary example covers her
genitals and breasts with both hands, here Syrinx uses her
right hand to ward off her assailant. In modeling Pan's
upper body, bending forward to show his well-muscled back,
Rubens seems to have incorporated the Torso Belvedere
an antique statue he drew several times during his Roman
sojournwhich figures frequently in his paintings (compare
cat. nos. 3 and 4 ) . Rubens's interest in this cloven-hoofed
deity is also evidenced by his red-chalk drawing after a
sixteenth-century statuein his day regarded as antique
which was on display in the Palazzo Barberini in Rome
(fig. 4 7 ) . As regards the Pan discussed here, the rendering of
his muscles, cloven hoofs, and characteristic head suggests
his derivation from that example. The powerful muscles and
dark coloring of this deityhalf-man, half-goatcontrast
with the nymph's white softness. The contrast between
beauty and the beast was a favorite motif of Rubens and also
plays a role in, for example, Diana's Sleeping Nymphs Observed
by Satyrs (cat. no. 11).
The myth of Pan and Syrinx was a popular and frequently
depicted subject in the Netherlands in the seventeenth cen
tury. It was probably introduced to Antwerp by Hendrick
van Balen, who also called upon Jan Brueghel to paint his
backgrounds, as seen in a workwhich possibly predates the
present painting by a decadenow in the National Gallery
in London (fig. 4 8 ) . Van Balen based the figures in that
painting on a 1589 print of the same subject after Hendrick
Goltzius ( 1 5 5 8 - 1 6 1 7 ) ; Brueghel's reed landscape is not quite
so successful as the one seen in the present painting. Rubens
also collaborated with Brueghel's son, Jan Brueghel the
Younger, on a related but less impressive composition with
the same subject, a number of variations of which are
known. Rubens also tackled the theme independently, in
2

F I G U R E 4 6 Peter P a u l R u b e n s , Four Female Figures.

Pen and brown ink,

27.1 x 17.7 c m ( i o / 8 x 7 i n . ) . A m s t e r d a m , R i j k s m u s e u m , R i j k s p r e n t c n 5

kabinet, inv. 66:67

1636 painting an oil sketch of Pan and Syrinx for the series of
mythological paintings he conceived for Torre de la Parada,
Philip IV's hunting lodge outside Madrid. The figures in
this sketch are depicted in action: reeds sprout from Syrinx's
hands and Pan wears an expression of unbridled lust.
The present painting displays a more subtle interpreta
tion of the subject. This is possibly the painting that Jan
Brueghel the Younger sold in 1 6 2 6 / 2 7 for 142 guilders from
his late father's estate: "Pan and Syrinx by Mr. Rubens, the
8

RUBENS

AND BRUEGHEL

75

FIGURE 47

P e t e r P a u l R u b e n s after G i o v a n n i A n g e l o M o n t o r s o l i (1507-1563), Pun Resting.

R e d chalk,

w a s h , 31 x 49.3 c m (12 V4 x i 9 / s i n . ) . W a s h i n g t o n , D . C . , N a t i o n a l G a l l e r y o f A r t , A i l s a M e l l o n B r u c e
3

F u n d 1978.17.1 (B-30-457) B o a r d o f Trustees o f the N a t i o n a l G a l l e r y

FIGURE 48

J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r a n d H e n d r i c k v a n B a l e n ,

Pan and Syrinx,

ca. 1 6 0 7 - 0 8 . O i l o n c o p p e r , 25 x 19.4 c m

( 9 % x 75/8 i n . ) . L o n d o n , N a t i o n a l G a l l e r y , i n v . N G 659

76

RUBENS AND

BRUEGHEL

background by [my] late father," as the son conscientiously

recorded in his account book. Unfortunately, he did not
mention the buyer's name. O n November 6, 1725, a "Pan and
Syrinx by P. P. Rubens" was sold in The Hague at the
auction of the estate of the "Lady of Sint Annaland," which
is most likely the present painting, since it has exactly the
same measurements. This lady of Sint Annalanda manor
on the island of Tholen in Zeelandwas Susanna DoubletHuygens ( 1 6 3 7 - 1 7 2 5 ) , the daughter of Constantijn Huygens
( 1 5 9 6 - 1 6 8 7 ) , private secretary to the princes of Orange,
the stadholders Maurits and Frederik Hendrik. Susanna had
probably inherited her sizable collection of paintings from
her father, an avowed admirer of Rubens. In his auto
biography, written between 1629 and 1631, Huygens said the
following: "to my mind, one of the seven wonders of the
world is the prince, the Apeiles, among painters, Peter
Paul Rubens." A n erudite connoisseur and artistic adviser,
Huygens succeeded admirably in conveying his admiration
for Rubens's work to his lord and master, the stadholder
Frederik Hendrik (see cat. no. 6 ) .
This Pan and Syrinx was acquired by Elector Wilhelm
VIII of Hessen-Kassel in 1747 but subsequently disappeared
when it was taken during the Napoleonic era to France.
It was not until 2 0 0 2 that the museum in Kassel was able
to re-acquire this splendidly preserved painting.
AvS
9

10

11

12

13

w h i c h he k e p t f r o m 1625 o n w a r d , several p a i n t i n g s d e p i c t i n g P a n a n d
S y r i n x , i n c l u d i n g o n e he m a d e i n c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h R u b e n s . I n 1626
he n o t e d , " A g a i n m a d e a l i t t l e p i c t u r e o f P a n a n d S y r i n x , M r . R u b e n s
the l i t t l e figures, e s t i m a t e d t o be w o r t h 120 g u i l d e r s " ( N o c h g h e m a c t
een s t u x h e n P a n e n S i r i n g a , S. R u b e n s de

figurkens,

dat e s t i m c r e n d e

o p 120 g l d ) : V a e s 1 9 2 6 - 2 7 , p. 210, n o . 14. I n 1627 J a n B r u e g h e l t h e

Y o u n g e r w r o t e the f o l l o w i n g : " D i a n a w i t h a p i e c e b y m y father, a P a n
a n d S y r i n x , w i t h t w o c o p i e s , s o l d t o M r . G a u k t , a P a r i s i a n , f o r 535
g u i l d e r s " ( D i a n a m e t een s t u c v a n M o n P c r e , een P a n et S i r i n g a , m e t
t w e e c o p y e n v e r k o c h t aen M . G a u k t , p a r i s i e n v o o r 535 g u l d e n ) , a n d
i n 1628 he w r o t e " A p i c t u r e o f P a n a n d S y r i n x " ( E e n s t u c . P a n e n
S i r i n g a ) : V a e s 1 9 2 6 - 2 7 , p . 213. F i n a l l y , i n 1 6 4 6 , he r e c o r d e d

"Another

s m a l l p i e c e , P a n a n d S y r i n x . A s m a l l P a n a n d S y r i n x , w h i c h [was]
s o l d t o L o u i s v a n V i e r s f o r 6 g u i l d e r s " ( N o c h een c l e y n s t u c , P a n en
S i r i n g a . E e n c l e y n P a n et S i r i n g a , dat v e r k o c h t aen L o u i s v a n V i e r s
6 g l d ) : V a e s 1 9 2 6 - 2 7 , p . 218.
8. H e l d 1980, n o . 2 0 7 ; a n d K a s s e l - F r a n k f u r t 2 0 0 4 , cat. n o . 28.
9. " P a n e n S i r i n g a v a n S i g . R u b e n s , d e n g r o n t v a n v a d e r z a l i g e r " : V a c s
1926-27, p. 209.
10. " P a n e n d e S i e r i n g h s d o o r P : P : R u b e n s " : " V r o u w c v a n Ste A n n c l a n d "
sale, T h e H a g u e , N o v e m b e r 6, 1725 ( l o t 35 [ L u g t 1 9 4 9 , n o . 3 4 0 ] ) . T h i s
sale c a t a l o g u e w a s r e p r o d u c e d i n p a r t i n H o e t a n d T c r w c s t e n

1752-70,

v o l . 1, p p . 3 0 8 - 1 2 , w i t h t h i s p a i n t i n g l i s t e d ( w i t h i n c o r r e c t m e a s u r e
m e n t s ) as n o . 2 4 .
11. See S c h w a r t z a n d B o k 1989, p p . 52, 151, 319, a n d 324; a n d V a n
S u c h t e l e n 1990, pp. 1 0 2 - 3 . T h i s c o l l e c t i o n c o n t a i n e d a large n u m b e r
o f p o r t r a i t s , i n c l u d i n g m a n y o f the O r a n g e s , w h i c h p o i n t s t o a p r o v e
n a n c e f r o m the c o l l e c t i o n o f C o n s t a n t i j n H u y g e n s .

Remarkably,

t h i s c o l l e c t i o n also i n c l u d e d t w o d e p i c t i o n s o f P a n a n d S y r i n x , b y the
N o r t h e r n N e t h e r l a n d i s h masters C o r n e l l s van P o e l e n b u r c h

(1586-

1667) a n d S a l o m o n de B r a y ( 1 5 9 7 - 1 6 6 4 ) ; see n o t e 10 a b o v e (sale,

NOTES

T h e H a g u e , 1725, lots 70 a n d 81).

1. A c c o r d i n g t o C h r i s t i n e v a n M u l d e r s ( K a s s e l - F r a n k f u r t

2004,

12. H u y g e n s / H e e s a k k e r s

1987, p p . 79-81 ( t r a n s l a t e d f r o m the L a t i n ) .

p p . 7 5 - 7 6 ) , it is p o s s i b l e t h a t R u b e n s p a i n t e d the figures first a n d

H u y g e n s s p o k e less h i g h l y o f J a n B r u e g h e l i n his d e s c r i p t i o n o f the

B r u e g h e l a d d e d the l a n d s c a p e a f t e r w a r d , f o l l o w e d a g a i n b y R u b e n s ,

w o r k o f J a c q u e s de G h e y n I I , s a y i n g t h a t , as far as f l o w e r p a i n t i n g was

w h o s u p p o s e d l y a p p l i e d the f i n i s h i n g t o u c h e s .

c o n c e r n e d , D e G h e y n h a d " c a r r i e d o f f the p a l m o f v i c t o r y f o r e v e r "

2. K a s s e l - F r a n k f u r t 2 0 0 4 , cat. n o . 17. F o r the a n t i q u e statue i n t h e

C a p i t o l i n e M u s e u m i n R o m e , see H a s k e l l a n d P e n n y 1981, p p . 3 1 8 - 2 0 ,
n o . 84.

( i b i d . , p . 75).
13. See B . S c h n a c k e n b u r g , " P a n u n d S y r i n x v o n 1747 bis

1814Stationen

aus d e r G e s c h i c h t e eines K a s s e l e r G a l e r i c b i l d e s , " i n K a s s e l - F r a n k f u r t

3. See V a n d e r M e u l e n 1994, v o l . 1, p . 4 8 ; v o l . 2, p p . 5 6 - 5 9 ; v o l . 3,

2004, pp. 16-39.

figs. 7 5 - 7 9 . See also A n t w e r p 1993, p p . 1 2 4 - 2 7 . R e g a r d i n g the T o r s o

B e l v e d e r e , see H a s k e l l a n d P e n n y 1981, p p . 311-14, n o . 8 0 .
4 . K a s s e l - F r a n k f u r t 2 0 0 4 , cat. n o . 16. T h e statue b y G i o v a n n i A n g e l o
M o n t o r s o l i is n o w i n the S a i n t L o u i s A r t M u s e u m .
5. F o r the d i f f e r e n t w a y s i n w h i c h R u b e n s p a i n t e d his m a l e a n d f e m a l e
nude

figures,

see t h e essay b y D o h e r t y , L e o n a r d , a n d W a d u m i n t h i s

v o l u m e , p . 227.
6. See K a s s e l - F r a n k f u r t 2 0 0 4 , cat. n o . 11; see also W e r c h e 2 0 0 4 , n o . A 105.
7. K a s s e l - F r a n k f u r t 2 0 0 4 , cat. n o s . 2 3 - 2 6 ; see also E r t z 1979,
p p . 4 1 7 - 2 0 . J a n B r u e g h e l the Y o u n g e r r e c o r d e d i n h i s a c c o u n t b o o k ,

RUBENS

AND

BRUEGHEL

77

6
Jan Brueghel the Elder and Peter Paul Rubens

Flora and Zephyr

ca. 1617
O i l o n panel, 136 x 109 c m (53 Vi x 4 2 % in.)
Dessau, K u l t u r s t i f t u n g DessauW o rlitz, Schlofi M o s i g k a u , M O S . 129

INSCRIPTION

LITERATURE

O n the reverse, p a n e l m a k e r ' s m a r k i n r e d

S c h m i d t 1955, p . 3 0 ; M u l l e r H o f s t e d e

chalk, G A [in ligature]

p . 2 2 6 ; H a r k s e n 1976, n o . 6; E r t z 1979,

1968,

p . 389; E r t z 1984, n o . 187; D a u e r 1988, n o .

PROVENANCE

129; T h e H a g u e 1 9 9 7 - 9 8 , p p . 6 5 - 6 6 ;

Collection o f Stadholder Frederik H e n d r i k

Savelsberg 2003

and A m a l i a van Solms, Stadholder's Quarters,

T h e H a g u e , 1632; c o l l e c t i o n o f t h e i r d a u g h t e r
Albertine Agnes o f Orange-Nassau;

collection

EXHIBITION

Dessau 2003

o f h e r sister H e n r i e t t e C a t h a r i n a o f A n h a l t D i e t z ; c o l l e c t i o n o f her daughter M a r i e

E l e o n o r e , duchess o f R a z i v i l l ; purchased by
her niece A n n a W i l h e l m i n e o f A n h a l t - D i e t z ,
1756; s i n c e 1758 i n S c h l o f i M o s i g k a u , D e s s a u

E P H Y R ,

T H E

W E S T

W I N D ,

A B D U C T E D

T H E

N Y M P H

C h l o r i s and made her his wife. A s a w e d d i n g present

he gave her a garden filled w i t h flowers, where it was

Painted w i t h extreme transparency as i f to suggest a

barely noticeable w i n d , the w i n g e d Zephyr, aloft, empties a
basket o f flowers i n t o a c l o t h held by F l o r a . F l o r a , by con

always springtime. C h l o r i s thus became F l o r a , the goddess

trast, is a classical n u d e a l l the nuances o f pale skin have

o f flowers. T h e m y t h o f F l o r a and Z e p h y r , as t o l d by O v i d

been expressed w i t h delicate brushstrokes. A p u t t o at her feet

(Fasti 5.193-214), was a suitable vehicle for Rubens and

bends over to gather up the flowers, w h i l e another reaches

B r u e g h e l to s h o w off their respective specialties i n a collabo

up t o w a r d Zephyr. T h e transparency o f the paint has left

rative p a i n t i n g : B r u e g h e l painted a courtly love garden

clearly v i s i b l e p a r t i c u l a r l y i n the figure o f Z e p h y r t h e

i n full b l o s s o m and Rubens peopled it w i t h idealized nudes.

b r o w n lines made by the brush w i t h w h i c h Rubens sketched

E v e n t h o u g h the p a i n t i n g is closely related thematically

i n the contours o f his figures before Brueghel painted the

to the allegories o f spring and series o f the F o u r Elements

background and the flowers. O n l y w h e n the b a c k g r o u n d had

that B r u e g h e l made i n collaboration w i t h H e n d r i c k van

been completed d i d Rubens paint the figures. M a k i n g use

Balen, the d e p i c t i o n o f F l o r a receiving Zephyr's flowers

o f his preparatory sketch, he w o r k e d i n places b e y o n d the

has n o precedent i n p a i n t i n g , so the choice o f subject is i n

outlines o f the reserves. B r u e g h e l added the finishing touches

itself h i g h l y o r i g i n a l .

by a p p l y i n g some small flowers to the figures, thereby

fully integrating Rubens's c o n t r i b u t i o n into the c o m p o s i t i o n .

78

BRUEGHEL

AND

RUBENS

79

F I G U R E 49

Jan B r u e g h e l the E l d e r a n d

H e n d r i c k v a n B a l e n , Allegory

of Spring,

1616.

O i l o n c o p p e r , 56 x 8 4 c m (22 x 33 Vs i n . ) .
N e u b u r g a n d e r D o n a u , B a y e r i s c h e Staats
g e m a l d e s a m m l u n g e n , S t a a t s g a l e r i e , i n v . 13709

Flora and her little companions sit in a garden among

blossoming plantsmany of them in pots, vases, and
basketswith flowers loosely strewn upon the ground. In
the right foreground sit two guinea pigs, while in the back
ground appear peacocks and two cassowarieslarge birds
related to the ostrich. Deer are visible in the park in the dis
tance. The monumental, classicist building on the left
strongly resembles the artificial grottos with fountains and
cascades that the French architect and hydraulic engineer
Salomon de Caus ( 1 5 7 6 - 1 6 2 6 ) designed for the gardens of
the aristocracy, including those of Archdukes Albert and
Isabella. Similar structures are depicted in the background
of the Allegory of Smell (see fig. 57) and the Allegory of Spring
(fig. 4 9 ) , which Brueghel painted with Rubens and Van
Balen, respectively. To be sure, no apparent jets of water can
be distinguished in the present painting, but visible to the
right of Flora's face is a basin of water suited to such artificial
grottos. The reliefs on the building reinforce the theme of
the painting. The Rape of Proserpine is depicted above the
archway: after being carried off to the Underworld by Pluto,
Proserpine was allowed to return every spring to see her
mother, the grain goddess Ceres. The side wall contains two
reliefs, partly cut off by the left edge of the painting.
The upper relief shows Europa, the king's daughter, being
1

80

BRUEGHEL

AND

RUBENS

abducted by Jupiter in the guise of a white bull; the lower

relief probably represents the myth of Pan and Syrinx.
The depiction of the nymph fleeing through the reeds is
based on the collaborative painting of this subject by Rubens
and Brueghel (cat. no. 5).
Brueghel also painted several motifs that are encountered
in other of his works: the basket of flowers with a plucked
tulip beside it in the foreground, for example, also occurs
in a flower still life of 1617 (fig. 5 0 ) . The vase of polychrome
stonework at Flora's back was probably a prop belonging
to Brueghel's studio, since he frequently depicted the very
same vase. The faience bowl containing grapes in the left
foreground resembles a similar motif in The Return from
War: Mars Disarmed by Venus (cat. no. 2). The melon sliced
in half is very similar to the same motif in Fruit Garland
with Angels (cat. no. 19) and The Feast ofAcheious (cat. no. 3),
and the guinea pigs are nearly identical to those in The
Entry of the Animals into Noah's Ark of 1613 (cat. no. 26) and
The Garden of Eden (cat. no. 4 ) . The blossoming fritillary
in the right foreground displays almost the same pattern
of leaves as the fritillary in the Allegory of Spring of 1616
(fig. 4 9 ) , making it likely that this motif is based on the
same preparatory drawing. This fritillarya flower that was
first imported from Turkey in the late sixteenth century
4

NOTES
1. W e l z e l 1997, p p . 2 2 6 - 3 0 . F r o m 1 6 0 0 D e C a n s was e m p l o y e d b y A l b e r t
a n d I s a b e l l a i n B r u s s e l s ; see W e l z e l 1997, p. 226, n . 6 0 . T w o d r a w i n g s
b y H e i n r i c h S c h i c k h a r d t (1558 1635) after d e s i g n s f o r a r t i f i c i a l
g r o t t o s b y S a l o m o n de C a n s are p r e s e r v e d i n the

Hauptstaatsarchiv

at S t u t t g a r t ( W e l z e l 1997, p. 2 2 9 , n . 68, fig. 1 0 9 ) ; t h e y d i s p l a y an

o b v i o u s r e s e m b l a n c e t o the s t r u c t u r e i n the p a i n t i n g d i s c u s s e d here.
2. C o m p a r e p a i n t i n g s b y J a n B r u e g h e l the Y o u n g e r w i t h p o r t r a y a l s
o f F l o r a s h o w i n g s i m i l a r , g r o t t o l i k e s t r u c t u r e s w i t h f o u n t a i n s i n the
b a c k g r o u n d ( E r t z 1984, n o s . 1 8 8 - 9 1 ) .
3. D e s p i t e the fact t h a t the p i c t u r e seems t o have b e e n r e d u c e d i n size
o n the left, the p a n e l has n o t b e e n s a w n o f f ( o r at least n o t t o a n y
appreciable extent); w i t h thanks to D r . W . Savelsberg, Dessau,
F I G U R E 5 0 J a n B r u e g h e l t h e E l d e r , Flower Still Life,

1617. O i l o n p a n e l ,

55 x 91 c m ( 2 i / s x 35 /s i n . ) . F o r m e r l y P. de B o e r (art d e a l e r ) , A m s t e r d a m
5

f o r t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n . T h i s p a n e l , t h e r e f o r e , was n o t a d a p t e d t o fit the

" b a r o q u e h a n g i n g " (barocke Hangung)

i n Schloft M o s i g k a u i n Dessau,

as p r e v i o u s l y m a i n t a i n e d ; see S a v e l s b e r g 2 0 0 3 , p p . 4 9 - 5 0 . T h i s palace,
w h i c h b e l o n g e d t o A n n a W i l h e l m i n e o f A n h a l t - D i e t z , the greatg r a n d d a u g h t e r o f F r e d e r i k H e n d r i k a n d A m a l i a , has b e e n the h o m e

must have been one of Brueghel's stock designs, since Jan

Brueghel the Younger used it some ten years later in an
Allegory of Spring based on his father's work.
A dating of Flora and Zephyr to about 1617, based on
its stylistic relationship to dated paintings displaying similar
motifs, has recently been confirmed by the discovery of
a panelmaker's mark in red chalk on the back of the panel.
This mark, by the Antwerp panelmaker Guilliam Aertssen,
also points to a dating around 1617.
Flora and Zephyr was owned by the stadholder Frederik
Hendrik of Orange and his wife Amalia van Solms, whose
estatewhich devolved on their four daughterslargely
ended up in Germany. In the earliest inventory of the
paintings owned by the stadholder and his wife (drawn
up in 1632), this painting was listed as "a piece by Rubens
and the landscape done by Brueghel." A t that time, it
was hanging as an overdoor in Amalia's gallery of paintings
in the Stadholder's Quarters (the present-day Binnenhof
complex) in The Hague. There has in fact been speculation
as to how the painting came into the Oranges' possession
in the first place. One theory suggests that it was presented
to them by Archduchess Isabella on the occasion of their
marriage in 1625 (Albert had died in 1 6 2 1 ) . There is, how
ever, no certainty on this score. But no matter how they
acquired it, Frederik Hendrik and Amaliaambitious art
collectors and avowed admirers of Rubenswere no
doubt proud to own this painting by two famous Flemish
masters. A v S
7

10

o f Flora and Zephyr s i n c e 1758. T h e g i l d e d f r a m e , m a d e s p e c i a l l y

f o r M o s i g k a u , dates f r o m the t i m e o f the p a i n t i n g ' s i n s t a l l a t i o n t h e r e .
4 . S a v e l s b e r g ( 2 0 0 3 , p . 55) s u g g e s t s t h a t the last scene m i g h t d e p i c t
Zephyr's abduction o f Psyche.
5. E r t z 1979, n o . 322, fig. 371 ( w i t h the art d e a l e r P. de B o e r , A m s t e r d a m ,
i n 1935). C o m p a r e also E r t z 1979, n o . 293, fig. 372 ( d a t e d 1615), as
w e l l as figs. 3 6 1 - 6 3 .
6. E r t z 1979, n o s . 2 0 9 - 1 0 , figs. 332, 357.
7. E r t z 1984, n o . 188.
8. W i t h t h a n k s t o J o r g e n W a d u m . See also W a d u m 1990 a n d the essay
by D o h e r t y , L e o n a r d , and W a d u m i n this v o l u m e .
9. T h e H a g u e 1 9 9 7 - 9 8 , p p . 6 5 - 6 6 , fig. 4 ; a n d S a v e l s b e r g 2 0 0 3 ,
pp. 4 9 - 5 0 .
10. " E e n s t u c k v a n R u b b e n s e n d e ' t l a n d s c h a p d o o r B r u e g e l g c d a e n " :
D r o s s a e r s a n d L u n s i n g h S c h e u r l e e r 1 9 7 4 - 7 6 , v o l . 1, p p . 192, 285,
n o . 1241; p . 320, n o . 791; p. 371, n o . 1468 ( n o . 230 i n the i n v e n t o r y ) .
11. S a v e l s b e r g 2 0 0 3 , p p . 5 6 - 5 8 .

11

BRUEGHEL

AND

RUBENS

8l

7
Jan Brueghel the Elder and Peter Paul Rubens

The Vision of Saint Hubert

ca.

1617-20

O i l on panel, 63 x 1 0 0 cm (24.V4 x 3 9 / 8 in.)

Madrid, Museo Nacional del Prado, inv. 1411
3

PROVENANCE

L I T E R A T U RE

R e c o r d e d i n the 1642 i n v e n t o r y o f D o n D i e g o
Mexi'a, marquis o f Leganes, no. 38;

1655

de L e g a n e s ;

n o . 366; V o l k 1980, p . 267; D i a z P a d r o n

i n the A l c a z a r b y 1686; m o v e d

f o l l o w i n g the 1734 A l c a z a r fire t o the P a l a c i o

1995, v o l . 1, p p . 2 8 8 - 8 9 , n o . 1411; V e r g a r a

N u e v o ; t r a n s f e r r e d t o the P r a d o u p o n its

1999, pp- 1 7 1 - 7 2 ; V a n M u l d e r s 2 0 0 0 , p . 121

1819

N THE VISION OF SAINT HUBERT, B R U E G H E L ' S E L E -

BRUEGHEL

AND

1955, p . 155; D i a z P a d r o n 1975, v o l . 1,

p p . 6 5 - 6 7 ; E r t z 1979, p p . 3 9 3 - 9 5 , 4 8 0 , 616,

gant, tranquil forest landscape establishes the tenor

for one of the most profoundly moving works he pro
duced with Rubens. While related by the theme of the
hunt and its motifs to Brueghel and Rubens's mythological
compositions from about 1620 (see cat. nos. 10 and 11),
it nonetheless stands apart as an indigenous and complemen
tary variation on the popular subject of the chase that had
particular significance for Archdukes Albert and Isabella.
Occasionally overlooked as a collaborative work, The Vision
of Saint Hubert provides considerable evidence as to
Brueghel's leading role in the partnership.
Although the story of Saint Hubert was seldom depicted
in painting, the details of his life and sudden conversion
were well known in Brussels and the Ardennes region to the
southeast. Hubert, a self-indulgent Merovingian nobleman

82

R o o s e s 1 8 8 6 - 9 2 , v o l . 2, p . 285; D e M a e y e r

i n v e n t o r y o f the c o l l e c t i o n o f the m a r q u i s

foundation,

RUBENS

born about 656, lived in Austrasia, on the border between

modern France and Germany. A n avid hunter, he neglected
church services on Good Friday morning to take up the
chase in the rich holdings of the Ardennes forest. U p o n
sighting a magnificent stag, he and his hounds pursued the
animal until it stopped suddenly and faced him, and Hubert
perceived a radiant light and a crucifix between its antlers.
According to legend, a voice addressed him: "Hubert,
Hubert, why do you pursue me? Unless you turn to the
Lord and lead a holy life, you shall quickly go down to hell."
Startled, he dismounted and knelt before the stag. U p o n
asking what course he should take, he was told, " G o and seek
Lambert, and he shall instruct you." Hubert renounced his
worldly possessions and pursuits and subsequently embarked
on a Christian career, becoming bishop of Maastricht and
Liege. H e was known particularly for converting pagans in

83

remote areas of the Ardennes forest and Brabant. He died

at Fura (modern Tervuren) in 727 or 728. The mythology of
Hubert embraces strands of both biblical and folkloric his
tory. The conversion of the pagan hunter in the forest recalls
and perhaps even draws upon the story of Saint Eustace,
a popular figure in France as well as Germany, whose tale
was recounted in the popular Golden Legend.** The manner in
which the presence of the Almighty appears to Hubert in
the form of radiant light parallels the New Testament account
of the conversion of Saint Paul, in which he was struck blind
by a light from heaven and thrown from his horse. Hubert
was the patron saint of hunters and hunting dogs and was
invoked against rabies. Significantly, in Habsburg genealogy,
Hubert was considered a forebear of the archdukes.
In The Vision of Saint Hubert, Hubert encounters the
stag in a serene woodland clearing near a river inhabited by
numerous birds. The stag's head is positioned against
the luminous sky, which serves as a brilliant backdrop for
the small crucifix. In a striking interpretation of the legend,
Brueghel depicts the stag with his mouth open, as if it is he
who speaks to the saint. A t the right, the saint kneels rever
ently, his head tilted in inquiry, jeweled and plumed cap
drawn back, his gesture one of wonder and veneration. The
semicircular horn and the sword at his side identify him as a
hunter and nobleman. A l l around him, the hounds of the
chase sit or lie peacefully, emphasizing the halt to their baying
pursuit of their quarry and the silence into which the heavenly
command has been spoken. Hubert's handsome gray stallion
stands directly behind him and gazes out at the viewer.
Brueghel and Rubens's treatment of this unusual subject
reflects the great interest on the part of Archdukes Albert and
Isabella in the cult of this local saint. As part of their larger
campaign to revitalize the Catholic faith, the couple aggres
sively strove to revive religious orders in the Southern
Netherlands and supported regional figures such as Hubert,
renowned for his proselytizing in remote areas. Deeply
pious themselves, the archdukes were personally devoted to
the saint's cult. The existing wooden chapel of Saint Hubert
in the forest near their hunting castle of Tervuren, thought to
mark the site of the saint's death, was rebuilt in brick accord
ing to the designs of court architect and engineer Wenceslas
Cobergher between 1616 and 1617. The altar of the chapel
was refurbished, as was the wooden statue of Saint Hubert.
A pair of monumental paintings depicting the main events of
the saint's life, including his conversion, were commissioned
from Theodoor van Loon (1590-1660) to decorate the
3

chapel. Renovations were also carried out in the chapel

dedicated to Saint Hubert in the church of Saint Gudula
near the Coudenburg in Brussels (today the Cathedral of
Saints Michael and Gudula), which was apparently still deco
rated in the early 1620s with a diptych portraying episodes
from his life by Rogier van der Weyden (1399/1400-1464)
and his workshop. At her death in 1633, Isabella bequeathed
works of art from her oratory, including "a Saint Hubert,
painted on panel, by Bruegel" to the church of Saint Gudula.
While The Vision of Saint Hubert cannot be connected conclu
sively with either the chapel dedicated to Saint Hubert at
Tervuren or the one in Brussels, it must have been executed
during this period of intense interest in the saint's cult, pos
sibly as early as 1617.
Jan Brueghel the Elder and Peter Paul Rubens painted
another version of The Vision of Saint Hubert, formerly in the
collection of the Kaiser-Friedrich-Museum, Berlin (fig. 51),
suggesting that it was both popular and significant enough
to be repeated. Although the Madrid and Berlin compo
sitions are similar, certain landscape details (for example, the
large tree in the upper right) differ between the two panels.
More significantly, the stag in the Berlin Vision has a largerset of antlers, and there are two additional animals in the
foreground: a thickset hound stands directly behind the stag
and a small monkey sits on the ground to the left. While
the question of the primacy of the Berlin versus the Madrid
panel has long been debated, the loss of the Berlin Vision
of Saint Hubert and resultant lack of technical information
make it difficult to determine with any certainty the order
of their execution. It was not unknown for particularly
admired compositions, including collaborative works, to
be reiterated, and the subject of Saint Hubert's conversion
might well have been popular at the Brussels court. How
ever, the numerous small adjustments made by Brueghel
in the Madrid panel and the anomalous additions of animals
to the Berlin panel (discussed below) may indicate that the
Madrid painting was the initial version.
The process of the collaboration between Brueghel and
Rubens in The Vision of Saint Hubert, and Rubens's minimal
share in the execution, has contributed to confusion over
its attribution. As in other joint paintings, Brueghel began
work on the panel and returned later to integrate and, in this
case, equip Rubens's figure. Infrared reflectography reveals
that Brueghel required very little preparation to establish
the landscape and spatial recession; he used just a few drawn
verticals indicating tree trunks along the right side to help
10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

BRUEGHEL

AND RUBENS

85

F I G U R E 51 J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r a n d P e t e r P a u l R u b e n s , The Vision of Saint Hubert.

O i l o n panel,

6 0 x 9 0 c m (23 /8 x 35 /8 i n . ) . F o r m e r l y B e r l i n , K a i s e r - F r i e d r i c h - M u s e u m , i n v . 765 ( p r e s u m e d l o s t i n 1945)

5

FIGURE 52 Infrared reflectogram, detail, The Vision of Saint Hubert

86

BRUEGHEL

AND

RUBENS

him plan the setting. The gravity of the scene owes much
to Brueghel's landscape, which is characterized by an open
foreground and airy canopy, with a relatively central reces
sion and low viewpoint. As in the allegories of the Five
Senses series (see cat. no. 8), Rubens's figural contribution
to the landscape is an important but limited one. The simple
small-scale figure of Saint Hubert resembles the female
personifications and the satyr in these works. Following the
execution of the figure of the saint by his colleague, Brueghel
added Hubert's primary attributes, a hunting horn and a
sword, as well as the saint's plumed hat, details that confused
later authors who noted how finely the figure was painted
and attributed the entire figure to Brueghel. The long
plumes of the hat cover the horse's tail, indicating that this
element was inserted after the horse had been painted
(fig. 52). The hound sitting in front of Hubert was painted
up to the leg of the saint. Even the small motif of the hunt
ing horn and the minutely described laces of the bandolier
the saint wears across his body demonstrate Brueghel's
attention to detail. Brueghel evidently studied similar equip
ment, as demonstrated by the existence of drawn studies of
the hunting horns and other paraphernalia which feature in
the hunt scenes of Diana (see fig. 6 4 ) . The hunting horn
was a particularly important attribute of Hubert's and was
the principal relic of the saint preserved in the renovated
Tervuren chapel.
The animals Brueghel chose to surround the saint help
to situate The Vision of Saint Hubert between the paradise
landscapes of about 1 6 1 5 - 1 7 , The Entry of the Animals into
Noah's Ark (1615; London, Wellington Museum) and The
Garden of Eden with the Fall ofMan (cat. no. 4 ) , and the
slightly later mythological scenes of the huntress Diana from
about 1620. One of the recurrent reminders of Brueghel's
friendship with Rubens is his portrayal of a gray stallion that
draws on the type Rubens used for the Equestrian Portrait
of the Duke of Lerma (see fig. 2 2 ) . The Prado stallion stands
squarely and closely resembles the horse in the corridor of
Rubens and Brueghel's The Return from War: Mars Disarmed
by Venus (cat. no. 2 ) . Despite using what must have been a
familiar figure, Brueghel adjusted the angle of the steed's ears
inward (fig. 52). H e made a similar, and evidently significant,
modification to the ears of the gray stallion in the 1613 Entry
of the Animals into Noah's Ark (cat. no. 2 6 ) .
The hounds, whose attitudes reflect the gravity of their
master's encounter with the heavenly apparition, are a partic
ularly important component of the scene. The variety of their
18

19

20

21

22

23

2 4

F I G U R E 53 A l b r e c h t D i i r e r (1471-1528), Saint Eustace,

c a . 1501.

E n g r a v i n g , 361 x 2 6 2 m m ( 1 4 V i x i o / s i n . ) . L o n d o n , B r i t i s h M u s e u m ,
3

inv. 1868-8-22-183 T r u s t e e s o f t h e B r i t i s h M u s e u m

poses (curled, standing, profile) and coats demonstrates

Brueghel's powers of observation and inventiveness, echoing
Albrecht Diirer's inclusion of an elegant group of hounds
in his print of Saint Eustace (fig. 53). Diirer's canines were
remarked upon by Giorgio Vasari, and the composition was
well known in the Netherlands as a result of Diirer's visit
in 1 5 2 0 - 2 1 . The discrete group around the kneeling figure
in The Vision of Saint Hubert may have been inspired by this
famous composition, an idea which Brueghel then elaborated
upon for Diana at the Hunt and Diana's Sleeping Nymphs
Observed by Satyrs (cat. nos. 10 and 11). The cream and tan
hound behind the stallion, for example, appears with a com
panion in Diana at the Hunt, and the stocky, jowled hound
25

BRUEGHEL

A N D RUBENS

87

at the extreme right here also appears in the same location in

Diana's Sleeping Nymphs. The back of the black and white
hound grooming himself in the foreground was reduced
slightly, and the position of his eyes changed in the Madrid
panel. The same animal appears in both Diana at the Hunt
and Diana's Sleeping Nymphs. While a number of animals
resemble sketches in the Studies of Hunting Dogs (cat. no. 27),
none have been repeated precisely in the present painting.
Like The Vision of Saint Hubert, the Vienna sketch reveals
the individuality and liveliness that illustrate their study
from life, perhaps even from the many hounds kept by
the archduchess. A contemporary group portrait of the
archduchess's hounds was commissioned for Tervuren. The
apes included among its forested landscape allude to the
royal menagerie and may explain the presence of the ape in
the Berlin Vision of Saint Hubert. Although not in keeping
with the solemnity of the primary theme of Hubert's con
frontation and conversion, the ape and extra hound may
have been included to broaden the association of the scene
with the court.
The magnificent stag at the center of The Vision of Saint
Hubert almost certainly derives from studies of live animals,
which Brueghel could have seen firsthand in the royal park
in Brussels, as well as at the castle of Mariemont. Con
temporary visitors describe feeding tame animals, including
deer, in the Brussels Warande. While the painting by Jan
Brueghel the Younger, The Archdukes in the Garden of Their
Palace in Brussels (1621; Antwerp, Rubenshuis), in which the
archduchess offers a morsel to a doe, portrays the park's
gentle menagerie, Brueghel the Elder's drawing Archdukes at
the Chase attests to the archduke's sportive pursuits. A
sinuously drawn stag from another study (see fig. 45) was
incorporated into The Hague paradise landscape (cat. no. 4 )
in an elegant portrayal of this noble animal. It could similarly
have served as a point of departure for the stag in The Vision
of Saint Hubert, where Brueghel has minutely rendered the
different lengths and colors of fur on its head and neck, A T W

2. " N o . 38 o t r a p i n t u r a de s a n h u b e r t o de m a n o de R u b e n s , e l p a i s c i e r
b o , p e r r o s y c a u o l l o s de m a n o de b r u g e l " ( A p r i l 6, 1655): N a v i o 1962,
p . 271. See also R o o s e s 1 9 0 0 , p . 169.
3. F o l l o w i n g h i s c o n v e r s i o n , H u b e r t t r a v e l e d t o M a a s t r i c h t a n d b e c a m e
the s p i r i t u a l p u p i l o f S a i n t L a m b e r t . H e t h e n m a d e a p i l g r i m a g e
t o R o m e , d u r i n g w h i c h t i m e L a m b e r t w a s assassinated a n d H u b e r t
was a p p o i n t e d h i s s u c c e s s o r b y P o p e S e r g i u s . H u b e r t ' s l e g e n d dates
f r o m the e a r l y fifteenth c e n t u r y a n d is n o t r e c o u n t e d i n J a c o b u s
aurea (Golden Legend) o f ca. 1280. See R e a u

de V o r a g i n e ' s Legenda

1955-59, v o l . 3, p t . 2, p p . 6 5 3 - 5 8 ; a n d C . F . W e m y s s B r o w n , " S t .
H u b e r t , " The Catholic Encyclopedia,

v o l . 7 (1910), p p . 5 0 7 - 8 .

4 . See R e a u 1955-59, v o l . 3, pt. 1, p p . 4 6 8 - 7 1 .

26

27

28

29

30

5. A c t s 9 : 1 - 9 .
6. See B r u s s e l s 1 9 9 8 - 9 9 , p . 259; a n d H u y g h e b a e r t 1927.
7. A m o r e e x a g g e r a t e d p o r t r a y a l o f the stag a d d r e s s i n g S a i n t H u b e r t
appears i n T h e o d o o r v a n L o o n ' s Conversion

of Saint Hubert

o f ca. 1620,

see n o t e 10 b e l o w .
8. O n the a r c h d u k e s ' r e l i g i o u s p o l i c y , see P a s t u r e 1925 a n d E l i a s 1931.
9. See M e g a n c k 1998, p p . 1 1 4 - 1 6 . W o r k o n t h e c h a p e l o f S a i n t H u b e r t
was c a r r i e d o u t at the s a m e t i m e as a m a j o r b u i l d i n g p r o j e c t , also
d e s i g n e d b y C o b e r g h e r , at the p i l g r i m a g e site o f S c h e r p e n h e u v e l .
10. H i e r o n y m u s D u q u e s n o y I r e f u r b i s h e d the h i g h altar a n d the statue
o f the saint i n 1617; see D e M a e y e r 1955, p p . 2 1 0 - 1 1 , d o c . 156. F o r
V a n L o o n ' s p a i n t i n g s , The Conversion

of Saint Hubert

(ca. 1620, o i l o n

canvas, 278 x 199 c m [109V2 x 78V8 i n . ] ; B r u s s e l s , M u s e e s r o y a u x des

B e a u x - A r t s de B e l g i q u e , i n v . 273) a n d Saint Hubert

Receiving

the

Stole (ca. 1620, o i l o n canvas, 241 x 171 c m [ 9 4 % x 67 Vs i n . ] ; B r u s s e l s ,

M u s e e s r o y a u x des B e a u x - A r t s de B e l g i q u e , i n v . 6147), w h i c h w e r e
j o i n e d b y The Virgin

and Child between Saint John the Baptist

Saint John the Evangelist

and

(ca. 1620, o i l o n canvas, 237 x 171 c m [93 A x

l

67 /8 i n . ] ; B r u s s e l s , M u s e e s r o y a u x des B e a u x - A r t s de B e l g i q u e ,
3

i n v . 6 1 4 6 ) , see D e M a e y e r 1955, d o c . 124, 125, 156, a n d 272 (for the

1667 i n v e n t o r y d e s c r i b i n g the p a i n t i n g s i n the c h a p e l ) ; a n d B r u s s e l s
1 9 9 8 - 9 9 , p p . 2 6 0 - 6 1 . F o r the h i s t o r y o f T e r v u r e n castle, see cat. n o . 9.
11. T h e c h a p e l , also c a l l e d O u r L a d y o f the F l o w e r s ( N o t r e D a m e de
F l e u r s ) , a n d the p a i n t i n g s w e r e d e s c r i b e d b y F r e n c h t o u r i s t F r a n c o i s N i c h o l a s B a u d o t , s i e u r de B u i s s o n et d ' A u b a n a y , w h o t r a v e l e d i n t h e
N e t h e r l a n d s b e t w e e n 1623 a n d 1627; see t h e a c c o u n t p u b l i s h e d b y
H a l k i n 1 9 4 6 , p p . 5 9 - 6 1 . F o r the p a i n t i n g s , b y R o g i e r v a n d e r W e y d e n
a n d h i s w o r k s h o p , The Dream

of Rope Sergius (late 1430s; L o s A n g e l e s ,

J. P a u l G e t t y M u s e u m , i n v . 7 2 . P B . 2 0 ) a n d The Exhumation
Hubert

of Saint

(late 1430s; L o n d o n , N a t i o n a l G a l l e r y o f A r t , i n v . N G 783), a n d

t h e i r h i s t o r y , see C a m p b e l l 1998, p p . 4 0 7 - 2 7 , p a r t i c u l a r l y p p . 4 1 8 - 1 9 .
NOTES

12. F o r the i n v e n t o r y o f Isabella's c o l l e c t i o n ( J u l y 27, 1639), see D e M a e y e r

1. " N o . 38 o t r a p i r i t u r a de ssan h u b e r t o de m a n o de R u b e n s e l pais

c i e r b o p e r r o s y c a b a l l o s de m a n o de b r u x e l " ( M a r c h 3 0 , 1 6 4 2 ) :
V o l k 1980, p . 267. See also M a r y C r a w f o r d V o l k , " O n the C o l l e c t i o n
o f t h e M a r q u i s o f L e g a n e s i n 1642: ' O n e o f t h e G r e a t e s t C o n n o i s
seurs o f t h i s A g e , '

5 5

unpublished manuscript, Getty Research Institute,

P r o v e n a n c e I n d e x , C o l l e c t o r s F i l e ( u n d e r L e g a n e s ) , ca. 1980.

88

BRUEGHEL

AND

RUBENS

1955, d o c . 255, p p . 4 0 5 - 1 0 ( " S a i n t H u b e r t " appears as n o . 28: " U n

Saint H u b e r t , peint sur panneau, par B r u e g h e l , a coute 2 0 0 florins.").
13. B u t n o t later t h a n 1621, the year the v a r i a n t b y J a n B r u e g h e l the
Y o u n g e r was s i g n e d , see n o t e 14 b e l o w .

14. P r e s u m e d l o s t i n the fire o f 1945. See B e r l i n 1911, p . 325; B e r n h a r d

1965, p . 14, p i . 9 9 ; E r t z 1979, p p . 393, 4 8 0 , 619, n o . 365; a n d M u l l e r
H o f s t e d e 1968, p . 226. A c c o r d i n g t o R o o s e s ( 1 8 8 6 - 9 2 , v o l . 2, p . 285),
the B e r l i n Hubert

was p r e v i o u s l y i n the c o l l e c t i o n o f the k i n g o f

P r u s s i a . F o r the v a r i a n t b y J a n B r u e g h e l the Y o u n g e r , Forest

Landscape

( s i g n e d a n d d a t e d 1621, o i l o n c o p p e r , 52 x 72.5 c m

with Saint Hubert

[20V2 x 28V2 i n . ] ; N e u b u r g an d e r D o n a u , S t a a t s g a l e r i c , i n v . 2178),

see E r t z 1984, p. 333, n o . 168; a n d R e n g e r a n d S c h l e i f 2 0 0 5 , p- 8 4 .
15. V l i e g h e (1980, p. 652), i n h i s r e v i e w o f D i a z P a d r o n ' s 1975 c a t a l o g u e ,
stated t h a t " R u b e n s ' s h a n d is n o t r e c o g n i z a b l e i n t h i s c o p y [the P r a d o
J u d g i n g f r o m a p h o t o g r a p h it seems t o m e

Vision of Saint Hubert].

2 4 . See K o l b 2 0 0 5 , p . 9, fig. 13.

25. V a s a r i 1 9 6 6 - , v o l . 5, p . 8: " l a q u a l e carte e m i r a b i l e , e m a s s i m a m e n t c
p e r l a b e l l e z z a d ' a l c u n i c a n i i n v a r i e a t t i t u d i n i , che n o n p o s s o n o esserc
piu belli."
26. See K o l b 2 0 0 5 , p. 12.
27. A r t i s t u n k n o w n ( S o u t h e r n N e t h e r l a n d s ) , Portrait
Lunar

and the Dogs of the Infanta

Isabella

of Dona Juana

v o o r S c h o n e K u n s t e n , inv. 6417). T h e canvas is t h o u g h t t o have c o m e

f r o m T e r v u r e n ; see D e M a e y e r 1955, p. 171, 376, d o c . 133. T h e p a i n t i n g
is d i s c u s s e d a n d r e p r o d u c e d i n B r u s s e l s 1985, p p . 6 3 7 - 3 8 , cat. n o . D18.

t h a t the v e r s i o n f o r m e r l y i n the K a i s e r - F r i e d r i c h - M u s e u m , B e r l i n , was

T h e m a r q u i s o f L e g a n e s o w n e d a c o p y of Dona Juana

o f higher quality."

Dogs of the Infanta

16. A n i n v e n t o r y o f t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f p a i n t i n g s at T e r v u r e n (1667) reveals

m a n y p a i n t i n g s o f h u n t i n g subjects; see D e M a e y e r 1955, p p . 4 4 8 - 5 3 ,
d o c . 272. See a l s o , f o r e x a m p l e , cat. n o s . 2, 10, a n d n .

t i o n i n the 1642 i n v e n t o r y o f t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f the m a r q u i s o f L e g a n e s ,

w h e r e it was c l e a r l y d e s c r i b e d as b y R u b e n s a n d B r u e g h e l , t o the 1686
i n v e n t o r y o f the A l c a z a r , w h i c h a s c r i b e d it t o R u b e n s ( a n d i d e n t i f i e d
t h e subject as S a i n t E u s t a c e ) ("681 O t r a P i n t u r a de v a r a y q u a r t a de
n

Isabella;

de Lunar

and the

see N a v i o 1962, p. 2 9 6 , n o . 6 6 2 . T h e m a r

q u i s ' s c o n n e c t i o n w i t h the a r c h d u k e s a n d w i t h T e r v u r e n is reflected i n

W i l l e m v a n H a e c h t (1593-1637), Gallery of Archduchess

Isabella

(Kent,

H a w k h u r s t , H a r d c a s t l e p r i v a t e c o l l e c t i o n ) , w h i c h is t h o u g h t t o p o r t r a y
the i n t e r i o r o f T e r v u r e n a b o u t 1628 a n d i n c l u d e s the m a r q u i s ' s p o r t r a i t

17. T h e a t t r i b u t i o n o f the M a d r i d p a n e l has v a r i e d , f r o m the earliest m e n

l a r g o y tres q u a r t a s de a n c h o e n l a m i n a de v n S

de

(Brussels, K o n i n k l i j k e M u s e a

E u s t a q u i o de m a n o

de R u b e n e s " ) : B o t t i n e a u 1958, p . 3 0 6 . R o o s e s ( 1 8 8 6 - 9 2 , v o l . 2, p . 285)

a n d Posse ( 1 9 0 9 - 1 1 , p . 325) a t t r i b u t e d t h e M a d r i d p a n e l t o B r u e g h e l ;
it w a s c a t a l o g u e d as J a n B r u e g h e l t h e E l d e r a n d Peter P a u l R u b e n s
b y D i a z P a d r o n (1975, p p . 6 5 - 6 7 ) , an a t t r i b u t i o n d i s p u t e d b y V l i e g h e
(see n o t e 15 a b o v e ) b u t m a i n t a i n e d i n B a l i s et a l . 1989a, p . 267; a n d
V e r g a r a 1999, p- 171 (as R u b e n s a n d B r u e g h e l ) .

a l o n g w i t h t h a t o f A m b r o g i o S p i n o l a . See S p e t h - H o l t e r h o f f 1957,
p p . 1 0 8 - 9 , figs. 3 9 - 4 1 .
28. See, f o r e x a m p l e , B r u e g h e l ' s d r a w i n g Deerpark

of Archduke

Albert

at

Mariemont (Winner 1972, pp. 154-55, fig. 35).

29. S a i n t e n o y 1932-35, v o l . 1, p . 76.
30. F o r the R u b e n s h u i s p a i n t i n g (inv. R H SI30) a n d the a r c h d u c a l
m e n a g e r i e , see K o l b 2 0 0 5 , p p . 13-17, fig. 23. F o r the d r a w i n g o f the
a r c h d u k e s at the h u n t ( s o l d , S o t h e b y ' s , A m s t e r d a m [ N o v e m b e r 11,
1997, l o t 6 6 ] ) , see W i n n e r 1961, p. 232, f i g . 4 1 ; a n d Z w o l l o 2 0 0 0 ,
p. 452.

18. See the essay b y D o h e r t y , L e o n a r d , a n d W a d u m i n t h i s v o l u m e ,

p . 2 4 0 . I a m g r a t e f u l t o T i a r n a D o h e r t y a n d M a r k L e o n a r d at t h e
J. P a u l G e t t y M u s e u m a n d t o A l e x a n d e r V e r g a r a a n d A n a G o n z a l e z
M o z o at the M u s e o N a c i o n a l d e l P r a d o f o r d i s c u s s i n g the i n f r a r e d
reflectograph w i t h me.
19. B r u e g h e l ' s l a n d s c a p e s take o n a g r e a t e r m o n u m e n t a l i t y a n d o p e n n e s s
i n the late 1610s, a n d the p r e s e n t c o m p o s i t i o n m a y be c o m p a r e d w i t h
J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r , Busy Highway

( o i l o n c o p p e r , 25.8 x 37 c m

[10Vs x 1 4 i n . ] ; M u n i c h , A l t e P i n a k o t h e k , n o . 1877), a n d J a n
B r u e g h e l the E l d e r a n d c o l l a b o r a t o r , Wooded Landscape
Dogs, and Hunting

with

Nymphs,

Spoils (fig. 68 i n t h i s v o l u m e ) , w h i c h are u s u a l l y

d a t e d a b o u t 1620. See R e n g e r a n d D c n k 2 0 0 2 , p . 112; a n d R e n g e r a n d

Schleif 2005, pp. 7 8 - 7 9 .
2 0 . See n o t e 17 a b o v e . A s D o h e r t y , L e o n a r d a n d W a d u m o b s e r v e (p. 2 4 0 ) ,
t h e hat i n s e r t e d b y B r u e g h e l serves t o " b r i d g e " t h e space b e t w e e n the
s a i n t a n d the h o r s e .
21. B r u s s e l s 1 9 9 8 - 9 9 , p p . 2 5 9 - 6 0 .
22. F o r the p o r t r a i t , see V e r g a r a 1999, p p . n - 1 6 .
23. C o n t r a r y t o D i a z P a d r o n ' s a s s e r t i o n (1975, p . 6 6 ) , t h e h o r s e i n The
Vision of Saint Hubert

is d i s t i n c t f r o m the p r a n c i n g g r a y s t a l l i o n

t h a t appears i n The Entry of the Animals

a n d The Garden

into Noah's Ark

of Eden with the Fall of Man

(cat. n o . 26)

(cat. n o . 4 ) . F o r B r u e g h e l ' s

use o f the h o r s e , see K o l b 2 0 0 5 , e s p e c i a l l y p p . 6 3 - 6 8 .

BRUEGHEL

AND

RUBENS

89

8
Jan Brueghel the Elder and Peter Paul Rubens

Allegory of Taste
1618

O i l on panel, 6 4 x 108 cm (25 A x 4 2 V2 in.)

Madrid, Museo Nacional del Prado, inv. 1397
l

1984; M a d r i d 1992, p p . 114-53; S c a r p a S o n i n o

INSCRIPTION

1992, p p . 2 1 - 2 7 ; H a r t i n g 1993, p p . 1 2 9 - 3 1 ;

A t lower right, B R V E G H E L . F E . I 6 I 8

D i a z P a d r o n 1995, p p . 2 6 5 - 8 6 ; W e l z e l 1997;
PROVENANCE

P a u l u s s e n 1997, p p . 9 1 - 1 3 2 ; W e l z e l i n B r u s s e l s

Presented by D u k e Wolfgang W i l h e l m o f

1998- 99, pp. 9 9 - 1 0 6 ; Welzel i n M a d r i d

P f a l z - N e u b u r g to C a r d i n a l Infante Ferdinand,

1999- 2 0 0 0 , pp. 82-97; V a n M u l d e r s 2000,

1634; p o s s i b l y c o l l e c t i o n o f the d u k e o f

p . 120; K o l b 2 0 0 0 , p p . 1 6 1 - 6 5 ; W e l z e l 2 0 0 2 ,

M e d i n a - S i d o n i a s de L a s T o r r e s ,

pp. 337-39; W e l z e l 2 0 0 4 ; K o l b 2005,

1634-36;

presented to K i n g P h i l i p I V o f S p a i n ; trans
f e r r e d t o t h e P r a d o u p o n its f o u n d a t i o n ,

1819

LITERATURE

pp. 6 0 - 6 3
EXHIBITION

B r u s s e l s 1980, cat. n o . 142

D e M a e y e r 1955, p p . 4 2 - 4 3 , 112, 114, 118;

S p e t h - H o l t e r h o f F 1957, p p . 2 9 , 4 6 - 5 4 ; E r t z
1979, pp- 3 2 8 - 5 6 , n o . 330; M u l l e r H o f s t e d e

N E

O F

T H E

B E S T - K N O W N

C O L L A B O R A T I V E

W O R K S

of Jan Brueghel and Peter Paul Rubens is without

doubt the series depicting the Five Senses in
the Museo Nacional del Prado, represented in this exhibition
by the Allegory of Taste. Five panels, each measuring approxi
mately 65 x 1 0 0 cm (twenty-five by forty inches), display
female personifications of the Five Senses, portrayed against
a backdrop of princely collections that together seem to
paint an idealized picture of the court of the Habsburg rulers
of the Southern Netherlands, the archdukes Albert and
Isabella, whose castles in and near Brussels are depicted in
the distance. In these ambitious allegories, encyclopedic
collections of artifacts and naturalia epitomize the cosmos
of sensory experience. The portrayal of the Five Senses
as female personifications with attributes has its roots in
sixteenth-century Flemish printmaking, but Brueghel first
1

90

BRUEGHEL

AND

RUBENS

tackled the subject as a means of depicting an abundance

of objects related to art, culture, science, and warfare,
augmented by the rich fruits of the earth and the spoils of
the hunt, all of which are experienced through the senses.
With unparalleled precision and an unerring touch, he repro
duced countless paintings, many of which are identifiable:
in Taste, for example, we see his own Garland of Fruit around
a Depiction of Ceres Receiving Gifts from the Four Seasons,
with figures by Hendrick van Balen (cat. nos. 2 0 and 21).
The depictions are set in princely chambers that reflect
the wealth and splendor of court culture. The figure of
Sight contemplates a painting in a Kunstkammer, or collector's
cabinet, filled with paintings, antique busts, ornate objects,
tapestries, and scientific instruments (fig. 5 4 ) ; Hearing plays
her lute in the midst of a collection of musical instruments
and clocks (fig. 5 5 ) ; Touch kisses a cupid amid a princely
2

91

F I G U R E 54 J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r a n d P e t e r P a u l R u b e n s , Allegory

of Sight, 1617. O i l o n p a n e l , 65 x 109 c m

(25 /8 x 4 2 % i n . ) . M a d r i d , M u s e o N a c i o n a l d e l P r a d o , i n v . 1394
5

F I G U R E 55 J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r a n d P e t e r P a u l R u b e n s , Allegory
(25 /8 x 4 2 Vs i n . ) . M a d r i d , M u s e o N a c i o n a l d e l P r a d o , i n v . 1395
5

92

BRUEGHEL

AND

RUBENS

of Hearing,

1617-18. O i l o n p a n e l , 65 x 107 c m

F I G U R E 56 J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r a n d Peter P a u l R u b e n s , Allegory

of Touch, 1617-18. O i l o n p a n e l , 65 x 106 c m

(25V8 x 4 i A i n . ) . M a d r i d , M u s e o N a c i o n a l d e l P r a d o , i n v . 1398
3

F I G U R E 57 J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r a n d Peter P a u l R u b e n s , Allegory

of Smell, 1617-18. O i l o n p a n e l , 6 4 x 109 c m

(25 V4 x 4 2 % i n . ) . M a d r i d , M u s e o N a c i o n a l d e l P r a d o , i n v . 1396

BRUEGHEL

AND RUBENS

93

armory (fig. 56); Smell sits in a garden among blossoming

flowers (fig. 57); Taste, seated at a sumptuously laid table
overloaded with food and drink, nibbles an oyster and allows
a satyr to fill her wineglass. When Brueghel had finished
painting his richly detailed settings, Rubens painted his
female personifications in the reserves, providing each one
with a companion in the form of a putto or a satyr. Brueghel
then added the finishing touches, making the small adjust
ments necessary to integrate Rubens's figures into their
surroundings. The reserve for Taste, for example, was a bit
too ample around the legs, so Brueghel made changes to the
white tablecloth at that spot. H e also decorated the satyr's
head with a vine wreath. Rubens, for his part, had already
adjusted his contribution to fit what Brueghel had painted,
as evidenced by his satyr, whose body reflects the green of
the fruit on the table. That Brueghel may be regarded as the
originator of the series is confirmed by the fact that he alone
signed three of the five panels. The dates of 1617 and 1618
next to Brueghel's signature on Sight and Taste, respectively,
also offer an important clue as to the chronology of the usu
ally undated collaborative works by Brueghel and Rubens.
It has often been assumed that this costly series of paint
ings was commissioned by Archdukes Albert and Isabella.
Rubens had, after all, held the post of court painter since
his return from Italy in 1 6 0 8 , and Brueghel regularly worked
for the court at Brussels. The couple's palaces serve as back
ground scenery in three of the five depictions, and Sight
contains a double portrait of the regents and an equestrian
portrait of Albert, as well as a brass chandelier crowned
with the Habsburgs' double-headed eagle. Despite these
references, it is unclear to what extent the series actually
represents the archducal collections, although some of the
paintings and other works depicted could have belonged
to the couple. It seems more likely that this series presents
an idealized view of the princely culture of collecting,
inspired by the court of Albert and Isabella.
This series was first recorded in 1636, when the paintings
were listed in an inventory of the Royal Alcazar Palace in
Madrid. Their description states that the paintings were
given in 1634 by Duke Wolfgang Wilhelm of Pfalz-Neuburg
(1578-1653) to Cardinal Infante Ferdinand ( 1 6 0 9 - 1 6 4 1 ) , who
had become the new ruler of the Southern Netherlands after
the deaths of Albert and Isabella in 1621 and 1633, respec
tively. Through the offices of the Spanish duke of Medina de
las Torres, Ferdinand subsequently presented the paintings to
his brother, King Philip I V of Spain, who had them hung in
3

94

BRUEGHEL

AND RUBENS

the reading room of the Alcazar. It is possible that Wolfgang

Wilhelm's gift to Ferdinand was prompted by his gratitude
for the victory at the Battle of Nordiingen in September
1634, an important turning point in the Thirty Years' War.
It was near this town in southern Germany that the Swedes
and their German Protestant allies were halted in their
advance by imperial Catholic troops under the command
of Ferdinand, thereby averting the threat to Wolfgang
Wilhelm's territories around Regensburg and Neuburg.
The duke, ruler of the small principality of Pfalz-Neuburg
(in 1614 the strategically important county of Julich-Berg in
the Lower Rhine Valley also devolved upon him), had been
a staunch Roman Catholic since his conversion in 1 6 1 3 - 1 4 .
Prompted by the Counter-Reformation, he undertook to
restore the Catholic faith in the territories in his domain.
H e was a brother-in-law of Maximilian of Bavaria (leader of
the Roman Catholic League) and a faithful ally of Albert
and Isabella, to whom he had paid a state visit in the winter
of 1 6 1 4 - 1 5 . In 1617 Rubens accepted a commission from the
duke to paint the main altar of the court church in Neuburg,
followed in 1619 by commissions for two altarpieces for
side altars. This court church had been founded as a Protes
tant church in 1607, but the duke had handed it over to
the Jesuits in 1614. In 1622 Rubens completed a commission
from Wolfgang Wilhelm for an altarpiece for the Church
of Saint Peter in Neuburg representing the Fall of the Rebel
Angels, a popular Counter-Reformationist subject.
H o w and when the series came into the possession of
Wolfgang Wilhelm before he gave it away in 1634whether
directly from the artists or indeed from other owners, pos
sibly the archdukeswe will probably never know. A t
any rate, during the same period in which the present series
of the Five Senses was painted, Brueghel was working on
another important commission depicting the same subject
in two paintings that were certainly intended for Albert and
Isabella: in October 1618 the city of Antwerp bought from
Brueghel "two ingenious paintings, representing the Five
Senses, on which twelve of the best masters of this city have
worked, to be presented to Their Most Illustrious High
nesses." In 1619 these large and valuable paintings were
hanging in the audience hall of Tervuren castle; in 1731 they
were lost in a fire in Coudenberg Palace. The versions
preserved in the Prado (figs. 58 and 59), which were already
in Spain by 1633, have proved to be faithful copies of the
original paintings. For Brueghel and his colleagues, these
two collaborative paintings were without precedent, for no
7

10

11

12

13

F I G U R E 58 A f t e r J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r a n d o t h e r artists, Allegory

canvas, 176 x 2 6 4 c m ( 6 9

of Sight and Smell, ca. 1618. O i l o n

x 104 i n . ) . M a d r i d , M u s e o N a c i o n a l d e l P r a d o , i n v . 1403

F I G U R E 59 A f t e r J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r a n d o t h e r artists, Allegory

of Hearing,

Taste, and Touch, ca. 1618.

O i l o n canvas, 176 x 2 6 4 c m ( 6 9 V4 x 104 i n . ) . M a d r i d , M u s e o N a c i o n a l d e l P r a d o , inv. 1 4 0 4

BRUEGHEL

AND

RUBENS

95

fewer than twelve otherwise unnamed masters contributed

their own paintings within the painting, thus enabling the
passionate collectors Albert and Isabella to possess in these
two pictures representative works of the entire Antwerp
school of painting of their day. In the series discussed here,
Brueghel chose a different approach, himself reproducing
his colleagues' paintings as well as his own. Nevertheless,
the Madrid paintings also offerespecially in the Allegory of
Sight, the sense that is so vital to the art of paintinga
splendid sample of the Antwerp school of the early seven
teenth century.
Sight is often seen as the core of the series of the Five
Senses, a position earned by virtue of its exceptionally rich
and multilayered iconography. Furthermore, the date
1617indicates that the series began with this painting. Even
so, it is important to consider the individual paintings in
the context of the whole series. Just as Brueghel had previ
ously attempted, in various series of the Four Elements,
to document the natural world in its infinite diversity, in his
allegories of the Five Senses he paints an idealized picture
of every facet of courtly life, presenting a tableau in which
these paintings cannot be seen separately but only as part
of the larger picture. Amassing collections of artifacts and
naturalia, developing a profound appreciation of music, and
taking an active interest in scientific pursuits were integral
parts of court culture, as were the management of the family
estates and the popular pastime of hunting, as reflected, for
example, in the Allegory of Taste. Each painting in the series,
moreover, contains appropriate allusions to the role played
by the individual senses in the doctrine of salvation.
The Allegory of Sight, with the archdukes' Brussels resi
dence of Coudenberg in the background, is situated in a col
lector's cabinet filled with art and scientific instruments.
This type of Kunstkammer, first painted by Frans Francken
the Younger ( 1 5 8 1 - 1 6 4 2 ) , would eventually developpartly
through the efforts of Brueghelinto a popular genre typica l
of the Antwerp school. Almost every genre of painting
is represented in this work, from still life to history painting
and from portraiture to seascape. Perhaps it is only natural
that the paintings by Rubens and Brueghel occupy the most
prominent places and are more numerous than the works
of other artists. The personification of Sight studies a
paintingheld up by a winged puttothat depicts Christ's
healing of the blind man, probably a painting by Brueghel
himself. Propped against the wall below the shelves of
antique portrait busts is a paintingafter Pieter Bruegel the
14

15

16

17

96

BRUEGHEL

AND RUBENS

Elderthat represents the antithesis of this biblical story:

the fall of the blind man. This illustrates the contrast
between the vision that derives from true faith and the blind
ness of the unbeliever. Similarly, an attempt has been made
to interpret all the details in the picture symbolically, as
exempla bona or exempla mala of the true vision of Roman
Catholic believers. A l l the same, the Madonna and Child
in a Garland of Flowers, for example, which is based on the
collaborative painting by Brueghel and Rubens in the Louvre
(see fig. 6 9 ) , seems to have been reproduced mainly to
advertise this new composition by the two friends and not
as a Christian pendant to the personification of Sight.
Brueghel's garland does have a counterpart in the vase of
freshly cut flowers standing on a cupboard to the left. A lot
of philosophizing was done at the time on the relative
merits of painted flowers as opposed to real ones, in the light
of the topos of the rivalry between art and nature: Brueghel's
artistry was, after all, capable of transforming short-lived
flowers into immortal blooms.
In the Allegory of Sight, Brueghel included not only the
Madonna and Child on which he had collaborated with
Rubens but also several of his friend's recent compositions.
The tiger hunt on the back wall, for example, was a brandnew composition by Rubens, as was Daniel in the Lions'
Den, a fragment of which is visible at the upper left. The
Drunken Silenus in the right foreground is also by Rubens,
as is the double portrait of Albert and Isabellathe proto
type of which has not survived and the equestrian por
trait of Albert. The depiction above the gate of Venus
and Psyche is based on a painting by Titian, while on the
right, in front of the antique busts, is a Saint Cecilia by
Raphael, half of which is covered up. Among the antique
busts are famous portraits of Marcus Aurelius, Nero,
Augustus, and Alexander the Great. The upper shelf holds
scaled-down replicas of statues by Michelangelo. Antique
statues are prominently displayed in the gallery of paintings
at the back right. In addition to paintings and statues and
the pile of folded-up carpets in the left foreground, Brueghel
depicted magnificent objects in gold and silver, including a
cupboard with ornate jugs, vases, and dishes. The numerous
optical instruments displayedsuch as the newly developed
telescope between the woman and the puttoembody the
scientific dimension of sight.
The personification of Hearing plays the lute and sings
along with the putto at her feet, accompanied by two song
birds perched on a stool; the archdukes' summer castle of
18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

Mariemont (compare cat. no. 9 B ) figures in the background.

A group of musicians plays in the back left corner. In
between a harpsichord made by the famous Antwerp firm of
Ruckers and a round table with seven music stands attached
to it, Brueghel depicted a large number of musical instru
ments. The music on the stand closest to the viewer bears the
archducal arms and the name of Albert and Isabella's court
composer, the Englishman Peter Philips ( 1 5 6 0 / 6 1 - 1 6 2 8 ) .
Various hunting horns lie on the floor in the right fore
ground (see fig. 6 4 ) , while a number of beautifully designed
clocks grace the table and the back wallin those days the
measurement of time was perceived mainly by the sense
of hearing. Next to the caged parrots stands an artificial bird
with a chirping mechanism. Artificial birdsong was often
incorporated into garden architecture to confound the senses
in a game of illusion versus reality that greatly appealed to
the popular imagination. The paintings hanging on the
walls include a triptych with the Annunciation to the Virgin
(who hears the divine word); similarly, the lid of the harp
sichord is decorated with an Annunciation to the Shepherds
after Hendrick van Balen. The Concert of the Muses above
the triptych is a composition by Van Balen or Hendrick
de Clerck, with whom Brueghel also collaborated (see cat.
no. 16). Hanging on the right is one of Brueghel's own com
positions of a very appropriate subject: Orpheus Charming
the Animals with His Music.
The Allegory of Touch is situated in a half-open room
containing paintings, medical instruments, and shelves of
armorin which the personification of Touch tenderly
kisses her putto. The left half of the depiction is filled with
weapons and suits of armor; in the middle distance, weapons
are forged in an outdoor smithy set amidst ruins. Directly
behind the kissing personification, a dog lunging at a deer's
throat is depicted in the tapestry on which the paintings
hang. After all, pain as well as pleasure is experienced
through the sense of touch. This is keenly expressed by the
medical instruments (including a frightfully large amputating
saw), the two pulled teeth lying on the table, a bird of prey
hovering in the air with its quarry, and the array of weapons
and armor. O n a metaphorical level, the arms represent
the pain and heat of battle. In the context of these paintings,
these objects represent both the culture of collecting indulged
in by the higher nobility and their prestigious courtly
armories. The weapons and armor of illustrious ancestors
were cherished as mementos of heroic deeds of the past,
the preeminent embodiment of a family's dynastic ambitions,
2 9

30

31

32

33

and weapons seized from one's enemies were proudly dis

played as trophies. Suits of armor were put on dummies,
thus becoming a kind of portrait of their former owners. The
importance attached to these relics emerges from the fact
that in 1594 Philip II had the armory belonging to his father,
Charles V, declared an inalienable possessionthe first of his
collections to be thus entailed. The armor on the wooden
stand that rises out of the display of arms on the floor is
possibly a piece (formerly preserved in Brussels) that once
belonged to Maximilian I ( 1 4 5 9 - 1 5 1 9 ) or Philip the Hand
some ( 1 4 7 8 - 1 5 0 6 ) . Lying on the floor are pieces of a suit of
armor bearing engraved and gilded ornamental bands of
a kind mass-produced in Italy in the sixteenth century and
therefore not associated with any specific rank: this motif
belonged to the standard repertoire of Brueghel's workshop
(see cat. no. 2 ) . The largest painting within the painting in
this allegory is a depiction of the Last Judgment, with lead
ing roles for the pain of the damned and the heat of hell fire.
This work bears a strong resemblance to Brueghel's scenes
of hell and purgatory (compare cat. no. 15). The Defeat of
Sennacherib below this is based on a composition by Rubens
and depicts the victory of the biblical king Hezekiah over
the pagan enemies of Israel. Other subjects well suited to
this allegory are of course The Flagellation of Christ and
The Martyrdom of Saint Lawrence, the painting cut off at the
lower right. The latter work is based on an altarpiece that
Philip II commissioned Titian to make for the Escorial;
in the caption to Cornells Cort's famous print after this
composition, the subjectwhich refers to Philip IPs victory
over the French near St. Quentin on the feast of Saint
Lawrence in 1557is interpreted as symbolic of the victory
of the Habsburg dynasty over its enemies.
34

3 5

36

37

38

39

In the Allegory of Smell, the naked protagonist appears

in a beautiful garden, sitting on a cushion amidst fragrant
flowers, which her putto holds out to her. The castle in the
background is not identifiable, but it naturally alludes to
a courtly lifestyle in which it was a matter of course to have
splendid gardens amply filled with rare plants and bulbs.
Albert and Isabella also had gardens laid out at their residence
in Brussels, for which they collected exotic flowers: in one
of his letters to Cardinal Borromeo, Brueghel said that he had
gone to Brussels to study a number of rare flowers at first
hand. The building on the left in the middle distance must
be a perfume distillery, as evidenced by the various glass
vessels and the open fire, whereas the building on the right
is an artificial grotto with fountains and cascades of the type
40

41

BRUEGHEL

AND RUBENS

97

designed for the archdukes by the engineer and garden

architect Salomon de Caus ( 1 5 7 6 - 1 6 2 6 ) (see cat. no. 6 ) .
While Smell allowed Brueghel once again to exhibit his
special skills as a flower painter, in the Allegory of Taste
he proves himself as a painter of still lifes of game. The fore
ground contains an extremely well-rendered pile of game,
with a colorful assortment of songbirds, pheasants, deer,
hares, partridges, doves, a peacock, and a wild boar. Just as
Brueghel's flower pieces are composed of flowers that do not
actually bloom at the same time of year, this painting con
tains specimens of wild game that are not hunted in the same
season. In the left foreground lie several pieces of salmon
and some fish. In the kitchen at the back, game is being
roasted and fish prepared; the painting hanging above the
door depicts a Fat Kitchen in the style of Pieter Bruegel
the Elder. O n the table at which Taste is seated, the game
and fish appear to have been delightfully transformed by the
culinary art into pies of swan, pheasant, dove, and peacock,
and plates full of lobsters, oysters, and roast fowl. The per
sonification of Taste feasts on this delicious fare, while a
satyr fills her wineglass. It is not only this satyr but other
objects as wellthe vines at the top of the picture, the bas
ket of grapes in the central still-life arrangement, and the
wine cooler and jugs on the leftwhich represent the wines
produced on the princely estates. Taken altogether, these
elements portray the rich and wide-ranging yields of the
domains of Albert and Isabella, whose hunting lodge,
Tervuren Castlewith its game park and fishpondsis
depicted in the background (compare cat. no. 9 A ) . Behind
the table, hanging on the gold-leather wall covering, is a
painting depicting The Marriage at Canaperhaps after the
example of Frans Franckena subject that can naturally be
seen as the biblical pendant of the sumptuous table depicted
here. Rather than regarding the Allegory of Taste as a warning
against the intemperance possibly expressed by the winedrinking woman and her satyr, it seems more natural to
interpret this bounteous repast as a reference to courtly
cuisine and the culture of feasting which, like the hunt, were
integral parts of an aristocratic lifestyle. A law enacted in
the Southern Netherlands in 1613 prohibited hunting to all
but the lords in power; it was strictly forbiddenon pain
of a heavy fineto hunt in or near the princely domains, to
possess wild game, or to keep hunting dogs. This con
firmed the notion that hunting costly game was a princely
prerogative. In this painting, the rich spoils of the hunt
serve as further evidence of the luxurious life at court which
4 2

43

44

45

46

98

B R U E G H E L

A N D

R U B E N S

forms the setting for this series of the Five Senses. Indeed,
the reproduction in the left foreground of the Garland
of Fruit around a Depiction of Ceres Receiving Gifts from the
Four Seasons by Brueghel and Van Balen is a very appropriate
addition to the abundance pictured here. In reproducing
this recent composition, Brueghel again advertises the very
latest product that he and his artist friends in Antwerp had
to offer. The presence of the silky marmoset on the back
of the chair can be traced, in fact, to traditional portrayals of
the senses in which a monkey is the constant companion
of Taste, just as a dog traditionally appears with Smell and a
deer with Hearing.
For Brueghel, the portrayal of the Five Senses provided
the perfect opportunity to document all aspects of idealized
courtly culture. These pictures were clearly inspired by
the elegance of the archdukes' court and the high quality
and ambitious scope of their collections. O n a symbolic
level, these paintings express the prosperity and peace that
prevailed in the Southern Netherlands during the reign
of Albert and Isabella, when art, culture, and science could
again blossom and the land could again bear fruit. A v S

NOTES
1. See N o r d e n f a l k 1985.
2. J a n B r u e g h e l t h e Y o u n g e r s p o k e o f t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f f e r e d b y t h e
s u b j e c t i n a l e t t e r he w r o t e i n 1631 t o t h e art d e a l e r C h r i s o s t o m o
v a n I m m e r s e e l , " A s r e g a r d s t h e F i v e Senses, I a m w o r k i n g o n t h e m
w i t h p l e a s u r e , d o i n g e v e r y t h i n g f r o m l i f e , s i n c e t h e s u b j e c t is a g r e e a b l y
s u i t e d t o d e p i c t i n g e v e r y t h i n g u n d e r t h e s u n . " ( W a t b e l a n c t de
V y f s i n n e n , h e b b e d i e m e t l u s t o n d e r h a n d e n o m alles n a e r t l e v e n te
d o e n , als 0 0 c het s u b j e c t p l a y s a n t is o m a l w a t ter w e r e l t is d a e r i n
te c o n n e n m a k e n . ) : D e n u c e 1934, p . 71.
3. F o r v a r i o u s t h e o r i e s o n t h e p r o v e n a n c e o f t h e p a i n t i n g s , see D e M a e y e r
1955, p p . 4 2 - 4 9 ; E r t z 1979, p p . 3 3 6 - 3 7 ; M u l l e r H o f s t e d e

1984,

p p . 2 4 3 - 4 5 ; a n d W e l z e l 1997.
4 . See C . B r o w n , " R u b e n s a n d t h e A r c h d u k e s , " i n B r u s s e l s 1 9 9 8 - 9 9 ,
pp. 121-28.
5. B a l i s 1986, v o l . 2, p p . 1 3 8 - 3 9 . T h e i n v e n t o r i e s o f A l b e r t a n d Isabella's
c o l l e c t i o n s o f p a i n t i n g s (as p u b l i s h e d i n D e M a e y e r 1955) are t o o
v a g u e a n d i n c o m p l e t e t o p r o v i d e t h e basis f o r a r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f
their collections.
6. See M a d r i d 1992, p . 115.
7. M u l l e r H o f s t e d e 1984, p . 245.
8. See, f o r i n s t a n c e , D i i s s e l d o r f 2 0 0 3 .

9. R e n g e r a n d D e n k 2 0 0 2 , p p . 3 2 0 - 2 3 ( B a y e r i s c h e S t a a t s g e m a l d e s a m m
l u n g e n , i n v . 8 9 0 ; n o w i n the A l t e P i n a k o t h e k , M u n i c h ) a n d
p p . 3 0 5 - 1 6 , 3 2 0 - 2 3 ( B a y e r i s c h e S t a a t s g e m a l d e s a m m l u n g e n , inv. 303
a n d 9 9 9 ; b o t h n o w i n the S t a a t s g a l e r i e N e u b u r g an d e r D o n a u ) .
10. R e n g e r a n d D e n k 2 0 0 2 , p p . 312-16 ( B a y e r i s c h e S t a a t s g e m a l d e s a m m
l u n g e n , i n v . 3 0 6 ; n o w i n the A l t e P i n a k o t h e k , M u n i c h ) .
11. I t is p o s s i b l e t h a t A l b e r t a n d I s a b e l l a o r d e r e d t h e p a i n t i n g s f r o m
B r u e g h e l a n d R u b e n s a n d t h a t t h e y later c a m e i n t o the p o s s e s s i o n o f
D u k e W o l f g a n g W i l h e l m , as a g i f t f r o m t h e a r c h d u k e s , f o r e x a m p l e ,
o r f r o m I s a b e l l a after the d e a t h o f h e r h u s b a n d . It is also c o n c e i v a b l e
that A l b e r t and Isabella o r d e r e d the paintings specifically to present
t h e m t o t h e i r i m p o r t a n t ally. W o l f g a n g W i l h e l m c o u l d have h a d the
p a i n t i n g s m a d e f o r h i m s e l f , b u t he m i g h t also have o r d e r e d t h e m as a
gift f o r A l b e r t a n d I s a b e l l a , i n w h i c h case the p a i n t i n g s c o u l d have
b e e n r e t u r n e d t o h i m at s o m e later date. See n o t e 3 a b o v e f o r the v a r i
o u s t h e o r i e s r e g a r d i n g t h e p r o v e n a n c e o f these p a i n t i n g s .
12. " t w e e c o n s t i g e s c h i l d e r i j e n , r e p r e s e n t e r e n d e de V i j f f S i n n e n , w a e r i n n e
g e v r o c h t h e b b e n t w e e l f f d i v e r s c h e v a n de p r i n c i p a e l s t e meesters
deser stadt, o m g e s c h o n c k e n te w o r d e n aen H a r e D o o r l u c h t i c h s t e
H o o c h e d e n " : D e M a e y e r 1955, d o c . 139. See also E r t z 1979,
p p . 3 5 6 - 5 7 ; D i a z P a d r o n 1995, v o l . 1, p p . 2 3 6 - 4 5 ; B r u s s e l s 1 9 9 8 - 9 9 ,
cat. n o . 6 0 ; a n d B . W e l z e l , " E l c i c l o de l o s s e n t i d o s de J a n B r u e g h e l el
V i e j o y Peter P a u l R u b e n s c o m o espejo de l a c u l t u r a de c o r t e de
A l b e r t o e Isabel," i n M a d r i d 1 9 9 9 - 2 0 0 0 .
13. D i a z P a d r o n 1995, v o l . 1, p p . 2 3 6 - 4 5 , n o s . 1 4 0 3 - 0 4 .
14. O n series o f the F i v e Senses, see e s p e c i a l l y W e l z e l 1997.
15. T h i s f e m a l e p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n has o f t e n b e e n i d e n t i f i e d as V e n u s ( S p e t h H o l t e r h o f f 1957, p . 53; a n d E r t z 1979, p p . 3 4 3 - 4 5 ) o r J u n o ( M u l l e r
H o f s t e d e 1984).
16. See H a r t i n g 1989, p p . 83-91.
17. F o r t h e p a i n t i n g s w i t h i n t h i s p a i n t i n g , see M a d r i d 1992, p p . 117-25;
a n d D i a z P a d r o n 1995, p p . 2 6 8 - 7 3 .
18. T h e artist is S e b a s t i a n V r a n c x (1573-1647); see M a d r i d 1992, cat.
n o . 10.
19. See M u l l e r H o f s t e d e 1984.
2 0 . O n t h i s subject, see W e l z e l 2 0 0 2 a n d 2 0 0 2 a .
21. I n t h e M u s e e des B e a u x - A r t s at R e n n e s t h e r e is a v e r s i o n o f t h i s w o r k
f r o m the estate o f M a x i m i l i a n o f B a v a r i a , w h i c h was m a d e i n 1615
t o d e c o r a t e his castle at S c h l e i s s h e i m ( M a d r i d 1992, p . 119, fig. 73).
22. C o m p a r e t h e v e r s i o n i n the N a t i o n a l G a l l e r y o f A r t i n W a s h i n g t o n ,
D . C . ( M a d r i d 1992, p p . 117-18; a n d D i a z P a d r o n 1995, p . 268).
I n 1618 R u b e n s o f f e r e d t o sell t h i s p a i n t i n g t o the E n g l i s h d i p l o m a t
a n d art c o l l e c t o r S i r D u d l e y C a r l e t o n . T h e r e was also a v e r s i o n

see D e M a e y e r 1955, p . 435, d o c . 2 7 0 , n o . 1; p. 4 4 8 , d o c . 271, n o . 2 3 0 ;

p . 4 6 1 , d o c . 276, n o . 2.
2 4 . A c c o r d i n g t o E r t z (1979, p p . 338-39), this d o u b l e p o r t r a i t is based o n
R u b e n s ' s p o r t r a i t s o f A l b e r t a n d I s a b e l l a i n t h e P r a d o (cat. n o s . 9 A
and 9B).
25. C o m p a r e , f o r e x a m p l e , K o l b 2 0 0 0 , fig. 63.
26. M a d r i d 1992, p . 11927. M a d r i d 1992, p . 121.
28. E r t z (1979, p . 342) a t t e m p t e d t o i n t e r p r e t the m u s i c a l i n s t r u m e n t s as
a n A l l e g o r y o f the L i b e r a l A r t s .
2 9 . D e M a e y e r 1955, p . 4 6 .
30. See W e l z e l 1997, p. 258.
31. M a d r i d 1992, cat. n o . 13.
32. E r t z 1979, p . 2 4 9 . F o r a n o t h e r p i c t u r e b y J a n B r u e g h e l w i t h t h e s a m e
subject, d a t e d 1 6 0 0 , see A n t w e r p 1998, p . 126, fig. 35b.
33. See B . W e l z e l , " A r m o u r y a n d A r c h d u c a l I m a g e : T h e Sense o f T o u c h
f r o m the F i v e Senses o f J a n B r u e g h e l a n d Peter P a u l R u b e n s , " i n
Brussels 1 9 9 8 - 9 9 , pp. 9 9 - 1 0 6 .
34. B r u s s e l s 1994, p p . 117-19.
35. W e l z e l ( n o t e 33 a b o v e ) , p . 101, figs. 1 a n d 2.
36. W e l z e l ( n o t e 33), p p . 102, 105, n . 16; see E r t z 1979, n o . 252 ( l o s t i n
1945).
37. M a d r i d 1992, p . 286. See also a v e r s i o n i n the P u s h k i n M u s e u m ,
M o s c o w . A v a r i a t i o n o f this d e p i c t i o n a c o p y b y H a n s v o n A a c h e n
after C h r i s t o p h S c h w a r z ( B a l i s 1986, p . 145, n . 3 1 ) f r o m t h e estate o f
E m p e r o r R u d o l f I I h a d p o s s i b l y b e e n i n the p o s s e s s i o n o f A r c h d u k e
A l b e r t s i n c e 1615; see D e M a e y e r 1955, d o c . 104.
38. W e l z e l ( n o t e 33), p p . 1 0 3 - 0 4 .
39. R o t t e r d a m 1994, cat. n o . 6 0 .
4 0 . F o r B r u e g h e l ' s letter t o B o r r o m e o o f A p r i l 14, 1 6 0 6 , see C r i v e l l i 1868,
p. 63.
41. W e l z e l 1997, p . 221.
4 2 . See W e l z e l 1997, p . 2 2 9 , fig. 109.
4 3 . See M a d r i d 1992, p . 146, fig. 82.
4 4 . C o m p a r e E r t z 1979, p p . 352-54.
45. O n the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the Allegory

of Taste, see W e l z e l 1997,

pp. 1 6 1 - 9 8 .
4 6 . W e l z e l 1997, p p . 1 8 2 - 8 3 ; see also G a l e s l o o t 1854, p p . 2 7 - 5 1 .

i n t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f t h e S p a n i s h m a r q u i s o f L e g a n e s (see cat. n o s . 7
a n d 12).
23. I t is p o s s i b l e t h a t t h i s w o r k was l i s t e d i n a n i n v e n t o r y o f 1 6 5 9 " a
B a c c h u s b y t h e h a n d o f R u b e n s " ( U n B a c u s de m a n o de R u b e n s )
w h e n s o m e o f Isabella's f o r m e r p o s s e s s i o n s w e r e b r o u g h t t o S p a i n ;

BRUEGHEL

AND

RUBENS

99

9A
Peter Paul Rubens and Workshop and Jan Brueghel the Elder

Portrait of Archduke Albert of Austria

ca. 1 6 1 8 - 2 0
O i l on canvas, 112 x 173 cm (44Vs x 68 Vs in.)

Madrid, Museo Nacional del Prado, inv. 1683

Exhibited

in Los Angeles

only

9B
Peter Paul Rubens and Workshop and Jan Brueghel the Elder

Portrait of Infanta Isabella Clara Eugenia

ca. 1 6 1 8 - 2 0
O i l on canvas, 102 x 173 cm (40Vs x 68 Vs in.)

Madrid, Museo Nacional del Prado, inv. 1684

Exhibited in Los Angeles only

n o s . 1683 a n d 1684; V e r g a r a 1999, pp- 2 1 - 2 4 ;

PROVENANCE

D o c u m e n t e d i n t h e i n v e n t o r y o f the S p a n i s h
R o y a l C o l l e c t i o n s , A l c a z a r , M a d r i d i n 1636
(as R u b e n s ) ;

transferred t o the P r a d o u p o n

its f o u n d a t i o n i n 1819
LITERATURE

C r u z a d a V i l l a a m i l 1874, p . 3 6 4 , n o s . 28 a n d
2 9 ; R o o s e s 1903, p . 2 0 4 ; D e M a e y e r 1955,
p p . 112; E r t z 1979, p p . 158, 3 3 8 - 4 0 , n o s . 3 0 9
a n d 310; V l i e g h e 1987, p p . 4 3 - 4 5 , n o s . 6 6 a n d
6 7 ; D i a z P a d r o n 1995, v o l . 2 , p p . 1 0 7 6 - 8 3 ,

100

RUBENS

AND

BRUEGHEL

V a n M u l d e r s 2 0 0 0 , pp. 118-20
EXHIBITIONS

B r u s s e l s 1975, cat. n o s . 2 9 a n d 3 0 ; B r u s s e l s
1985, cat. n o s . B 2 0 a n d B 2 1 ; B r u s s e l s 1 9 9 8 - 9 9 ,
p . 149, cat. n o s . 2 0 2 a n d 2 0 3 ; M a d r i d
1 9 9 9 - 2 0 0 0 , p p . 1 7 6 - 7 7 , cat. n o s . 30 a n d 31

N E

O F

T H E

E S S E N T I A L

R E S P O N S I B I L I T I E S

O F

a court painter was to create official portraits of the

sovereign. These handsome canvases, the only for
mal portraits of the governors of the Southern Netherlands
set against landscape backgrounds, unite both Rubens's and
BrueghePs contributions as portraitists with the iconography
of the Brussels court. The imposing images of the archdukes
were devised by Rubens and largely executed in his studio,
while the meticulously executed views of two of their
principal residences, the castle ofTervuren behind Archduke
Albert and the Mariemont castle behind Archduchess
Isabella, were painted by Jan Brueghel the Elder. Both
Rubens and Brueghel utilized portrait types they had earlier
developed for other commissions to create a pair of double
portraits that promote the vital attributes of authority and
dominion required for images of the sovereign. As collabo
rative undertakings, the portraits of Archduke Albert and
Archduchess Isabella represent a clear and practical working
process of discrete contributions by each studio.
Seated on red-velvet-covered chairs on terraces set apart
from the landscape by a balustrade, with a heavy red fringed
curtain draped behind them, Albert and Isabella regard
the viewer steadily. The archduke appears to be positioned
close to ground levelthere are roses growing in front of
the balustradewhile Isabella is seated at a greater distance
from the castle and considerably higher, above the treetops.
Bright light illuminates their features and the details of their
elegant costumes. Archduke Albert, who was in his late fifties
when the portrait was painted, wears a wheel ruff and corre
sponding cuffs and a black costume ornamented with gold
buttons. Expressive brushwork describes his austere features.
Around his neck hangs the Order of the Golden Fleece,
of which he became a member in 1599, and he holds a pair of
gloves across his knee. By contrast, Isabella's severe counte
nance is more stiffly painted. Her red hair is swept upward
and decorated with pearls, a central jewel, and flowers,
including a spray of lily of the valley. She wears a large
wheel ruff, and her rich black gown is adorned with six long
strands of pearls, a large jeweled cross, and an oval jewel
with an image of the Virgin and Child on a crescent moon.
She holds an open fan and a handkerchief lies across her
lap. Behind Archduke Albert stands the hunting castle
of Tervuren on the river Voer. The wooden bridge, inter
sected by a garden, is clearly visible. Swans and the activities
of a number of small figures animate the view. In the portrait
of the archduchess, the castle of Mariemont stands atop a
2

knoll, from which spreads out the rolling landscape of

the Hainault region, bisected by allies of trees. The castle's
famous deer park is visible in the foreground.
Archduke Albert (1559-1621) and Isabella Clara Eugenia
( 1 5 6 6 - 1 6 3 3 ) were married on April 18, 1599. Albert was the
youngest son of the Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian II
and Maria, daughter of Charles V, and his career embraced
both rigorous military training and diplomatic service as
viceroy to Portugal ( 1 5 8 3 - 9 3 ) . Named archbishop of Toledo
in 1594 (a rank he renounced before his marriage), he was
appointed governor general of the Southern Netherlands by
Philip II at the death of his brother, Archduke Ernst, in
1596. H e is often depicted as solemn in demeanor and was
described by a contemporary as "not easily moved to laugh
ter." A n equestrian portrait by Rubens, presumably lost but
perhaps reproduced in the Allegory of Sight (see fig. 54), com
memorates his military prowess at the capture of Oostende
in 1 6 0 4 . Isabella, the favorite daughter of Philip II of Spain,
was destined to play a major part in the fortunes of the L o w
Countries. Upon their marriage, the couple ruled jointly
until Albert's death in 1621, after which the archduchess con
tinued to govern the region and to rely on the diplomatic
services of Rubens. Evidently of a lively and energetic dispo
sition, she assumed the habit of the Poor Clares upon the
death of her spouse.
Albert and Isabella shared a rigorous piety as well as a
dogged commitment to sympathetic governance of the belea
guered and economically weakened provinces. Upon their
arrival in the L o w Countries in 1599, they were received
with hopeful expectations of a prosperous and peaceful new
era. The strategy of their rule was, in essence, to establish
themselves as sympathetic resident regents rather than as
a remote, wholly Spanish presence. Emphasizing their strong
historical and familial ties to the region, the archdukes
pursued a domestic policy that featured high public visibility
in the form of attendance at local fetes (see fig. 14). The
couple early on began to refurbish a number of properties
that had formerly been in the possession of Charles V and
Mary of Hungary (regent 1531-55), as part of the process
of establishing their presence in the L o w Countries. Fore
most among these projects was the renovation of the beloved
hunting castles of Tervuren and Mariemont.
Tervuren had served as a hunting castle from the twelfth
century, entering the dominions of the duke of Burgundy
in 1406 and the possession of Charles V in 1515. Located in
the forest known as the Zoni'enwoud (also the Foret de Soignes)
5

RUBENS

AND

BRUEGHEL

101

102

103

southeast of Brussels, it was an easy journey from the

Coudenberg Palace. Brueghel's portrayal of the castle in
Albert's portrait clearly evokes its picturesque situation,
surrounded by water, with the distinctive high roof of the
Gothic great hall clearly visible. Major alterations were
carried out at the castle between 1608 and 1617 under the
direction of court architect and accomplished painter
Wenceslas Cobergher (ca. 1 5 6 0 - 1 6 3 2 ) , including the addition
of a Renaissance-style gallery to house a portion of the
archducal collection, which numbered almost two hundred
paintings. Between 1616 and 1617 a chapel dedicated to
Saint Hubert, a particularly popular local figure (see cat.
no. 7), was refurbished according to designs by Cobergher.
The archdukes themselves repaired to Tervuren for elabo
rately staged hunts and other festivities. Brueghel drew the
aspect of the castle seen here, with its complicated rooflines,
prior to this work on the castle and included a clearly
later vista in the center background of the Allegory of Taste
(cat. no. 8) of 1618. The views in the drawing and in Taste,
however, predate the addition of the wooden gallery, visible
in the present painting and in the majestic large canvas of
the castle from about 1621 (fig. 6 0 ) .
The palace of Mariemont was a favorite residence of
Albert and Isabella. Situated in Hainault, the palace was far
ther from the Brussels court than Tervuren and thus suited to
longer summer stays and to hunts staged early in the season,
which began in July. The castle was built with a distinctive
square plan by Jacques Dubrceucq for Isabella's great-aunt,
Mary of Hungary, between 1546 and 1549 and was situated
on a hill at the edge of a forest, with the river Haine below.
Mary used it frequently for hunts, which may explain its
presence in the portrait of the archduchess. The castle was
badly damaged by French troops in 1554 and rebuilt in 1560.
Albert and Isabella first renovated the castle between 1606
and 1 6 0 8 . Brueghel may have visited the castle on several
occasions, as it appears as both the subject and the setting
for a number of compositions. The Archdukes Albert and
Isabella before Castle Mariemont (1611; Munich, Alte Pinako
thek), which is among the earliest views of the castle, gives a
sense of the main changes to the building, which was now
three stories in height, with a polygonal garden house. A
much larger painting of 1611, The Archdukes Albert and Isabella
Hunting before Castle Mariemont (fig. 61), demonstrates the
strong connection of the archdukes to the palace and to
its primary function as a hunting lodge. Part of the archducal
9

10

11

FIGURE 60
Tervuren,

J a n B r u e g h e l t h e E l d e r , The Palace of Isabella

Clara

Eugenia

at

c a . 1621. O i l o n canvas, 126 x 153 c m ( 4 9 / s x 6 0 V 4 i n . ) . M a d r i d ,

5

M u s e o N a c i o n a l d e l P r a d o , i n v . 1453
F I G U R E 61 J a n B r u e g h e l t h e E l d e r , The Archdukes

Albert

and

Isabella

Hunting before Castle Mariemont, 1611. O i l o n canvas, 135 x 246 c m (53 Vs x

96%

i n . ) . M a d r i d , M u s e o N a c i o n a l d e l P r a d o , i n v . 1434

12

13

104

RUBENS AND

BRUEGHEL

F I G U R E 6 2 J a n M u l l e r after Peter P a u l
R u b e n s , Albert,

Archduke

of Austria,

1615.

E n g r a v i n g , 418 x 289 m m (16 V2 x 11 Vs i n . ) .

Vienna, Osterreichische Nationalbibliothek,
inv. n o . v . s . 190
F I G U R E 63 J a n M u l l e r after P e t e r P a u l
R u b e n s , Isabella,

Infanta

of Spain,

1615.

E n g r a v i n g , 418 x 289 m m (16V2 x n V s i n . ) .

Vienna, Osterreichische Nationalbibliothek,
inv. n o . v . s . 191

art collection was also housed at Mariemont, although no

inventory from the period around 1620 survives.
Further renovations were carried out between 1611 and
1617, and although one must be wary of assuming that each
depiction of the castle is topographically precise, Brueghel's
highly specific views seem to chart the ongoing changes
to the palace. In the Allegory of Spring of 1616 by Brueghel
and Hendrick van Balen (see fig. 4 9 ) , the castle and its
outbuilding can be seen to have been expanded even further.
Between 1618 and 1621, four distinctive corner towers were
completed under Cobergher's supervision. These elements,
absent from the view of Mariemont in the Allegory of Hearing
of 1 6 1 7 - 1 8 (see fig. 55) but clearly visible in this work and
in An Allegory of Hearing, Taste, and Touch of about 1618 (see
fig. 59), help to date the present painting to the last years of
the second decade.
From the commencement of his appointment as "peintre
de nostre hotel" on September 23, 1 6 0 9 , Rubens was respon
sible for establishing the "official" images of the rulers of
the Southern Netherlands. According to Rubens's biogra
pher, Francisco Pacheco, "Their Highnesses the archduke
Albert and the infanta Doha Isabel, his wife, always esteemed
him greatly, because having done two famous portraits of
them sitting in chairs shortly after his arrival, the infanta, in
the presence of her husband, fitted a sword around his
14

15

waist, and she put a very rich golden chain around his neck,
calling him the honor of his homeland." Guided by the
wishes of his patrons, Rubens adhered to the conventions of
court portraiture and to types established by previous court
painters Frans Pourbus the Elder ( 1 5 6 9 - 1 6 2 2 ) and Otto
van Veen ( 1 5 5 6 - 1 6 2 9 ) . A l l of the images convey the decorum
and sobriety in keeping with the restrained magnificence of
the archducal court, where taste reflected the severe Spanish
fashions. Within this rather circumscribed realm, however,
Rubens brought a new freshness and regality to the official
portraits of the archdukes, which were often disseminated
through copies.
Before Albert's death in 1621, Rubens created a number
of portrait types, the relationship and chronology of which
are complex and disputed. Two types in particular, estab
lished 1 6 1 5 - 1 7 , provided the precedents upon which the
Museo Nacional del Prado portraits are based. Threequarter-length pendants of about 1615, apparently lost but
preserved in prints by Jan Muller, show the figures seated
against a neutral textile background (figs. 6 2 and 6 3 ) . The
present portrait of Isabella in particular recalls the print in its
composition, though not in the costume she wears. The for
mal pose epitomizes sovereignty and deliberately links these
images with earlier portraits of regents in the Netherlands
by Antonis M o r (ca. 1519-ca. 1575), Van Veen, and Pourbus.
16

17

18

RUBENS

AND BRUEGHEL

105

The archdukes seem somewhat older in the paintings under

discussion than they appear in the prints. In fact, Isabella
more closely resembles the likeness in London (National
Gallery) from Rubens's studio, which is also based upon the
1615 composition, though probably executed about 1 6 2 0 .
The pendant canvases of the archducal couple in Vienna
(Kunsthistorisches Museum), often described as unfinished,
and certainly painted loosely, portray the subjects with a
certain vividness not found in many of the painted versions
of the 1615 type. Notably, as in the Madrid portraits, the
brilliant red curtain background in the Vienna paintings
served as a vibrant foil for the heads of the sitters and their
rich black garments. A second type, for which the original
paintings are presumed lost but which are represented by
copies, provided the precedent for the costumes, and in par
ticular for the head and hands of Albert. The prototypes for
these works may be the portraits referred to by Jan Brueghel ,
who had by this time grown accustomed to Rubens's help
with his Italian letters: " M y secretary Rubens has gone to
Brussels to finish the portraits of their highnesses." Bustlength variations, combined in a single field, appear promi
nently in the Allegory of Sight (see fig. 54). Considering all the
different portraits of the couple, the likeness of Albert often
seems the more subtle and slightly modulated of the two
figures. The archduke was thought to have had a close rela
tionship with Rubens, and it may be that their frequent con
tact is reflected in the freer handling of the Madrid portrait.
1 9

20

21

22

Rubens and Brueghel's working process in these portraits

appears to have been relatively straightforward. Beginning
in Rubens's studio, the figures were painted, followed by the
curtain and the balustrade. In the case of Archduke Albert, a
small reserve area is visible around the edge of the ruff, whil e
in Isabella, a correction was made to the upper left contour
of her ruff and to the upper folds of the red curtain. Chairs
of the type seen in both portraits, with a curled armrest, are
found in other portraits by Rubens and may have been a
studio prop. The shallowness of Isabella's position in the
chair is closely echoed in her seated pose in the Muller print .
Brueghel painted the roses in Albert, and in both canvases
the landscape was painted right up to the edges of elements
such as the balustrade supports, suggesting that they had
already been established. Small adjustments to the outline
of the roof of Tervuren castle are also visible.
Archduke Albert and Archduchess Isabella represent a stately
development in the Netherlandish tradition of depicting
sovereigns before their palaces, views that virtually required
23

106

RUBENS AND

BRUEGHEL

a collaborative approach. The tradition of topographical

portraits was splendidly established in manuscript illumina
tion, notably by the Limbourg brothers in the Tres Riches
Heures (ca. 1 4 1 1 - 1 6 ) , in which the chateaux of Jean, due de
Berry, were incorporated into the depictions of the twelve
months of the year. In Departure for the Hunt (Month of
March) (ca. 1 5 2 8 - 3 1 ) , one in the series of tapestries known as
the Hunts of Maximilian designed by court painter Bernard
van Orley (ca. 1 4 8 8 - 1 5 4 1 ) , the hunt is set against the com
manding exterior of the Coudenberg Palace, an edifice also
represented by Brueghel in the background of the Allegory
of Sight as well as in other large-scale compositions by his
circle. Associating the archdukes with the courtly sport of
the hunt was intended to solidify their identification not only
with earlier Habsburg rulers but also with the countryside
over which they now ruled. Interestingly, the formal presen
tation of the palaces in the Madrid canvases belied the infor
mal persona of the archduchess, who is known to have won
local shooting contests hosted by the crossbowman's guild.
Portraits of the archdukes served many purposes. Antoine
Sallaert's Procession in the Place du Grand Sablon at Brussels
(1615; Turin, Galleria Sabauda), for example, shows bustlength portraits of Albert and Isabella, and perhaps fulllength images as well, ceremoniously decorating the parade
route. O n October 13, 1615, Rubens received a payment of
3 0 0 guilders from Archduke Albert for portraits of the arch
dukes to be sent to Spain for the marquis of Siete Iglesias,
Don Rodrigo Calderon. Vergara has argued that those por
traits were probably the canvases discussed here. However,
the age of the sitters and the configuration of Mariemont
with the four corner towers that were only completed about
1620 preclude that possibility. As Vergara has observed,
Archduke Albert and Archduchess Isabella would have been very
striking images at the Spanish court, where landscape paint
ing was unusual. Perhaps these double portraits served
not only to promote Habsburg jurisdiction of the Southern
Netherlands but also to introduce the particularly Nether
landish specialties of landscape and portraiture to the Spanish
court audience, A T W
24

25

26

27

NOTES

1. " D o s l i e n z o s a l o l e o , 7 p i e s de l a r g o p o c o m a s 6 m e n o s ; e n e l u n o

el

r e t r a t o d e l s e n o r a r c h i d u q u e A l b e r t o , de m e d i o c u e r p o a r r i b a v e s t i d o
de n e g r o , l a m a n o i z q u i e r d a s o b r e l o s g u a n t e s y e n lejos u n a casa de

c a m p o . E l o t r a de l a sefiora I n f a n t a d o n a I s a b e l , s u m u j e r , d e l m i s m o

14. T h e p r i m a r y i m a g e s o f M a r i e m o n t as subject a n d l a n d s c a p e are

t a n i a f i o , v e s t i d a de n e g r o , a s e n t a d a e n u n a s i l l a , a b r i e n d o u n a b i a n c o

d i s c u s s e d i n E r t z 1979, p p . 1 5 7 - 6 3 ; a n d l i s t e d i n D e m e e s t e r 1981,

c o n a m b a s m a n o s , y e n lejos o t r a casa de c a m p o . S o n de m a n o de

p p . 2 1 9 - 2 0 . T h e 1659 i n v e n t o r y o f the c o l l e c t i o n at t h e B r u s s e l s palace

rubens.": C r u z a d a V i l l a a m i l 1874, p . 364. T h e t w o p o r t r a i t s are m e n

i n c l u d e s " Q u a t r o piecas de J u a n B r u g e l , r e p r e s e n t a n d o las b o d a s de

t i o n e d i n s u b s e q u e n t r o y a l i n v e n t o r i e s ; see D i a z P a d r o n 1975, v o l . 1,

M a r i m o n t " : D e M a e y e r 1955, d o c . 271, p. 447-

p p . 315-17.

15. D e M a e y e r 1955, p p . 9 6 , 2 9 3 - 9 4 , d o c . 6 2 ; a n d C . B r o w n , " R u b e n s a n d

2. A l t h o u g h a n e a r l y A l c a z a r i n v e n t o r y a t t r i b u t e d the M a d r i d p o r t r a i t s
o f A l b e r t a n d I s a b e l l a t o R u b e n s (see n o t e 1 a b o v e ) , r e c e n t s c h o l a r s h i p

the A r c h d u k e s " i n B r u s s e l s 1 9 9 8 - 9 9 , p . 123. A t the c e r e m o n y , he

r e c e i v e d a g o l d m e d a l l i o n w i t h the p o r t r a i t s o f A l b e r t a n d I s a b e l l a o n

has o f t e n a s c r i b e d t h e p o r t r a i t s o f t h e a r c h d u k e s t o t h e w o r k s h o p o f

either side, perhaps s i m i l a r to those o n the medals that c o n s t i t u t e d

R u b e n s , w i t h the e x c e p t i o n o f E r t z (1979, p p . 6 0 8 - 9 ) , w h o a c c e p t e d

first i m a g e s o f t h e c o u p l e . See M a d r i d 1 9 9 9 - 2 0 0 0 , p p . 2 3 3 - 3 7 .

R u b e n s ' s a u t h o r s h i p a n d a s s o c i a t e d t h e M a d r i d canvases w i t h p o r t r a i t s
m e n t i o n e d b y B r u e g h e l i n a letter t o E r c o l e B i a n c h i (see n o t e 22
b e l o w ) . V l i e g h e (1987, p . 4 4 ) c o n s i d e r e d t h e m s t u d i o c o p i e s m a d e
i n the w o r k s h o p " u n d e r his [ R u b e n s ' s ] d i r e c t s u p e r v i s i o n . " B r o w n
likewise f o u n d the archducal portraits " d i s a p p o i n t i n g " a n d difficult
t o accept as a n o r i g i n a l a n d separate p o r t r a i t t y p e b y R u b e n s ; see
C . B r o w n , " R u b e n s a n d the A r c h d u k e s , " i n B r u s s e l s 1 9 9 8 - 9 9 , p . 123.
H o w e v e r , the p o r t r a i t s w e r e the p r o d u c t o f R u b e n s ' s i n v e n t i o n , a n d
t o g e t h e r w i t h the a u t o g r a p h v i e w s o f t h e t w o castles b y J a n B r u e g h e l
t h e E l d e r , h a v e c o n t i n u e d t o be a t t r i b u t e d t o R u b e n s h i m s e l f i n s o m e
r e c e n t P r a d o p u b l i c a t i o n s , n o t a b l y D i a z P a d r o n 1995, p p . 1 0 7 6 - 8 3 ;
a n d V e r g a r a i n M a d r i d 1 9 9 9 - 2 0 0 0 , p . 176, b u t n o t i n B a l i s et a l . 1989a.
3. T h e difference i n q u a l i t y b e t w e e n the h e a d s o f A l b e r t a n d I s a b e l l a

16. " S u s A l t e z a s d e l A r c h i d u q u e A l b e r t o i l a S e f i o r a I n f a n t a d o n a I s a b e l su
m u g e r , le e s t i m a r o n s i e m p r e m u c h o , p o r q u e a v i e n d o h e c h o , r e z i e n
v e n i d o , d o s f a m o s s o s R e t r a t o s de l o s d o s , s e n t a d o s e n sus S i l l a s , le
S e f i o r a I n f a n t a e n p r e s e n c i a de s u m a r i d o le c i h o l a e s p a d a , i p u s o al
c u e l l o u n a r i q u i s fima c a d e n a d e o r o l l a m a d o l e o n r a d e su P a t r i a " :
P a c h e c o 1 6 4 9 , p . 4 9 ; t r a n s l a t e d i n V e r g a r a 1999, p- 189.
17. See V l i e g h e 1987, p p . 2 2 - 2 3 , 35~47; a n d C . B r o w n , " R u b e n s a n d the
Archdukes," i n Brussels 1 9 9 8 - 9 9 , pp. 122-23.
18. M a d r i d 1 9 9 9 - 2 0 0 0 , p p . 158-59.
19. G . M a r t i n 1970, p p . 2 2 7 - 2 9 , i n v . 3818 a n d i n v . 3819.
2 0 . F o r the V i e n n a p o r t r a i t s (inv. 6 3 4 4 a n d 6345), see V l i e g h e 1987,

w a s n o t n o t e d b y R o b l o t - D e l o n d r e (1913, p . 147) b u t was o b s e r v e d

b y V e r g a r a (1999, p . 22).

p p . 4 5 - 4 6 ; a n d V i e n n a 2 0 0 4 , p p . 252-55.
21. Albert,

4 . T h e j e w e l e d cross appears i n m a n y p o r t r a i t s o f the

archduchess,

Archduke

a n d Isabella,

of Austria

Infanta

( A l t h o r p , C o l l e c t i o n o f the E a r l Spencer)

of Spain

(Virginia, The Chrysler Museum). Both

n o t a b l y t h e s t a n d i n g p o r t r a i t b y F r a n s P o u r b u s o f ca. 1599 ( H a m p t o n

w o r k s h a v e b e e n a t t r i b u t e d t o G a s p a r de C r a y e r b y V l i e g h e (1987,

C o u r t ) ; see M a d r i d 1 9 9 9 - 2 0 0 0 , p . 150.

PP- 3 9 - 4 3 ) -

5. F o r A l b e r t ' s career, see M i r a e u s 1 6 2 1 - 2 2 ; J. L e f e v r e ,

Biografisch

Woordenboek,

22. " M i o s e c r e t a r i o R u b e n s e p a r t i t a p e r B r u s s e l l o , p e r f l n i r e i r i t r a t t i d i

Nationaal

v o l . 1 (Brussels, 1964), cols. 1 4 - 2 2 ; D e M a e y e r

1955, p p . 2 0 - 2 7 ; a n d t h e essays i n B r u s s e l s 1 9 9 8 - 9 9 , n o t a b l y J o h a n
V e r b e c k m o e s , " T h e A r c h d u k e s i n T h e i r H u m o u r , " p p . 137-38. Von
Archduke

of Austria

on Horseback,

Albert,

see V l i e g h e 1987, p p . 35-37, n o . 58.

6. F o r Isabella's l i f e , see D e V i l l e r m o n t 1912 a n d T e r l i n d e n 1943; f o r

p o r t r a i t s o f I s a b e l l a C l a r a E u g e n i a , see R o b l o t - D e l o n d r e 1913; a n d
D e M a e y e r 1955, p p . 2 0 - 2 7 . F o r R u b e n s ' s p o r t r a i t , Isabella,
of Spain,

in the Habit

Infanta

of a Poor Clare (1625; P a s a d e n a , N o r t o n S i m o n

M u s e u m o f A r t ) , see V l i e g h e 1987, p p . 1 2 1 - 2 2 , n o . i n .
7. F o r the g o v e r n m e n t o f t h e a r c h d u k e s , see E l i a s 1931 a n d W . T h o m a s ,

s u a a l t e z z a ser.ma." (letter t o E r c o l e B i a n c h i , D e c e m b e r 9, 1616):

C r i v e l l i 1868, p. 241. See also V l i e g h e 1987, p . 4 1 .
23. See, f o r e x a m p l e , P e t e r P a u l R u b e n s , Portrait
Fourment

of a Woman,

Possibly

T h e H a g u e , M a u r i t s h u i s , i n v . 1132).
24. V a n O r l e y was c o u r t painter to t w o regents o f the N e t h e r l a n d s ,
M a r g a r e t o f A u s t r i a a n d M a r y o f H u n g a r y . F o r the Departure
the Hunt

(Month

of March),

for

see N e w Y o r k 2 0 0 2 , p p . 3 2 9 - 3 8 . F o r

V a n O r l e y ' s c o l l a b o r a t o r s a n d the use o f the palace as a b a c k d r o p , see

B a l i s et a l . 1993. V i e w s o f t h e B r u s s e l s palace b a s e d o n B r u e g h e l ' s
s t u d i e s i n c l u d e : A t t r i b u t e d t o J a n B r u e g h e l the Y o u n g e r , The

B r u s s e l s 1 9 9 8 - 9 9 , p p . 1-14. F o r the a r c h d u c a l p o l i c i e s o f C a t h o l i c

Palace in Brussels (ca. 1 6 2 5 - 3 0 , o i l o n canvas, 125 x 228 c m [ 4 9 V i x

r e f o r m , see P a s t u r e 1925 a n d B r u s s e l s 1 9 9 8 - 9 9 .
8. M e g a n c k 1998, p . 114.
9. Z w o l l o ( 2 0 0 0 ) a t t r i b u t e s t w o d r a w i n g s s h o w i n g a different aspect o f

10. T e r l i n d e n 1922 a n d D e M a e y e r 1955, p p . 3 5 - 3 8 .

11. F o r the d r a w i n g , see W i n n e r 1972, p p . 150-51, fig. 29.
12. D e m e e s t e r 1981 a n d H a m m - M a i n z 2 0 0 1 , p p . 2 2 0 - 2 4 .
13. See R e n g e r a n d D e n k 2 0 0 2 , p p . 1 2 6 - 2 7 .

Clara

(ca. 1630, o i l o n p a n e l , 114.5 x 90.5 c m [ 4 5 i n . x 35VH i n . ] ;

" T h e R e i g n o f A l b e r t a n d I s a b e l l a i n the S o u t h e r n N e t h e r l a n d s , " i n

t h e castle t o J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r .

the

Royal

89V4 i n . ] ; M a d r i d , M u s e o N a c i o n a l d e l P r a d o , i n v . 1451), a n d J a n
B r u e g h e l the Y o u n g e r , The Archdukes
the Coudenberg

Albert

and Isabella

in the Park of

Palace in Brussels (1615-21, o i l o n p a n e l , 4 6 . 2 x 75 c m

[18 Vs x 2 9 V 2 i n . ] ; A n t w e r p , R u b e n s h u i s , i n v . S130).
25. C a m p b e l l 1 9 9 0 , p . 201.
26. " . . . E l A r c h i d u q u e . . . q u e p o r m i m a n d a d o haveis d a d o a P i c t r o P a o l o
R u b e n s , p i n t o r , l o s 3 0 0 f l . p o r 2 r e t r a t o s q u e a h e c h o , u n o de l a
I n f a n t a , m i S e h o r a , y o t r o m i o , l o s q u a l e s m a n e y n b i a r a E s p a r i a al
m a r q u e s de S i e t e Y g e l s i a s " : D e M a e y e r 1955, p . 322, d o c . 109.
27. V e r g a r a 1999, p p . 2 1 - 2 3 , 2 0 4 n . 15.

RUBENS AND

BRUEGHEL

107

10
Jan Brueghel the Elder and Peter Paul Rubens

Diana at the Hunt

ca. 1 6 2 0
O i l on panel, 57 x 98 cm (22 /s x 38V8 in.)
Paris, Musee de la Chasse et de la Nature, inv. 68.3.1
3

lot 489, to Gustav R o c h l i t z , Essen, Fiissen;

PROVENANCE

C o l l e c t i o n o f the d u k e o f R i c h e l i e u , before
1677, p r o b a b l y s o l d b e f o r e 1681; ca. 1700

EXHIBITIONS

J. O . L e e g e n h o e k (art d e a l e r ) , P a r i s ; i n 1967

P a r i s 1 9 7 7 - 7 8 , cat. n o . 131; P a r i s

a c q u i r e d b y F r a n c o i s S o m m e r ; i n 1968 d o n a t e d

p p . 101, 141; L i l l e 2 0 0 4 , cat. n o . 4 9

2000-01,

t o the F o n d a t i o n de l a M a i s o n de l a C h a s s e

a c q u i r e d by the elector o f Bavaria, M u n i c h ,

et de l a N a t u r e

t r a n s f e r r e d t o A u g s b u r g , 1869; s o l d i n
1938; P a r i s (art d e a l e r ) , 1939; a c q u i r e d b y

LITERATURE

H e r m a n n G o r i n g from a Belgian collection;

i n 1961 r e s t o r e d t o t h e B a y e r i s c h e Staats

D e P i l e s 1677, p . 156; Z o e g e v o n M a n t e u f f e l
1923, p p . 14, 18; S p e t h - H o l t e r h o f f 1957, p . 98;

g e m a l d e s a m m l u n g e n (inv. 13182); sale,

T e y s s e d r e 1963, p . 2 9 2 ; M u l l e r H o f s t e d e

C o l o g n e ( L e m p e r t z ) , N o v e m b e r 17, 1966,

1968, p p . 2 0 0 - 2 0 7 ; W i n n e r 1972, p . 148; E r t z

1979, p p . 3 9 i ~ 9 4 , 4 0 6 , n o . 354; B a l i s 1986,
p . 57; V a n M u l d e r s 2 0 0 0 , p p . 1 2 0 - 2 1

OTH

OF THESE

HUNTING

SCENES

ENDED

UP

ON

the art market in Paris in 1967, having come from

different collections. They were acquired at that time
by the founder of the Musee de la Chasse et de la Nature in
Paris, who donated them a year later to the museum, where
they now hang side by side as pendants.
It is possible that the paintings came from Rubens's own
collection. The inventory drawn up after his death in 1 6 4 0
describes one painting as "a Diana riding out to the hunt"
and the next one as "a Diana returning from the hunt," both
painted by Rubens and Jan Brueghel. Hunting scenes with
Diana and her nymphs must have been very popular in those
days (see also cat. no. 2 3 ) . The sixty paintings from the
estate of Jan Brueghel the Elder that were sold by his son in
1 6 2 6 - 2 7 included no fewer than seven depictions of Diana,
presumably in part by the hand of the late master: five hunt1

108

BRUEGHEL

AND

RUBENS

ing scenesone of which was described by Jan Brueghel the

Younger as a "copy after father's"and two fishing scenes.
Diana at the Hunt was reproduced repeatedly in representa
tions of Antwerp collectors' cabinetsby Frans Francken the
Younger ( 1 5 8 1 - 1 6 4 2 ) , Willem van Haecht ( 1 5 9 3 - 1 6 3 7 ) , and
Jan Brueghel the Youngerand must therefore have enjoyed
a certain renown. This painting was described by the French
art critic Roger de Piles in 1677, when it was still in the pos
session of the duke of Richelieu, an art collector and relative
of the famous cardinal. De Piles reported that the painting
was monogrammed P.P.R. on the tree below Diana, and that
Brueghel had signed it at the lower right, though these
inscriptionsboth probably spurioushave meanwhile dis
appeared. Furthermore, De Piles drew attention to the pack
of hounds, which he identifiedperhaps not incorrectlyas
3

11
Jan Brueghel the Elder and Peter Paul Rubens

Diana's Sleeping Nymphs Observed by Satyrs

ca. 1620
O i l o n panel., 61 x 98 c m (24 x 38% in.)
Paris, M u s e e de la Chasse et de la N a t u r e , inv. 68.3.2

PROVENANCE

Collection o f Friedrich II o f Prussia, Potsdam,

S a n s s o u c i ; i n 1760, d u r i n g the o c c u p a t i o n
o f P o t s d a m , t a k e n b y the A u s t r i a n s i n the
person o f C o u n t E m m e r i c h Esterhazy to
V i e n n a ; i n 1763, t h e E m p r e s s M a r i a T h e r e s a ,
at E s t e r h a z y ' s b e h e s t , r e t u r n e d the p a i n t i n g
t o F r i e d r i c h I I , w h o gave i t t o E s t e r h a z y

as a t o k e n o f g r a t i t u d e f o r h a v i n g p r o t e c t e d
S a n s s o u c i against p l u n d e r i n g ; u n t i l the
S e c o n d W o r l d W a r i n the c o l l e c t i o n o f the
Esterhazy family, Rede (hunting lodge),

LITERATURE

E s t e r h a z y 1901, p p . 2 1 2 - 1 4 ; M u l l e r H o f s t e d e
1968, p p . 2 1 6 - 1 9 ; E r t z 1979, p p . 394, 395,
398, 4 0 0 , 4 0 6 , n o . 355

V e s z p r e m , H u n g a r y ; u n t i l 1967 i n a
p r i v a t e c o l l e c t i o n , Z u r i c h ; J. O . L e e g e n h o e k

EXHIBITIONS

(art d e a l e r ) , P a r i s ; i n 1967 a c q u i r e d b y

P a r i s 1 9 7 7 - 7 8 , cat. n o . 132; P a r i s 2 0 0 0 - 0 1 ,

F r a n c o i s S o m m e r ; i n 1968 d o n a t e d t o the

p. 15; K a s s e l - F r a n k f u r t 2 0 0 4 , cat. n o . 22

F o n d a t i o n de l a M a i s o n de l a C h a s s e et
de l a N a t u r e

b e l o n g i n g to the Archduchess Isabella, w h o was a great lover

of dogs.

I n b o t h paintings, the h u n t i n g dogs painted by B r u e g h e l

have been lavished w i t h nearly as m u c h attention as the

the right o f the personification o f S m e l l i n the series o f the

Five Senses at the Prado (see fig. 5 7 ) appears i n b o t h o f
the paintings discussed here.
T h a t B r u e g h e l based his dogs o n preparatory sketches is

figures by Rubens. T h e y are fine, well-cared-for purebreds,

confirmed by the study material that has survived. Brueghel's

all portrayed w i t h alert, w i d e - o p e n eyes. M a n y o f the animals

o i l sketch o f dogs i n the Kunsthistorisches M u s e u m i n

are leashed together i n pairs. I n Diana's Sleeping Nymphs

V i e n n a (cat. no. 27) displays several o f the animals seen i n

Observed by Satyrs, t w o o f the dogs are caparisoned, w h i c h

these paintings. T w o black-and-white dogs that appear at

reinforces their status as valuable animals. A w i n g e d putto

the upper left i n the sketch are i n c l u d e d i n Diana's Sleeping

holds the reins o f this pair, c a u t i o n i n g t h e m w i t h his index

Nymphs Observed by Satyrs, w h i l e D i a n a holds one o f these

finger to be still, so as n ot to wake the nymphs. Several

t w o by the leash i n the other p a i n t i n g . T h e l i g h t b r o w n d o g

dogs are depicted i n exactly the same pose i n b o t h paintings,

seen f r o m the back, appearing o n the right i n the sketch, is

an example b e i n g the pair l y i n g together, one resting its

also recognizable at the far right i n Diana at the Hunt. I n

head o n the other's neck. T h e t w o dogs w a s h i n g themselves

a d d i t i o n to the o i l sketch o f dogs, there is also a pen-and-ink

also occur i n b o t h paintings; one o f these animals also

d r a w i n g o f h u n t i n g requisites (fig. 6 4 ) . B o t h o f the h u n t i n g

appears i n The Vision of Saint Hubert (cat. no. 7 ) . T h e d o g to

horns i n Brueghel's study occur i n these paintings and were

BRUEGHEL

AND

RUBENS

109

10

110

11

111

F I G U R E 6 4 J a n B r u e g h e l t h e E l d e r , Study
of Hunting

Requisites.

P e n a n d b r u s h , 18.7 x

29.5 c m (7V8 x 115/8 i n . ) . H a m b u r g , K u n s t h a l l e ,

inv. 21652

also used in other compositions, such as the, Allegory of

Hearing (see fig. 55). Very little of Brueghel's studio stock
of oil sketches and preparatory designs has survived. This
lack has been compensated for to some extent by Wenceslas
Hollar ( 1 6 0 7 - 1 6 7 7 ) , who copied a number of Brueghel's
studies of dogs, wild game, and hunting requisites in a series
of etchings in 1 6 4 6 . The etchings of the dog studies dis
play in reverse various animals seen in the works discussed
here: the two dogs lying together, one resting its head
on the other's neck (fig. 65), the two dogs washing themselves
(fig. 6 6 ) , and the pair sitting in the right-hand corner in
Diana's Sleeping Nymphs Observed by Satyrs (fig. 67).
These scenes of Diana and her nymphs, both before the
hunt and afterwardasleep and being spied on by lecherous
satyrsoffer narrative frames for the depiction of hunting
dogs in a wooded landscape. In the first painting, Diana
sitting beneath a tree, with a spear resting against her
shoulderholds two of her dogs by the leash while a nymph
ties on her sandals. The goddess of the hunt wears a fur
slung across her shoulder. Her companions arm themselves
with spears and bows, and one of the nymphs blows a horn
to give the signal for the chase. In the other painting, none
of the four sleeping women is immediately recognizable
as Diana. In the left foreground lie the spoils of the hunt
a still life comprising small game, including hares, pheasants,
and martens. The pale skin of the nymphs makes a fine
9

10

11

112

BRUEGHEL

A N D RUBENS

contrast to the dark complexion of the two satyrs who spy

on them from behind a tree (compare also cat. nos. 5 and 8).
Which of the two masters was the first to paint is difficult
to determine, though some of the details suggest that it was
Brueghel. For example, in Diana at the Hunt, the right leg
of the nymph with the spear, standing in the middle of the
scene, was painted around the nose of the black-and-white
dog, and the forms of Diana and one of her nymphs were
left in reserve by Brueghel when painting his tree. In Diana's
Sleeping Nymphs Observed by Satyrs it also seems to have been
Brueghel who made a start, painting around the reserves for
the figures. The reserve for the satyr on the right was not
completely filled in along his back. After the figures had been
painted in, Brueghel again took the painting in hand to
apply his last retouches, at which time he supplied the putto
with wings and a quiver of arrows. H e also applied a last
layer of green paint to the tree, around the arms and hands
of the satyrs, and used the same green hue to apply accents
to the hair and beard of the satyr on the right. It seems
natural to assume that, as with most of the collaborative
works by these two painters, it was Brueghel who initiated
this collaborative effort. That Rubens adapted his figures
to fit the small scale of Brueghel's compositions is obvious
if we compare these works with Rubens's depiction of a
similar subject, Diana Returning from the Hunt (cat. no. 2 3 ) .
1 2

F I G U R E 65 W e n c e s l a s H o l l a r ( 1 6 0 7 - 1 6 7 7 ) after J a n B r u e g h e l t h e E l d e r ,
Study of Hunting

Dogs, 1 6 4 6 . E t c h i n g , 135 x 195 m m (s A x 7 /s i n . ) .

l

A m s t e r d a m , R i j k s m u s e u m , R i j k s p r e n t e n k a b i n e t , P a r t h e y n o . 2050
F I G U R E 6 6 W e n c e s l a s H o l l a r after J a n B r u e g h e l t h e E l d e r , Study of
Hunting

Dogs, 1 6 4 6 . E t c h i n g , 130 x 195 m m (5V8 x 7 /s i n . ) . A m s t e r d a m ,

5

Rijksmuseum, Rijksprentenkabinet, Parthey no. 2046

F I G U R E 67 W e n c e s l a s H o l l a r after J a n B r u e g h e l t h e E l d e r , Study of
Hunting

Dogs, 1 6 4 6 . E t c h i n g , 130 x 190 m m (sVs x 7V2 i n . ) . A m s t e r d a m ,

Rijksmuseum, Rijksprentenkabinet, Parthey no. 2048

BRUEGHEL

A N D RUBENS

113

F I G U R E 68

J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r a n d a n u n k n o w n figure p a i n t e r , Wooded Landscape

with Nymphs, Dogs, and Hunting

63.7 x 97.2 c m (25VB x 38 A i n . ) . N e u b u r g a n d e r D o n a u , B a y e r i s c h e S t a a t s g e m a l d e s a m m l u n g e n ,

L

The large-scale monumentality of the figures lends this work

of about 1616 a completely different character.
Brueghel's hunting scenes were popular compositions,
and numerous replicas and variations are known, not all
of them autographed. His Wooded Landscape with Nymphs,
Dogs, and Hunting Spoils in Neuburg (fig. 68) fits in perfectly,
as regards subject and size, with both of the works discussed
here; it is, moreover, signed by Brueghel. A n unknown
painter from the circle of Rubens painted the nymph sitting
among the dogs in the right foreground. In this picture
the focus has shifted from the rendering of the dogs to the
portrayal of a hunting tableau with large game. This paint
ing is dated 1620, which provides a clear indication for the
dating of the present paintings.
13

14

15

114

BRUEGHEL

AND RUBENS

Spoils, 1620. O i l o n p a n e l ,

Staatsgalerie, i n v . 842

According to an eighteenth-century source, Archduchess

Isabella ordered three hunting scenes from Brueghel for
Tervuren Castle, the archdukes' hunting lodge. It has
sometimes been assumed that these paintings must have been
the two discussed here and the one in Neuburg; together
these works supposedly portray riding out to the hunt, rest
ing during the hunt, and the spoils of the hunt. Although
it is impossible to prove that these paintings actually
belonged to Isabella's collection, it is natural to assume
that it was mainly the higher nobility who were interested in
such scenes, since hunting was the preserve of the princely
elite. A law enacted in the Southern Netherlands in 1613
stipulated that only the ruling lords were allowed to keep
hunting dogs. A v S
16

17

18

19

14. K o n r a d R e n g e r has c o n v i n c i n g l y d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t t h e figure i n the

NOTES

r i g h t f o r e g r o u n d c o u l d n o t have been painted by R u b e n s . T h e n y m p h s

1. " U n e D i a n e a l l a n t a l a chasse" a n d " U n e D i a n e r e v e n a n t de l a chasse";

see A n t w e r p 2 0 0 4 , p . 332, cat. n o s . 2 6 9 a n d 2 7 0 . T h e i n v e n t o r y d r a w n
u p i n D u t c h o f a l l t h e p a i n t i n g s i n R u b e n s ' s estate has b e e n l o s t . O n l y
E n g l i s h a n d F r e n c h t r a n s l a t i o n s h a v e b e e n p r e s e r v e d (the E n g l i s h v e r
s i o n o f t h e i n v e n t o r y lists b o t h p a i n t i n g s as " A h u n t i n g e o f D i a n a " ) .

i n the b a c k g r o u n d were p o s s i b l y d o n e by a t h i r d h a n d , t h o u g h they

c o u l d also h a v e b e e n p a i n t e d b y B r u e g h e l h i m s e l f ; see V i e n n a - E s s e n
2 0 0 2 , p p . 5 0 - 5 1 , cat. n o . 8 ( l i s t e d as b y J a n B r u e g h e l t h e E l d e r a n d
P e t e r P a u l R u b e n s [?]). See also K a s s e l - F r a n k f u r t 2 0 0 4 , cat. n o . 21.
15. See K . R e n g e r i n V i e n n a - E s s e n 2 0 0 2 , p . 50. M u l l e r H o f s t e d e (1968,
p p . 2 0 7 , 221) dates b o t h p a i n t i n g s t o a b o u t 1 6 2 3 - 2 4 , w h e r e a s E r t z

2. F o r d e p i c t i o n s o f D i a n a b y B r u e g h e l , see E r t z 1979, n o s . 356-58,

373-77- F o r B r u e g h e l ' s d e p i c t i o n s o f D i a n a m a d e i n c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h

(1979, p . 398), w h o t h i n k s t h a t I s a b e l l a c o m m i s s i o n e d the p a i n t i n g s ,

dates t h e w o r k s t o a b o u t 1620, t h a t i s , f r o m b e f o r e A l b e r t ' s d e a t h

H e n d r i c k v a n B a l e n , see W e r c h e 2 0 0 4 , n o s . A 8 0 - 8 5 , 8 9 ; see also

i n 1621.

nos. E 2 9 - 3 4 .

16. D e M a e y e r 1955, p . 157, n . 5. A c c o r d i n g t o D e M a e y e r , t h i s s o u r c e

3. " c o p y e n a e r v a d e r s " : V a e s 1 9 2 6 - 2 7 , p p . 2 0 7 - 9 ; a n d D e n u c e 1934,

c o u l d n o t be v e r i f i e d .

pp. 140-434 . See, f o r e x a m p l e , F r a n s F r a n c k e n I I , B r u s s e l s , M u s e u m v o o r S c h o n e

K u n s t e n , i n v . 6853; W i l l e m v a n H a e c h t , T h e H a g u e , M a u r i t s h u i s ,

17. E r t z 1979, p . 394, n o s . 354 ~56.

18. T h e p a i n t i n g s d o n o t o c c u r i n a n y o f the i n v e n t o r i e s traceable t o

inv. 2 6 6 ; a n d J a n B r u e g h e l t h e Y o u n g e r , p r i v a t e c o l l e c t i o n . F o r the

Isabella's c o l l e c t i o n s . See D e M a e y e r 1955, d o c . 2 6 9 - 7 2 ; see also

last, see P h o e n i x - K a n s a s C i t y - T h e H a g u e 1 9 9 8 - 9 9 , cat. n o . 9.

K a s s e l - F r a n k f u r t 2 0 0 4 , p . 153.

5. D e P i l e s 1677, p . 156; see also M u l l e r H o f s t e d e 1968, p p . 2 0 5 - 6 .

19. W e l z e l 1997, p . 183.

D e P i l e s 1681 n o l o n g e r m e n t i o n s t h e p a i n t i n g , so i t is l i k e l y t h a t the
d u k e h a d s o l d i t b y t h e n ; see also P a r i s 1977-78, p . 178.
6. L i s t e d i n A u g s b u r g 1869, as n o . 4 6 3 , w i t h a t r a n s c r i p t i o n o f b o t h
s i g n a t u r e s , n e i t h e r r e g a r d e d as a u t o g r a p h . I n t h e s u b s e q u e n t
c a t a l o g u e , A u g s b u r g 1905, u n d e r n o . 4 6 3 , n o m e n t i o n is m a d e o f
Brueghel's signature.
7. M u l l e r H o f s t e d e 1968, p . 2 0 6 . C o m p a r e the Portrait
Lunar

and the Dogs of the Infanta

Isabella

of Dona Juana

de

(Brussels, K o n i n k l i j k e M u s e a

v o o r S c h o n e K u n s t e n , i n v . 6417) w i t h p o r t r a i t s o f i n d i v i d u a l d o g s ,
i d e n t i f i a b l e b y t h e i n s c r i p t i o n s ; see K o l b 2 0 0 5 , f i g . 2 0 . E r t z (1979,
p. 393) e v e n t h o u g h t i t p o s s i b l e t h a t Diana

at the Hunt

c o n t a i n e d an

allegorical portrait o f Isabella.

8. W i n n e r 1972, f i g . 27.
9. T h a t t h i s s t u d y was d o n e f r o m life is a p p a r e n t f r o m t h e w a y the h u n t
i n g h o r n (an o b j e c t t h a t B r u e g h e l p a i n t e d several t i m e s ) is d e p i c t e d
at t h e u p p e r left. Its a t t a c h e d c o r d h a n g s d o w n i n the d r a w i n g ,
p r o b a b l y r e p r e s e n t i n g h o w i t h u n g o v e r t h e e d g e o f a table o n w h i c h
t h e i n s t r u m e n t was l y i n g w h e n i t was d r a w n ; i n the p a i n t i n g s , b y
c o n t r a s t , t h i s c o r d is a l w a y s d r a p e d o n t h e g r o u n d . T h e s a m e h u n t i n g
h o r n is d e p i c t e d i n the p a i n t i n g r e p r o d u c e d here f r o m the Staatsg a l e r i e N e u b u r g a n d e r D o n a u (fig. 68).
10.

See Z o e g e v o n M a n t e u f f e l 1923.

11. E r t z (1979, P- 4 0 2 ) t h o u g h t these s m a l l a n i m a l s c o u l d h a v e b e e n

p a i n t e d b y F r a n s S n y d e r s , as was the g a m e i n t h e p a i n t i n g i n N e u b u r g
a n d e r D o n a u (fig. 68). T h e s e passages, h o w e v e r , are p e r f e c t l y i n k e e p
i n g w i t h the w o r k o f B r u e g h e l a n d derive, moreover, f r o m Brueghel's
sketches, as p r e s e r v e d i n H o l l a r ' s e t c h i n g s (see n o t e 10 a b o v e a n d K .
R e n g e r i n V i e n n a - E s s e n 2 0 0 2 , p . 50).
12. See R o s e n b e r g 1905, p p . 133, 336, 384; c o m p a r e also R u b e n s ' s
and Iphigenia

Cimon

( V i e n n a , K u n s t h i s t o r i s c h e s M u s e u m , i n v . 532).

13. See n o t e 2 a b o v e .

B R U E G H E L

A N D

R U B E N S

115

12
Jan Brueghel the Elder and Peter Paul Rubens

Madonna and Child in a Garland of Fruit and Flowers

ca. 1 6 2 0
O i l on panel, 79 x 65 cm (31 Vs x 2 5 % in.)
Madrid, Museo Nacional del Prado, inv. 1418

p . 577; J o n e s 1993, p- 238, n o . 36; D i a z P a d r o n

PROVENANCE

C o l l e c t i o n o f D i e g o M e x i a F e l i p e z de
G u z m a n , m a r q u i s o f L e g a n e s , M a d r i d , 1630;
presented by Leganes to K i n g P h i l i p I V o f
Spain; inventory, collection o f K i n g Carlos II,
A l c a z a r , M a d r i d , 1666

1995, p p . 2 9 0 - 9 1 ; U . K l e i n m a n n i n E s s e n V i e n n a 1 9 9 7 - 9 8 , p p . 54-55, 58-59; V a n

M u l d e r s 2 0 0 0 , p p . 117-18, 120; W . P r o h a s k a
i n V i e n n a - E s s e n 2 0 0 2 , p . 325, n . 5
EXHIBITION

M a d r i d 1 9 9 9 - 2 0 0 0 , cat. n o . 77

LITERATURE

C r i v e l l i 1868, p . 272; R a t t i 1910; M u l l e r

H o f s t e d e 1968, p . 225; E r t z 1979, p p . 3 0 4 - 6 ,
311, 320, 6 2 0 , n o . 368; V o l k 1980, p p . 2 5 9 - 6 0 ,
2 6 7 ; F r e e d b e r g 1981, p p . 118-19, 121; A . B a l i s
i n A n t w e r p 1982, p . 4 4 ; F r e e d b e r g

RICHLY

DETAILED

GARLAND

OF FLOWER

1984,

BLOS-

soms, ripe fruit, vegetables, and plants surrounds an

octagonal representation of the Virgin Mary, depicted
as a half-length figure holding the Christ child, who has his
arm around her neck, with two angels holding a small wreath
of flowers above her head. This recently restored painting
from the Museo Nacional del Prado is one of three surviving
collaborative works containing garlands by Jan Brueghel
around a Virgin and Child by Rubens (compare figs. 1 and
6 9 ) . The garland from which the painting within the paint
ing is suspended is fastened to trees in a landscape with
various animals in the foreground and, in the background,
a herd of deer partly concealed behind the octagon. Numerous
birds and monkeys are discernibleincluding two South
American silky marmosets below the garland all feasting on
a profusion of edibles. The foreground featuresin addition
1

116

BRUEGHEL

AND

RUBENS

to a porcupine, a North American chipmunk, and the usual

rabbits, guinea pigs, and tortoisesa peculiar animal not seen
in any other painting by Brueghel: a hare with horns. Since
the publication in the mid-sixteenth century of this "lepus
cornutus'' (a jackalope, or horned hare), few people doubted
the existence of this animal, which was regularly described
and even depicted by, among others, Joris Hoefnagel ( 1 5 4 2 1 6 0 1 ) . Skeletons of the animalpresumably counterfeit
were even found in cabinets of curiosities, such as that of
Emperor Rudolf II in Prague. In view of Brueghel's extra
ordinary fidelity to nature in the rendering of plants and
animals, it seems that he, too, must have been deceived into
believing in the existence of this mythical creature.
It has recently been demonstrated that Brueghel originally
planned to have an oval representation in his garland: the
outlines of the oval he sketched in to demarcate his colleague's
2

117

contribution can be seen with the infrared camera. Rubens,

however, used as much room as he thought fit, and exceeded
the bounds of this oval, just as he did in the Fruit Garland in
Glasgow (see fig. 83), where he painted right over the border
of the scratched-in oval, and in The Return from War: Mars
Disarmed by Venus in the Getty Museum (cat. no. 2), where
he did not hesitate to paint out part of Brueghel's depiction
to make room for his own figures. The eventual octagonal
framing of Rubens's depiction, which also has an underdraw
ing, was painted by Brueghel; this frame is illuminated on
the left and at the top by light falling from the left. Finally,
in the small reserve above Mary's head, Brueghel added a
wreath of flowers held by angels and a few leaves that over
lap Rubens's paintingin the process also removing a couple
of leaves. Even though Brueghel can probably be regarded
as the originator of this painting as well, he found in Rubens
a self-assured collaborator who was evidently capable of
claiming his own space.
As is customary in Brueghel's work, in this garland all
the flowers are in full bloom and all the fruits are fully ripe,
despite the fact that the various species do not blossom
or mature at the same time. In this densely conceived and
extremely precise garland, in which each fruit and flower
is identifiable, there is not one wilted flower or worm-eaten
fruit. Nature is thus presented in its ideal form, with no
allusion whatsoever to the transience of earthly things.
Brueghel boasted in his letters that he painted his flowers
from life, without recourse to drawings or other preliminary
studies. In 1 6 0 6 , for example, he reported having journeyed
to Brussels to visit the archducal gardens, where he was
able to paint flowers from life that were not to be found in
Antwerp. In his letters, Brueghel repeatedly stressed the dili
gence required to make his flower paintings, partly because
of the constraints placed on him by their flowering times,
all of which occurred within the space of four months. Even
so, he must have been taking some poetic license when he
said that he painted everything "from nature" (del naturel),
if only because some species seem to have been based on
examples in prints. Brueghel also worked from preparatory
studies, despite his assertion to the contrary, for his gar
lands have many identical elements, one being the white lilies
to the right of Mary's facea motif appearing in a number
of his garlandswhich probably refer to her virginity. It
is obvious that the same preparatory studies of flower ensem
bles were used for the garlands in Munich and Paris, as
well as for the fruit-and-flower garland discussed here. Using
4

10

11

those studies, Brueghel created a different garland every

time by adding extra flowers, for example, or by painting
arrangements of fruit and vegetables between the flowers, as
he did in this painting. The same fruit and vegetables are
recognizable in Brueghel's fruit garlands in Antwerp (cat.
no. 2 0 ) , the Mauritshuis (cat. no. 21), and Glasgow (fig. 83).
His workshop practices must have been characterized by
far-reaching standardization, in which extensive use was
made of his standard repertoire of drawings and preparatory
studies in color. It is remarkable, in fact, how fresh and
original his paintings look, despite the frequent repetitions.
Unfortunately, the studies he had in stock, which his son
Jan II later made use of, have largely been lost.
As the Milanese cardinal Federico Borromeo wrote in
1625 in his Musaeum, a guide to his Pinacoteca Ambrosiana,
Brueghel was not content to paint common garden flowers.
H e preferred to portray exotic species, some of which
were recent discoveries imported from far-off lands for such
aristocratic collectors as Albert and Isabella, and indeed
Borromeo himself. The exotic animals also elevate the fram
ing of Rubens's picture to an exceptional level of sumptuousness, seemingly symbolizing the abundance and richness
of nature and possibly the fertility of the Virgin (compare
cat. nos. 2 0 and 21). In Musaeum, Borromeo describes his
own garland by Brueghelprobably the painting now in
the Musee du Louvreas a "garland consisting of so many
flowers, and so varied, that one may well call it a triumphal
arch." That the art lover in him sometimes got the better
of the God-fearing cardinal is apparent from his comment
on the painting of the Madonna: "We need not speak about
the figure surrounded by the garland, because, like a dim
light, it is overwhelmed by the surrounding depiction."
The appreciation of Brueghel's garlands was reflected in
the astronomic prices paid for them by his patrons, most of
whom were members of the highest nobility.
It has often been wrongly assumed that the present
painting was the subject of a spirited exchange of letters in
1 6 2 1 - 2 2 between Brueghel and Cardinal Borromeo and his
agent, Ercole Bianchi. The work discussed in these letters,
however, is in all likelihood the Madonna and Child in a
Garland of Flowers in the Louvre (fig. 6 9 ) , which was stolen
by Napoleon's troops from the Pinacoteca Ambrosiana in
1796. A n earlier version of this garland is reproduced as a
painting within a painting in the Allegory of Sight (see fig. 5 4 ) .
In the summer of 1621, Brueghel had of his own accord sent
Borromeo a picturea flower garland surrounding a Virgin
12

13

14

15

16

17

1 8

BRUEGHEL

AND RUBENS

119

and Child by Rubenswhich Brueghel himself praised as

"the most beautiful and rarest thing I have ever made."
H e then heard nothing for a long time. After a distressed
Brueghel had sent several letters to Milan and apparently
received no reply, the archbishop of Antwerp, Laurentius
Beyerlinck, intervened in the spring of 1622, asking his
Italian colleague for news of this masterpiece by Rubens, the
"Belgian Apeiles," enclosed in a flower garland by Brueghel.
The bishop said that he wanted to help Brueghel in this
matter because the famous painter had been plagued by set
backs, such as the death in 1621 of one of his most important
patrons, Archduke Albert. A t last, in the summer of 1622,
Brueghel received his payment, and gave one of the golden
medallions he likewise received to Rubens. As regards the
collaboration between the two masters, it is interesting to
note that Brueghel was evidently the inventor of this work
and the one who offered it for sale. In his letter to Bianchi of
September 5, 1621, Brueghel said that "the birds and animals
were done from life from several of Her Highness's speci
mens." As emerges time and again from his letters,
Brueghel regarded the fidelity to nature shown by his birds
and animals, and of course his flowers, as one of the best
recommendations of his work.
That the present painting is not the garland sold to
Borromeo in 1621-22described, incidentally, as a garland
simply of flowers, not of fruitseems to be confirmed by
its provenance from the collection of the Spanish marquis
of Leganes. This nobleman, who had long served as a
page at the court of Albert and Isabella in Brussels, became
an important courtier of the Spanish king Philip IV. H e
married a daughter of the supreme commander of the
Habsburg troops, Ambrogio Spinola, and in the 1620s and
'30s regularly stayed in the Southern Netherlands, where he
bought paintings on a grand scale. In 1628 Rubens praised
the marquis as one of the most important collectors of his
time. In the earliest inventory, dating from 1630, of
LeganeYs extensive collections, this garland was recorded
under number " 4 " (the number at the lower right on the
panel) as a work by both masters. A t his death in 1655, the
marquis owned more than 1,300 paintings, including The
Vision of Saint Hubert, another work by Brueghel and Rubens
(cat. no. 7 ) . A t the court in Brussels, Leganes had had the
opportunity to admire various paintings made jointly by
these two luminaries from Antwerp, so it is no wonder that
the connoisseur also wanted to enrich his own collection
with several of their collaborative works. A v S
19

20

21

22

F I G U R E 6 9 J a n B r u e g h e l t h e E l d e r a n d P e t e r P a u l R u b e n s , Madonna
Child

in a Garland

and

of Flowers, 1621. O i l o n canvas, t r a n s f e r r e d f r o m p a n e l ,

83.5 x 63 c m ( 3 2 % x 24 /4 i n . ) . P a r i s , M u s e e d u L o u v r e , i n v . 1764
3

R e u n i o n des M u s e e s N a t i o n a u x / A r t R e s o u r c e , N e w Y o r k

23

24

25

26

120

BRUEGHEL

AND

RUBENS

m e n , m a e r d i e w o r t g h e h a u d e n 1800 g u l d e n . . . d e n h e r t o c h v a n

OTES

B u c i n g a m heeft de v o e r g e g e k o c h t 3 0 0 0 g u l d e n ) : D e n u c e 1934, p- 7 0 .
1. See E r t z 1979, n o s . 3 2 5 - 2 6 ; R e n g e r a n d D e n k 2 0 0 2 , p p . 3 3 6 - 4 1 .
S o u r c e s r e v e a l t h a t these t w o m a s t e r s m u s t have c o l l a b o r a t e d o n m a n y
m o r e g a r l a n d s ; see, a m o n g o t h e r s , V a e s 1 9 2 6 - 2 7 .

3 0 0 . E r t z (1979, p p . 3 0 4 - 6 ) t h i n k s the letters refer t o the p r e s e n t

p a i n t i n g i n the P r a d o , as d o the f o l l o w i n g a u t h o r s : J o n e s 1993, p . 238,

2. See A . B a l i s , " F a c e t t e n v a n de V l a a m s e d i e r e n s c h i l d e r k u n s t v a n de
i5de t o t d e i 7 d e eeuw," i n A n t w e r p 1982, p p . 4 4 , 53, n n . 36, 37; f o r
H o e f n a g e l ' s d e p i c t i o n , see K o l b 2 0 0 5 , fig. 39. K o n r a d F o r c r ' s

Historia

Animalium Liber I: De Quadrupedibus Viviparis (1563) contains an illust

t r a t i o n o f a h e a d a n d a s k u l l o f a h o r n e d h a r e ( K o m p a n j e 2 0 0 4 , f i g . 3).
3. K o m p a n j e ( 2 0 0 4 ) s u g g e s t s t h a t the h o r n e d hare is a c t u a l l y an a n i m a l
s h o w i n g s y m p t o m s o f i n f e c t i o n b y t h e p a p i l l o m a v i r u s , w h i c h causes

n o . 36; R a t t i 1910; a n d F r e e d b e r g 1981, p . 119, n . 25. L a t e r F r e e d b e r g

(1984, p . 577) c o r r e c t e d his e a r l i e r a s s u m p t i o n .
17. See also P a r i s 1979, p- 3918. See J o n e s 1993, p . 238, n o . 35. T h e w o r k d e p i c t e d i n t h e Allegory

of

Sight lacks the a n i m a l s a n d b i r d s seen i n the L o u v r e p a i n t i n g .

19. " i l p i u b e l l o et rara c o s a che h a b b i a fatta i n v i t a m i a " (letter t o B i a n c h i
o f S e p t e m b e r 5, 1621): C r i v e l l i 1868, p . 272.

h o r n l i k e g r o w t h s o n the h e a d a n d e l s e w h e r e .
4 . T h e p a i n t i n g was e x a m i n e d w i t h a n i n f r a r e d c a m e r a i n the s p r i n g o f
2005 b y A n a G o n z a l e z M o z o a n d J a i m e G a r c i a M a i q u e z o f the M u s e o
N a c i o n a l del Prado. W i t h thanks to A l e j a n d r o Vergara.

2 0 . F o r the I t a l i a n t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h i s letter w r i t t e n i n L a t i n , see C r i v e l l i

1868, p p . 2 8 6 - 9 0 .
21. See B r u e g h e l ' s letter t o B o r r o m e o o f J u l y 8, 1622. T h e p a y m e n t was

5. O n B r u e g h e l ' s f l o w e r p a i n t i n g s a n d g a r l a n d s , see, f o r e x a m p l e , E r t z
1979, p p . 2 5 2 - 3 2 6 ; B r e n n i n k m e y e r - d e R o o i j 1 9 9 0 ; a n d W e l z e l 2 0 0 2 .
6. I n a letter o f A p r i l 22, 1611, t o E r c o l e B i a n c h i , C a r d i n a l B o r r o m e o ' s
a g e n t , B r u e g h e l e x p l a i n e d h o w he set a b o u t m a k i n g h i s f l o w e r
p a i n t i n g s : " T h e f l o w e r s are t r o u b l e s o m e t o m a k e . . . b u t n e i t h e r i n t h a t
n o r i n o t h e r e n d e a v o r s d o I accept a n y h e l p . T h e f l o w e r s m u s t be
m a d e i n o n e s i t t i n g , w i t h o u t d e s i g n s o r s k e t c h e s : a l l the f l o w e r s c o m e
[i.e., b l o s s o m ] i n four m o n t h s . . . . " ( G l i fiori sone fastidioso a f a r l e . . .
i n q u e s t a ne i n altre n o n m e laisse a i u t a r e . G l i fiori b e s o i g n i fae
alle p r i m a , sensa d e s s e i g n i o b o i t s s a t u r o : t u t t i f i o r i v e n g e n o i n q u a t r a
mesi

16. F o r t h i s e x c h a n g e o f letters, see C r i v e l l i 1868, p p . 272, 275, 283, 2 9 4 -

f o r the g a r l a n d a n d an Allegory

of Air;

f o r the latter, see J o n e s 1993,

n o . 3 4 d (this p a i n t i n g , w i t h figures b y H e n d r i c k v a n B a l e n , is n o w i n
the L o u v r e , i n v . 1921). I n a letter o f the s a m e date f r o m R u b e n s t o
B o r r o m e o , the p a i n t e r t h a n k e d the c a r d i n a l f o r the g o l d e n m e d a l l i o n
d i s p l a y i n g a l i k e n e s s o f S a i n t C a r l o B o r r o m e o , the c a r d i n a l ' s c o u s i n ;
see C r i v e l l i 1868, p p . 2 9 9 - 3 0 0 .
22. " L i o i t c e l l i , et a n i m a l i s o n fatto a d v i v o de a l c u n i d e l l i s e r e n . m a
E n f a n t o " : C r i v e l l i 1868, p. 272. See also cat. n o . 4 , n . 4 0 .
23. V o l k 1980, p p . 259, 2 6 7 ; a n d D i a z P a d r o n 1995, p p . 2 9 0 - 9 1 .
2 4 . L e t t e r o f J a n u a r y 27, 1628; see M a g u r n 1955, letter 145.

): C r i v e l l i 1868, p. 168.

7. L e t t e r t o B o r r o m e o o f A p r i l 14, 1 6 0 6 : " f o r w h i c h r e a s o n I was i n

B r u s s e l s t o p o r t r a y s o m e f l o w e r s f r o m n a t u r e t h a t are n o t t o be f o u n d

25. See V o l k 1980, p . 267: " a n o t h e r p i c t u r e o f a n o t h e r i m a g e o f O u r

L a d y w i t h its o r i g i n a l e b o n y frame b y R u b e n s a n d a b o r d e r o f f l o w e r s

i n A n t w e r p " ( p e r q u e l l a i o s o n stata a B r u s s e l l a p e r r i t r a r e a l c u n i

a n d a n i m a l s a r o u n d i t , o r i g i n a l s b y B r u e g h e l the E l d e r " ( o t t r o

fiori

q u a d r o de o t t r a y m a g e n de n r a s

d e l n a t u r a l , c h e n o n si t r o v e i n A n v e r s a ) : C r i v e l l i 1868, p . 63.

ra

c o n s u m a r c o de e b a n o o r i g i n a l de

r u b e n s y u n a o r l a de flores y a n i m a l e s a l r r e d e d o r o r i g i n a l e s de b r u x e l

8. O n B r u e g h e l ' s use o f t h e c o n c e p t o f " d i l i g e n z a " i n h i s letters t o

el b i e j o ) .

B o r r o m e o a n d h i s a g e n t , see C u t l e r 2 0 0 3 .

26. I n v e n t o r y o f t h e L e g a n e s c o l l e c t i o n , M a r c h 30, 1642, n o . 38; see

9. See P a r i s 1979, P- 39-

V o l k 1980, p . 267.

10. C o m p a r e B r e n n i n k m e y e r - d e R o o i j 1 9 9 0 , p p . 2 3 4 - 3 5 .
11. See B r e n n i n k m e y e r - d e R o o i j 1 9 9 0 . B r u e g h e l ' s s u r v i v i n g f l o w e r s t u d i e s
are e x t r e m e l y rare; see W i n n e r 1961, fig. 47.
2. See also a g a r l a n d b y J a n B r u e g h e l a n d H e n d r i c k v a n B a l e n ( E r t z 1979 ,
n o . 367, fig. 384) i n the P r a d o a n d The Holy Family

in a Garland

of

Flowers b y J a n B r u e g h e l a n d P i e t e r v a n A v o n t i n M u n i c h (fig. 86 i n
this v o l u m e ) .
3. Q u i n t 1986, p. 238.
4.. Q u i n t 1986, p p . 2 3 8 - 3 9 .
5. I n a 1631 letter t o t h e art d e a l e r C h r i s o s t o m o v a n I m m e r s e e l , J a n
B r u e g h e l the Y o u n g e r p r a i s e d the w o r k o f h i s father as e x t r e m e l y
c o s t l y : " T h e r e is a n o t h e r g a r l a n d o f flowers, b u t t h a t o n e is v a l u e d at
1,800 g u i l d e r s . . . the p r e v i o u s o n e w a s b o u g h t b y t h e d u k e o f
B u c k i n g h a m f o r 3 , 0 0 0 g u i l d e r s " (daer is n o c h e e n e n C r a n s van b l o e -

BRUEGHEL

AND

RUBENS

121

13
Jan Brueghel the Elder and Workshop of Peter Paul Rubens

Nymphs Filling the Cornucopia

ca. 1615
O i l on panel, 67.4 x 106 cm (26 V2 x 4.1V4 in.)
The Hague, Royal Picture Gallery Mauritshuis, inv. 2 3 4
Exhibited in The Hague only

S c h e u r l e e r 1 9 7 4 - 7 6 , v o l . 2, p . 6 4 4 , n o . 103;

INSCRIPTION

v o l . 3, p . 214, n o . 54; E r t z 1979, p p . 3 9 0 ,

O n the reverse, p a n e l m a k e r ' s m a r k R B

535, n . 611; E r t z 1984, n o . 218; B r o o s a n d

[in ligature]

W a d u m 1993; B r o o s 1993, P- 380; B r o o s 1995,

PROVENANCE

p p . 2 2 - 2 4 ; W a d u m 1996; H a r t i n g a n d

H e t L o o , A p e l d o o r n , 1757; G a l l e r y o f

B o r m s 2 0 0 3 , p . 4 2 ; W e r c h e 2 0 0 4 , n o . E 56;

Stadholder W i l l e m V , T h e H a g u e , 1774-95;

Mauritshuis 2004, pp. 82-83

M u s e e N a p o l e o n (Musee d u L o u v r e ) , Paris,
1795-1815; G a l l e r y o f W i l l e m V , T h e H a g u e ,

EXHIBITION

A n t w e r p 1930, cat. n o . 231

1815-22; M a u r i t s h u i s , s i n c e 1822
LITERATURE

H o e t and Terwesten 1752-70, v o l . 3,

pp. 7 0 6 - 0 7 ; Drossaers and L u n s i n g h

N A WOODED LANDSCAPE,

NYMPHS

FILL A H O R N

OF

plenty (cornucopia) with fruit plucked from the trees

and handed to them by satyrs, putti, and other nymphs.

The key to the story depicted here is the scene in the left
background, where Hercules can be seen fighting the river
god Acheious, who appears in the form of a bull. During
the banquet Acheious lays on for Theseus (see cat. no. 3), the
river god tells how he competed with Hercules for the
hand of Deianira, the daughter of another river god (Ovid,
Metamorphoses 9 . 1 - 9 2 ) . During their struggle, Acheious first
transformed himself into a writhing snake and then into a
bull. Hercules defeated him, however, by breaking off one of
his horns, but, as Acheious relates: "This horn the naiads
took, filled it with fruit and fragrant flowers, and hallowed
it. A n d now the goddess of glad Abundance is enriched
with my horn." N o sooner does he say this than one of his
2

122

BRUEGHEL

AND RUBENS

WORKSHOP

nymphs brings to the table a richly filled cornucopiathe

second course of the banquetas depicted on the left in The
Feast ofAcheious from the Metropolitan Museum of Art in
New York (cat. no. 3). The latter work is a splendid example
of the collaboration between the friends Rubens and
Brueghel, whereas the attribution of the present painting
has often been cast into doubt.
In 1757 the painting was listed in the inventory of Het
Loo Palace in Apeldoorn as a work by Rubens; in 1763
this description was correctly emended to say that the land
scape and the fruit had been painted by Brueghel. After
Willem V had the painting transferred to The Hague, Pieter
Terwestenin his 1770 catalogue of the stadholder's cabinet
of paintingslisted it immediately after The Garden of Eden
(cat. no. 4 ) , describing it as a "ditto first-rate piece...being
figures by, or in the manner of, Rubens, and the landscape
4

123

resembles Adam in The Garden of Eden (cat. no. 4 ) , albeit in

reverse. The classic profile and hairstyle of this nymph relate
her to the nymph bringing in the cornucopia at the far left
in the former painting and to the personification of Sight in
the series of the Five Senses in the Museo Nacional del
Prado (see fig. 54). The crouching female satyr to the left of
the cornucopia clearly resembles a similar, cloven-hoofed
female in Fruit Garland with Nature Adorned by the Graces by
Rubens and Brueghel in Glasgow (see fig. 83); this figure
harks back to a well-known antique statue of the "crouching
Venus," which also inspired Rubens's rendering of the
nymph tying on Diana's sandal in Diana at the Hunt (cat.
no. 10). The satyr in the tree, the tip of whose tongue sticks
out of his mouth, is a variation on Rubens's satyrs in the
above-mentioned painting in Glasgow. The nymph on the
right, seen from the back, who leans rather uncomfortably
against a tree, was also borrowed from Rubens, as evidenced
by a sheet with pen-and-ink studies of female figures by
Rubens's hand (fig. 7 0 ) , on the verso of which he recorded
his impressions of the Venus Pudica (see fig. 4 6 ) . With her
left hand this nymph places an apple in the basket shouldered
by a winged putto; this figure, too, stems from Rubens's
repertoire and appears, among other places, in his Futti with
a Garland of Fruit, in which Frans Snyders painted the fruit
and Jan Wildens (1585/86-1653) the landscape (fig. 7 1 ) . The
standing nymph on the leftwho is seen in profile, reaching
upward with her right handis recognizable from several
of Rubens's representations of the three graces. N o doubt
one could add to this list of derivations from Rubens's
stock motifs; it is obvious that these figures were plucked
from the master's existing oeuvre and assembled, collage
like, to form the group seen here. For the rest, the figures
surrounding Hercules and the bull in the left background
display the short, easily distinguishable brushstrokes charac
teristic of Brueghel.
Close examination of the wood from which the panel is
made has yielded important information for the dating
of this work. The wood proves to have originated from the
same tree as several other Antwerp panels, including a
Wooded Landscape with Gypsy Women of 1612 by Abraham
Govaerts ( 1 5 8 1 - 1 6 4 2 ) in the Mauritshuis; the grain of the
wood in these panels does not display a regular pattern;
rather, it describes a large arc up to the right. A n identical
panelmaker's mark (RB in ligature) was found on the back of
both Nymphs Filling the Cornucopia and Govaerts's painting.
This markwhich has not yet been identifiedhas thus far
10

FIGURE 70

Peter P a u l R u b e n s , Studies of a Female Nude.

Pen and

b r o w n i n k , 27.1 x 17.7 c m ( i o / s x 7 i n . ) . A m s t e r d a m , R i j k s m u s e u m ,
5

Rijksprentenkabinet, inv. 66:67

with fruit by the aforementioned Brueghel." During the

enforced stay of the stadholder's collection in Paris ( 1 7 9 5 1815), this "Triomphe de la Terre" was reattributed to
Brueghel and Hendrick van Balen. Since then, doubt has
clung to the attribution of this panel, whose figures have been
assigned alternately to Van Balen, Rubens, and "the manner
of Rubens." From 1949 to 1 9 9 0 , it lay dormant in the store
room of the Mauritshuis under the name of Van Balen.
During the same period, there was even doubt cast on the
attribution of the landscape to Jan Brueghel the Elder, and
the names of his pupils Abraham Govaerts ( 1 5 8 1 - 1 6 4 2 )
and Jan Brueghel the Younger were put forward as possible
candidates.
Since its restoration in 1 9 9 0 , however, the painting has
been reassessed. The piece proves to have been beautifully
preserved, unmistakably displaying in the landscape and
fruit the precise style of Jan Brueghel the Elder. The robust
nudes with their well-articulated muscles bear little resem
blance to Van Balen's elegantly polished figures; instead, each
and every one is a quotation from Rubens's oeuvre of the
years around 1615, although the rather hard modeling makes
it unlikely that Rubens is the author. These figures are proba
bly the work of a collaborator from Rubens's studio, who
was able to draw directly upon the master's repertoire. The
seated woman in the middle, for example, who fills the cor
nucopia with fruit, is very like Theseus's friend Lelex, seated
on the right in The Feast ofAcheious (cat. no. 3), and also
5

124

BRUEGHEL

AND RUBENS WORKSHOP

11

12

13

14

15

been found on eight paintings dating from the years 1611

to 1613, including Jan Brueghel's Entry of the Animals into
Noah's Ark of 1613 (cat. no. 2 6 ) . This allows us to assume
that Nymphs Filling the Cornucopia originated not long after
1 6 1 2 - 1 3 , that is, about 1615, which is confirmed by dendrochronological research. The motifs quoted from Rubens
also date from the same period, having originally appeared
in works made about 1615.
The painting thus originated in the period in which the
collaboration between Brueghel and Rubens was flourishing.
It was surely made under the eye of Brueghel's famous
colleague, as also emerges from examination of the painting
technique. Infrared imaging enabled the detection of a
sketchy underdrawing in the landscape that is typical of
Brueghel (compare, for instance, cat. no. 4 ) . A few per
spective lines were all he needed to mark the depths in the
background, and with a few swiftly drawn lines he indicated
16

17

1 8

the approximate position of the trees, sometimes adding

undulating lines to suggest the foliage. With only a few
strokes and lines, Brueghel made an underdrawing of
the group in the left background, but this, too, was merely a
rough indication, which he blithely ignored at the painting
stage. The contours of the main figures bear tracesvisible
with a microscopeof a preparatory sketch in red-brown
paint, a sketch not discernible with the infrared camera
owing to the absence of carbon in the paint mixture. Indeed,
it seems to have been customary, when Rubens and Brueghel
collaborated, for Rubens to mark out his share of the
composition with a sketch in brownish paint (compare cat.
nos. 5, 6, and 8). In the present painting, the outlines
of the figures have been corrected in places and emphasized
with darker, fairly heavily applied paint that is now largely
obscured by the paint used for the background, but which
could be rendered visible with the aid of the infrared camera.

F I G U R E 71 P e t e r P a u l R u b e n s , F r a n s S n y d e r s , a n d J a n W i l d e n s (15861653), Putti with a Garland

of Fruit.

O i l o n canvas, 120 x 203.8 c m (47 V4 x So A

L

in.).

M u n i c h , A l t e P i n a k o t h e k , i n v . 330

BRUEGHEL

AND RUBENS

WORKSHOP

125

These corrections are comparable to certain heavily applied

corrections to nudes in several autograph drawings by Rubens,
so it is in fact possible that the master himself intervened
here to make several adjustments to the group of figures.
Around the red-brown sketch delineating the figures,
Brueghel first painted the background and then his collabora
tor executed the figures that slightly overlap the background
in numerous places. The fingers of the female satyr holding
the cornucopia, for example, clearly overlap the skimpy
reserve in the horn. Another interesting detail is the leaf of
the artichoke in the right foreground, which was painted
before the leg of the nymphagainst which it stands out;
here, therefore, Brueghel did not apply the leaf over the
figure at the end of the painting process, as more usually
seen. The figures are composed of layers of paint applied in
a technique very similar to that of Rubens, the female nudes
being built up from an undermodeling, while the darkercomplexioned satyr is painted very thinly with only a
single layer of transparent paint on the light gray ground.
The subject of the present painting naturally offered
an excellent opportunity to depict idealized nudes in a land
scape. The story corresponds closely to that of The Feast of
Acheious (cat. no. 3), in which Rubens rendered nudes based
on classical examples and, on the left, depicted a compar
able group of nymphs filling a horn of plenty. The theme
is also closely related, of course, to Brueghel's fruit garlands
surrounding allegories of abundance and fertility, such
as the Garland of Fruit around a Depiction of Ceres Receiving
Gifts from the Four Seasons by Brueghel and Van Balen
(cat. nos. 2 0 and 21), in which Ceres is presented with a
cornucopia, and the Fruit Garland with Nature Adorned by
the Graces by Brueghel and Rubens (fig. 83).
Regarding the whereabouts of Nymphs Filling the
Cornucopia before it was inventoried at Het L o o Palace in
1757, a partly preserved note in seventeenth-century hand
writing glued to the back of the panel provides an intriguing
indication of its provenance. In the nineteenth century,
when it was still reasonably legible, it was transcribed as
follows: "This painting is to be delivered to the house
of Mr. Samuel Suerius, steward of His Highness's domains,
etc... at B[reda]." A relative and friend of Constantijn
Huygens, private secretary to the princes of Orange, Samuel
Suerius ( 1 6 3 3 - 1 6 8 6 ) was the steward of the Breda domains
of the House of Orange. H e was succeeded in this capacity
by his son of the same name, which makes it uncertain
if the painting was delivered to the father or the son. It is
19

20

126

BRUEGHEL

AND RUBENS WORKSHOP

possible, therefore, that the painting was already in the

possession of the Oranges in the late seventeenth century,
but further documentation substantiating this is lacking.

21

AvS

NOTES
1. S i n c e t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , the p a i n t i n g has b e e n c a l l e d
Filling

the Horn

Naiads

of Plenty; see, f o r e x a m p l e , M a u r i t s h u i s 1993,

p . 29. B e c a u s e t h i s p i c t u r e c o n t a i n s n o d i r e c t reference t o w a t e r
( n a i a d s are w a t e r n y m p h s ) , i t is m o r e c o r r e c t t o speak o f n y m p h s .
2. A c c o r d i n g t o O v i d (Fasti 5.121-24), the h o r n o f p l e n t y , o r c o r n u c o p i a ,
was the h o r n o f the g o a t A m a l t h e a , w h o s u c k l e d the i n f a n t J u p i t e r .
I n his Metamorphoses

( 9 . 1 - 9 2 ) , O v i d d e s c r i b e s the o r i g i n o f t h e

c o r n u c o p i a , as seen i n t h i s d e p i c t i o n . See H a l l 1974, p p . 75, 152.

3. O v i d , Metamorphoses

9.87-88 (translation by Frank Justus M i l l e r ,

r e v i s e d b y G . P. G o o l d ) ; see Metamorphoses,

Books IX-XV

(Loeb

C l a s s i c a l L i b r a r y , C a m b r i d g e , M a s s . , a n d L o n d o n , 1984), p . 94 . O n M a y 13, 1716, i n A m s t e r d a m , a n " A m a l t h e a , a d o r n i n g the h o r n o f

plenty w i t h

flowers"

( A m a l t e a , d i e de H o o r n v a n o v e r v l o e t m e t

B l o e m e n c i e r t ) b y R u b e n s a n d the " V e l v e t [Jan] B r u e g h e l " w a s s o l d

f r o m the c o l l e c t i o n o f J a n v a n B e u n i n g e n ; see H o e t a n d T e r w e s t e n
1 7 5 2 - 7 0 , v o l . 1, p p . 2 0 1 - 2 , n o . 37. Its i d e n t i f i c a t i o n as t h e w o r k
d i s c u s s e d h e r e w a s first p u b l i s h e d b y V i c t o r de S t u e r s ( M a u r i t s h u i s
1874, p . 203). T h e q u e s t i o n m a r k p l a c e d b y D e S t u e r s n e x t t o t h i s
p r o v e n a n c e w a s o m i t t e d f r o m a l l s u b s e q u e n t p u b l i c a t i o n s ; see,
f o r e x a m p l e , M a u r i t s h u i s 2 0 0 4 , p . 82. H o w e v e r , t h e p a i n t i n g s o l d
at t h i s a u c t i o n w a s s o m e 2 0 c m ( a b o u t 8 i n . ) l a r g e r i n b o t h h e i g h t a n d
w i d t h t h a n the p r e s e n t p a i n t i n g , i n w h i c h , m o r e o v e r , t h e r e are n o
f l o w e r s t o be s e e n , w h i c h m a k e s t h i s p r o v e n a n c e u n l i k e l y . R e g a r d i n g
A m a l t h e a , see n o t e 2 a b o v e .
5. " d i t o u i t m u n t e n d S t u k . . . z y n d e de F i g u u r e n d o o r , o f i n de m a n i e r
v a n R u b b e n s , e n het L a n d s c h a p m e t de V r u g t e n d o o r v o o r n . v a n
B r e u g e l " : H o e t a n d T e r w e s t e n 1 7 5 2 - 7 0 , v o l . 3, p p . 7 0 6 - 7 .
6. P o m m e r e u l 1798, p . 2 9 9 .
7. I n a 1774 c a t a l o g u e o f the c a b i n e t o f p a i n t i n g s , t h e figures w e r e a t t r i b
u t e d t o " v a n d e r H o e k " a n d the l a n d s c a p e a n d the f r u i t t o B r u e g h e l .
T h e a r t i s t i n q u e s t i o n w a s p e r h a p s J a n v a n d e n H o e c k e (1611-1651) o r
C a s p a r v a n d e n H o e c k e (ca. 1585-1659); see D r o s s a e r s a n d L u n s i n g h
S c h e u r l e e r 1 9 7 4 - 7 6 , v o l . 3, p . 214, n o . 54. A f t e r t h e F r e n c h era,
the a t t r i b u t i o n o f the figures t o V a n B a l e n k e p t c r o p p i n g u p

(see

M a u r i t s h u i s 1874, p . 2 0 3 ) , e v e n t h o u g h i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y the
figures w e r e u s u a l l y d e s c r i b e d as " i n t h e m a n n e r o f R u b e n s . " R o o s e s
( 1 8 8 6 - 9 2 , v o l . 5, p . 339) l i s t e d t h e figures as p r o b a b l y b y R u b e n s ;
A n t w e r p 1930, n o . 231, as b y R u b e n s a n d B r u e g h e l t h e E l d e r .
A c c o r d i n g t o M a r t i n ( M a u r i t s h u i s 1935, p p . 2 9 2 - 9 4 , n o . 2 3 4 ) , L u d w i g
B u r c h a r d c o n s i d e r e d t h e m t o be b y V a n B a l e n . I n M a u r i t s h u i s
c a t a l o g u e s f r o m 1949 t h r o u g h 1993, the figures are a t t r i b u t e d
V a n B a l e n . E r t z (1979, p . 390) c o n c u r r e d w i t h t h i s a t t r i b u t i o n

to
but

s u b s e q u e n t l y t h o u g h t he r e c o g n i z e d the h a n d o f J a n B r u e g h e l t h e

Y o u n g e r i n the l a n d s c a p e ( E r t z 1984, n o . 218). B r o o s (1993, p . 380, a n d

a n u n p u b l i s h e d text i n the a r c h i v e s o f the M a u r i t s h u i s ) a n d W a d u m
(1996) r i g h t l y p l a c e the p a i n t e r o f the figures i n the s t u d i o o f R u b e n s .
C o m p a r e , finally, H a r t i n g a n d B o r m s 2 0 0 3 , p . 4 2 (the l a n d s c a p e as
b y J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r o r A b r a h a m G o v a e r t s ) ; a n d W e r c h e 2 0 0 4 ,
n o . E 56 (figures n o t b y the h a n d o f V a n B a l e n ) .
8. T h e p a i n t i n g w a s r e s t o r e d b y E r m a H e r m e n s a n d J o r g e n W a d u m .
9. See u n p u b l i s h e d texts b y J o r g e n W a d u m a n d B e n B r o o s i n the a r c h i v e s
o f the M a u r i t s h u i s .
10. H a s k e l l a n d P e n n y 1981, p p . 3 2 1 - 2 3 , n o . 86.
11. K a s s e l - F r a n k f u r t 2 0 0 4 , cat. n o . 17.
12. R e n g e r a n d D e n k 2 0 0 2 , p p . 3 8 0 - 8 1 .
13. See, f o r e x a m p l e , Peter P a u l R u b e n s , The Three Graces ( V i e n n a ,
G e m a l d e g a l e r i e der A k a d e m i e der b i l d e n d e n K i i n s t e , inv. 646).
14. O n the p r a c t i c e o f t a k i n g m o t i f s f r o m the w o r k o f o t h e r s (the t e r m
c o m m o n l y u s e d at t h a t t i m e was rapen, w h i c h m e a n s t o " g a t h e r "

15. See B r o o s a n d W a d u m 1993.

16. I b i d . W i t h t h a n k s t o J o r g e n W a d u m f o r a l l o w i n g m e t o i n s p e c t h i s
database o f A n t w e r p p a n e l m a k e r s ' m a r k s .
17. R e p o r t c o m p i l e d b y D r . Peter K l e i n , U n i v e r s i t y o f H a m b u r g ,
O c t o b e r 2 0 , 199518. D u r i n g r e s t o r a t i o n o f the p a i n t i n g i n 1 9 9 0 , J o r g e n W a d u m e x a m i n e d
it b y m e a n s o f i n f r a r e d r e f l e c t o g r a p h y u s i n g the H a m a m a t s u

camera;

see W a d u m 1996, p . 394, fig. 4 . O n D e c e m b e r 2 4 , 2 0 0 4 , the p a i n t i n g

was a g a i n e x a m i n e d w i t h the a i d o f the s t e r e o m i c r o s c o p e b y S a b r i n a
M e l o n i , A r i a n e v a n S u c h t e l e n , a n d J o r g e n W a d u m i n the s t u d i o o f
the M a u r i t s h u i s . O n J a n u a r y 6, 2 0 0 5 , i n f r a r e d i m a g e s w e r e m a d e w i t h
the A r t i s t c a m e r a ( A r t I n n o v a t i o n , H e n g e l o ) m o u n t e d w i t h a C C D
p r o g r e s s i v e scan i m a g e s e n s o r (1360 x 1036 p i x e l s ) a n d a S c h n e i d e r
K r e u z n a c h X e n o p l a n 1.4/23 m m C C T V - l c n s i n N12 w i t h a 1 0 0 0 n m
l o n g - w a v e pass

filter.

19. O n t h i s subject, see W a d u m 1996.

2 0 . " D e s e s c h i l d e r y sal m e n b e s t e l l e n t e n h u y s e v a n de h . S a m u e l Z u c r i u s

o r " c o l l e c t " ) , see V a n M a n d e r / M i e d e m a 1973, v o l . 2, p p . 3 8 8 - 8 9 .

Rentmeester van syn H o o c h e y t s D o m e y n e n e t c . . . tot B[reda].":

O n the art o f rapen, see also S a m u e l v a n H o o g s t r a e t e n (1678, p . 193),

M a u r i t s h u i s 1874, p . 203. F o r a d r a w n c o p y d e p i c t i n g the letter, see,

w h o cites the e x a m p l e o f R u b e n s : W h e n R u b e n s was r e p r o a c h e d

a m o n g o t h e r s , M a u r i t s h u i s 1935, p . 293.

f o r " b o r r o w i n g w h o l e figures f r o m the I t a l i a n s " (geheele b e e l d e n u i t

d T t a l i a e n e n o n t l e e n d e ) , he r e p l i e d t h a t e v e r y o n e was w e l c o m e t o
imitate h i m , " i f they t h o u g h t it advantageous" (indien zy'er v o o r d e e l
i n z a g e n ) , t h e r e b y s u g g e s t i n g t h a t n o t e v e r y o n e was c a p a b l e o f

21. A n s p a c h 1881, p . 172; and Register op de journalen

van

Constantijn

Huygens Jr. ( A m s t e r d a m , 1 9 0 6 ) , p . 285. See a n u n p u b l i s h e d text b y

B e n B r o o s i n the a r c h i v e s o f the M a u r i t s h u i s .

b e n e f i t i n g f r o m t h i s exercise.

RUEGHEL

AND RUBENS WORKSHOP

127

14
Jan Brueghel the Elder and Hans Rottenhammer

The Rest on the Flight into Egypt

ja. 1595

O i l on copper, 22 x 29.1 cm (8 /s x 11V2 in.)

The Hague, Royal Picture Gallery Mauritshuis, inv. 283
5

Phoenix-Kansas C i t y - T h e Hague 1998-99,

LITERATURE

PROVENANCE

StacLholder-Khjig W i l l e m I I I , H e t L o o ,

P e l t z e r 1916, p p . 318, 332, 345, n o . 31, p . 348,

A p e l d o o r n , 1712; G a l l e r y o f S t a d h o l d e r

n o . 7 4 ; T o t h - U b b e n s 1968, p p . 1 0 - 1 1 ;

W i l l e m V , The'jHague, 1774-95; M u s e e

Drossaers and L u n s i n g h Scheurleer 1974-76,

N a p o l e o n (Musee d u L o u v r e ) , Paris,

v o l . 2, p . 6 4 5 , n o . 119; v o l . 3, p . 205, n o . 9;

1795-1815; Galljery o f W i l l e m V , T h e H a g u e ,

E r t z 1979, p p . 2 0 4 - 6 , n o . 1; E r t z 1984,

1815-22; M a u r i t s h u i s , s i n c e 1822

n o . 150; S c h l i c h t e n m a i e r 1988, n o . K 3;
E s s e n - V i e n n a 1 9 9 7 - 9 8 , p p . 111, 112;

p p . 149, 150, n . 8; W e r c h e 2 0 0 4 , p . 236,

n o . E 7; M a u r i t s h u i s 2 0 0 4 , p p . 8 2 - 8 4 ;
J o n c k h e e r e 2 0 0 4 - 0 5 , p . 215
EXHIBITIONS

D o r d r e c h t 1955, cat. n o . 27; T h e H a g u e

1 9 8 8 - 8 9 , cat. n o . x i v

15
Jan Brueghel the Elder and Hans Rottenhammer

The Descent into Limbo

1597

O i l on copper, 26.2 x 35.4 cm (io A x 13% in.)

The Hague, Royal Picture Gallery Mauritshuis, inv. 285
l

INSCRIPTION

A t lower right, . B R V E G H E L . 1 5 9 7

1795-1815; G a l l e r y o f W i l l e m V , T h e H a g u e ,

562 ( u n d e r n o . 32); E r t z 1984, p p . 4 4 , 65,

1815-22; M a u r i t s h u i s , s i n c e 1822

3 0 1 - 2 , n o . 128; F r e e d b e r g 1984, p . 576; B r o o s

LITERATURE

PROVENANCE

Stadholder-King W i l l e m III, H e t L o o ,
A p e l d o o r n , b e f o r e 1697; G a l l e r y o f
Stadholder W i l l e m V , T h e H a g u e , 1774-95;
M u s e e N a p o l e o n ( M u s e e d u L o u v r e ) , Paris,

H o e t a n d T e r w e s t e n 1 7 5 2 - 7 0 , v o l . 3, p . 6 9 3 ;

BRUEGHEL

AN }

ROTTENHAMMER

p . 8 4 ; J o n c k h e e r e 2 0 0 4 - 0 5 , p . 215

P e l t z e r 1916, p p . 332, 345, n o . 32; T o t h U b b e n s 1968, p . 11; D r o s s a e r s a n d L u n s i n g h

EXHIBITIONS

S c h e u r l e e r 1 9 7 4 - 7 6 , v o l . 1, p . 677, n o . 839,

T h e H a g u e 1 9 8 8 - 8 9 , p . 119 ( i n e x h i b i t i o n ) ;

p . 6 9 8 , n o . 6 9 ; v o l . 2, p . 4 7 9 , n o . 2 4 , p . 6 4 0 ,

Phoenix-Kansas C i t y - T h e Hague 1998-99,

n o . 2 4 ; v o l . 3, p . 2 0 6 , n o . 16; E r t z 1979,

cat. n o . 8e

p p . 116, 119, 124, 135, 501, 519 ( n n . 76, 87, 88),

128

1993, p p . 7 9 - 8 7 , n o . 7 ( w i t h a d d i t i o n a l l i t e r a
ture); Costaras 1994; M a u r i t s h u i s 2 0 0 4 ,

O L L A B O R A T I O N S

IN

W H I C H

S T A F F A G E

P A I N T E R

added his figures to a landscape by another artist

were common in Flemish art from the sixteenth cen
tury onward. As a staffage painter, Jan Brueghel made many
contributions to landscapes painted by his friend Joos de
Momper ( 1 5 6 4 - 1 6 3 5 ) . However, in The Rest on the Flight
into Egypt of about 1595 and The Descent into Limbo of 1597 it
was the German figure painter Hans Rottenhammer who
first took the copper plates in hand. In the former work, he
painted the Holy Family and the two flying angels in the
foreground, whereupon Brueghel added the wooded land
scape and the flowers, as well as the ass, whose body is largely
hidden by the imposing tree that closes off the composition
on the right. Rottenhammer, who began The Descent into
Limbo by painting the nude figures in the foreground, is the
author not only of the main groupChrist with Adam and
Evebut also of the righteous whom Christ liberates, the
three devils in the left foreground, and five of the doomed
souls in the abyss on the right. Brueghel then completed
the composition by adding the infernal landscape with its
myriad monsters and devils.
Hans Rottenhammer, a native of Munich, left for Italy in
1589; after a stay in Venice, he arrived in Rome around 1591.
There he met the Flemish-Roman landscape painter Paul
Bril ( 1 5 5 3 / 5 4 - 1 6 2 6 ) , as well as Jan Brueghel, first recorded as
being in Naples in 1590 and subsequently active in Rome
until 1595- These artists belonged to the circle of Cardinal
Federico Borromeo ( 1 5 6 4 - 1 6 3 1 ) , a theologian and impor
tant collector of art, and it was in his palace facing the
Piazza Navona in Rome that Brueghel took up residence.
Karel van Mander wrote the following about Rotten
hammer: "When he arrived in Rome he devoted himself to
painting on plates as is customary with the Netherlanders."
Italian painters occasionally used copper plates as supports as
early as the first half of the sixteenth century, but this is
first seen among Netherlandish artists when Bartholomeus
Spranger ( 1 5 4 6 - 1 6 1 1 ) of Antwerp painted on copper during
his stay in Rome ( 1 5 6 6 - 7 5 ) . It was however the Flemings
Paul Bril and Jan Brueghel, as well as the German Hans
Rottenhammer, who were responsible for the popularity
painting on copper achieved from the early 1590s in Rome.
A l l three found the smooth, glossy surface eminently suitable
as a support for their meticulously detailed paintings. Bril
produced the earliest known landscape on copper in 1 5 9 2 .
He was soon followed by Jan Brueghel, who used copper
almost exclusively for the paintings he made in Italy. After
1

10

11

returning to Antwerp in September 1596, Brueghel intro

duced this new technique to his native city, where he contin
ued to paint on copper with great regularity: about half of
his extant paintingssome four hundred altogetherhave
copper supports.
The figure painter Hans Rottenhammer collaborated
with both Bril and Brueghel on various paintings on copper,
to which the Flemings contributed the backgrounds.
After Rottenhammer moved to Venice in the summer of 1595,
his collaboration with Bril and Brueghel continued for a
while, thanks in part to the small size and robust nature of
copper plates, which made them easy to transport.
In The Rest on the Flight into Egypt, Rottenhammer's
smooth, enamel-like brushwork in the figures is clearly dis
tinguishable from the manner of Brueghel, in which the
individual brushstrokes are plainly visible. That the back
ground was painted around the figures is apparent from
the places where the brushstrokes overlap the contours. The
ass displays Brueghel's characteristically precise style, featuring
short, separate brushstrokes. Where the ass's head touches
Joseph's tunic, Brueghel retouched the garment, using a
slightly different shade of yellow, on which he painted the
animal's mane wet-in-wet. Joseph's right hand, which holds
some grass up to the beast's mouth, also appears on close
inspection to have been added by Brueghel: this hand is not
modeled as smoothly as Joseph's left hand, which is the
work of Rottenhammer. It is possible that Brueghel was also
responsible for the decoration on the Holy Family's saddle
bag, which displays his characteristic detailing.
Rottenhammer's contribution to The Descent into Limbo
is also obvious: his smooth, polished figures are easily
recognizable. The faces, too-with their high foreheads and
pronounced eyelidsare characteristic of his style. If one
compares, for example, Christ's naked torso with that of
Brueghel's devil in the sky at the upper left, the differences
are obvious: Rottenhammer's brushstrokes flow together,
whereas Brueghel used short, pastose brushstrokes to apply
hatching within clearly delineated contours. Brueghel filled
in the edges of Rottenhammer's contributions: at the back
left, for example, he added hands reaching out from the
throng of people, and at the front left he added pointed
wings to the devil kneeling in shadow. H e supplied Christ's
head with an aureole and also added the cross and the ban
ner of the Resurrection (a red cross on a white ground) to
the Savior's staff, which Rottenhammer had already indicated
when laying in the composition. Brueghel enhanced the
12

13

14

15

BRUEGHEL

AND

ROTTENHAMMER

129

14

130

15

i3i

FIGURE

Hans

72

Jan

B r u e :ghe
^
l

the E l d e r a n d

R o t t e n h a m m e r,
. The Rest on the

Flight

into Egypt, 1595. O i o n c o p p e r , 26 x 35.5 c m

(io A
l

x 14 i n . ) . P r i v a t e c o l l e c t i o n

group of devils in the left foreground by making their eyes

and mouths spout fire. In the far right foreground, a strik
ing detail was c iscovered in the figure of the naked woman
being carried o f by two of Brueghel's demons: infrared
reserve i n her leg, which means that, when
painting her, Rottenhammer must have taken into account
the demon's arm that was to be painted by Brueghel.
O f the eight to ten known paintings Brueghel and
Rottenhammer made together, no fewer than four depict
the Rest on the Flight into Egypt; in each case Brueghel
painted a different landscape behind the nearly identical
group consisting of Joseph, the two angels, and Mary breast
feeding her child. With production-line efficiency, Rotten
hammer supplied copper plates with this motifevidently
and Brueghel then individualized them
by adding different landscapes. In a painting dated 1595, for
example, he painted a vast mountainous landscape with
the Roman temple of the Sibyl at Tivoli (fig. 7 2 ) , whereas
the present painting's forest clearing and pool of water offer
the H o l y Family a more secluded resting place. The date
on the former work suggests that the Mauritshuis painting
and the other versions of the same theme ail date from
about 1595.
16

17

132

BRUEGHEL

AND ROTTENHAMMER

Paul Bril, who had stayed behind in Rome, also collabo

rated with Rottenhammer on a Rest on the Flight into Egypt
(fig. 73), but this work of 1 6 0 0 shows the H o l y Family in
a different constellation and lacks the angels. Here, too, it
appears that the figures were painted first: Rottenhammer's
copper plate must have been sent from Venice to Rome,
where Bril added a Flemish landscape with a windmill. This
procedure is confirmed by the artists' biographer Carlo
Ridolfi, who in 1648 reported that various people had com
missioned collaborative works, having Rottenhammer in
Venice paint the figures and then sending the pictures to
Rome, where Bril supplied the landscapes.
The Descent into Limbo of 1597 fits into a series of scenes
of the Underworld, which Brueghel painted over the course
of about ten years, starting in 1594 in Italy and continuing
in Antwerp. Against a fire-lit background with a broad
river and high cliffsdotted with ancient ruins and burning
Catherine wheelsBrueghel indulged himself freely, depicting
gruesome events and fanciful creatures derived from the
tradition of Hieronymus Bosch (ca. 1 4 5 0 - 1 5 1 6 ) . Fuzzy
monsters with cloven hoofs, a helmeted head on short legs,
a horned marmot tending a brazier, a chopped-off head
dangling from a tree, a winged, fire-spewing fish-mouth
18

19

20

 the eye can roam endlessly and never fail to discover new
details. The subject of this storyChrist's descent into
limbo to liberate the souls of the O l d Testament saints
naturally lent itself to elaborate depictions of the Under
world. The story, first recorded in the fifth century in the
apocryphal Gospel of Nicodemus, was later retold in the
thirteenth-century Golden Legend Since Byzantine times i t
had been a popular subject in artits depictions include
a print after Pieter Bruegel the Elder (fig. 7 4 ) b u t after
the sixteenth century the theme fell into disuse. Brueghel
was probably inspired by his father's design, which contains
similar Boschian beasts as well as the motif of the broken
doors of Limbo.
In the summer of 1595, Federico Borromeo moved
from Rome to Milan, where he had been appointed cardin al.
Brueghel followed his patron, staying for a year in Milan
before returning to Antwerp with a letter of recommendati on
from Borromeo to the Bishop of Antwerp. Rottenhamme r
returned to Venice, where he was active until 1 6 0 6 , after
which he settled in Augsburg. The 1595 Rest on the Flight into
Egypt (fig. 72) could have been made in Rome, although
it is also possible that Brueghel took this and other copper
platesalready begun by Rottenhammerto Milan and
completed them there. A t any rate, Brueghel did not finish
The Descent into Limbo until 1597, after his return to Antwer p.
In a letter of July 8, 1605, Brueghel wrote to Borromeo:
"Before long I shall be expecting the paintings from Your
Highness, in order to decorate them with landscapes and
other things befitting the figures' stories." Apparently it
was not unusual for Brueghel (or Paul Bril, for that matter)
to adapt his work to that of a figure painter, as evidenced
by these two paintings made with Rottenhammer. Althoug h
Brueghel did not mention the figure painter by name, he
was almost certainly referring in this letter to Rottenhamm er
and not to Hendrick van Balen, since the first figure paint
ing by Van Balen that Brueghel "decorated" was one made
for Cardinal Borromeo in 1 6 0 7 - 0 8 (see fig. 8 2 ) . Brueghel's
letter perhaps refers to the two Rottenhammer-Brueghel
paintings that Borromeo ownedMusic-making Angels with
Flowers and Winter Landscape with Angels Scattering Flowers
in which case these would be the last collaborative works by
these two masters. These paintings are still to be found in
the Pinacoteca Ambrosiana in Milan, the museum Borrom eo
founded in 1 6 1 8 . Borromeo describes the Winter Landscape
in his 1625 treatise on art titled Musaeum, an introduction to
21

21

23

24

25

26

F I G U R E 73 P a u l B r i l (1553/54-1626) a n d H a n s R o t t e n h a m m e r , The Rest

on the Flight

into Egypt, 1 6 0 0 . O i l o n c o p p e r , 21.9 x 30 c m (8 /s x nM

5

in.).

Private collection
F I G U R E 74 A f t e r P i e t e r B r u e g e l the E l d e r , The Descent into Limbo,
E n g r a v i n g , 233 x 287 m m ( 9 V 8 x u A
l

ca. 1561.

in.). A m s t e r d a m , R i j k s m u s e u m ,

Rijksprentenkabinet

27

28

BRUEGHEL

AND ROTTENHAMMER

133

his art collection, in which he philosophizes on the extremes

of nature depicted in that work.
It was the fruitful partnership with Hans Rottenhammer,
begun in Rome, which seemingly inspired Brueghel to seek
the cooperation of other figure painters after his return
to Antwerp in September 1596. It was probably the differing
styles of such masters as Rottenhammer, Hendrick de Clerck,
Van Balen, and Rubens that represented for Brueghel the
added value of artistic collaboration. A v S

5. See W i n n e r 1961 a n d E r t z 1979, p . 14.

29

6. O n t h e R o m a n palaces i n w h i c h B o r r o m e o o f f e r e d a c c o m m o d a t i o n
t o artists a n d p i l g r i m s a l i k e , see V a e s 1 9 2 6 - 2 7 , p p . 171-72 ( w i t h a
reference t o G i u s e p p e R i v o l a , Vita di Federico Borromeo

[ M i l a n , 1656]).

F o r t h e c o n t a c t b e t w e e n these a r t i s t s B r i l , R o t t e n h a m m e r ,

and

B r u e g h e l a n d B o r r o m e o , see, a m o n g o t h e r s , B e d o n i 1983, p p . 3 8 - 4 9 ;
a n d J o n e s 1993.
7. " T e R o o m g h e c o m e n w e s e n d e / b e g a f h e m o p p l a t e n te s c h i l d e r e n /
gelijck de wijse der N e d e r l a n d e r s i s " : V a n M a n d e r 1604, f o l . 296r
( V a n M a n d e r / M i e d e m a 1 9 9 4 - 9 9 , v o l . 1, p p . 4 4 2 - 4 4 ; see also v o l . 6,
p. 7 0 ) .
8. See E . Peters B o w r o n , " A B r i e f H i s t o r y o f E u r o p e a n O i l P a i n t i n g o n

NOTES

C o p p e r , 1560-1775," i n P h o e n i x - K a n s a s C i t y - T h e H a g u e 1 9 9 8 - 9 9 ,
pp. 9 - 3 0 .

1. S e e , f o r e x a m p l e , E r t z 1979, p p . 4 7 0 - 9 1 .
2. B r u e g h e l ' s n a m e is s c r a t c h e d i n t o t h e c e n t e r o f t h e b a c k o f t h e c o p p e r
p l a t e i n t h e c a p i t a l letters c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e p a i n t e r ; see also T h e
H a g u e 1 9 8 8 - 8 9 , p . 121. H o w e v e r , t h e fact t h a t w e k n o w o f n o o t h e r
c o n t e m p o r a r y e x a m p l e o f a n artist's n a m e s c r a t c h e d i n t o a c o p p e r p l a t e
(letter f r o m I s a b e l H o r o v i t z t o L u u k R u t g e r s v a n d e r L o e f f , d a t e d
N o v e m b e r 2 0 0 4 ) casts d o u b t o n t h e a u t h e n t i c i t y o f t h i s " s i g n a t u r e . "
E r t z (1979, p p . 2 0 4 - 6 , fig. 248 [ o n p . 501]) w r o n g l y rejected The Rest
into Egypt as t h e w o r k o f J a n B r u e g h e l t h e E l d e r ; i n h i s

o p i n i o n t h e p a i n t i n g , d o n e i n t h e style o f A d a m E l s h e i m e r (1578-1610),
c o u l d n o t h a v e o r i g i n a t e d b e f o r e 1 6 0 0 a n d m u s t t h e r e f o r e be t h e w o r k
o f a f o l l o w e r . L a t e r , E r t z (1984, n o . 150) a t t r i b u t e d i t t o J a n B r u e g h e l

restoration studio o f the M a u r i t s h u i s by Sabrina M e l o n i and A r i a n e

stereomicroscope

(1360 x 1036 p i x e l s ) a n d a S c h n e i d e r K r e u z n a c h X e n o p l a n 1.4/23 m m

C C T V - l e n s i n N12 w i t h a 1 0 0 0 n m l o n g - w a v e pass filter.
as

J a n B r u e g h e l t h e Y o u n g e r ( E r t z 1984, n o . 128). E r t z q u e s t i o n e d t h e
a u t h e n t i c i t y o f t h e s i g n a t u r e ( i n h i s o p i n i o n j B R U E G H E L 1597).
H o w e v e r , d u r i n g t h e r e s t o r a t i o n c a r r i e d o u t i n 1992 i t b e c a m e clear
t h a t t h e s i g n a t u r e ( w i t h o u t t h e l e t t e r j b e f o r e t h e n a m e ) was i n d e e d
authentic. Schlichtenmaier again f o l l o w e d Ertz's rejection (Schlichten
i n Aschaffen-

b u r g w a s r e g a r d e d b y S c h l i c h t e n m a i e r as a n a u t o g r a p h w o r k b y
R o t t e n h a m m e r a n d B r u e g h e l ( i b i d . , n o . G 1 11). O n t h e p r o v e n a n c e o f
t h e t w o p a i n t i n g s f r o m t h e E n g l i s h r o y a l c o l l e c t i o n , see T h e H a g u e

175 o n p a n e l , a n d t h e rest o n canvas, p a p e r , o r p a r c h m e n t . F o r a

c r i t i c a l d i s c u s s i o n o f E r t z ' s s e l e c t i o n , see F r e e d b e r g 1984. K l a u s E r t z
is p r e p a r i n g a r e v i s e d e d i t i o n o f h i s 1979 m o n o g r a p h .

by R o t t e n h a m m e r a n d B r i l . F o r the c o l l a b o r a t i o n between
R o t t e n h a m m e r a n d B r u e g h e l , see S c h l i c h t e n m a i e r 1988, p p . 3 2 - 3 4 ,

(for t h e last t w o , see J o n e s 1993, n o s . I A 2 9 b a n d I A 1 0 0 ) ; E r t z 1984,

n o . 148; a n d A n t w e r p 1998, cat. n o . 30. O n r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n B r i l

14. C o m p a r e , f o r e x a m p l e , H a n s R o t t e n h a m m e r ' s Rest on the Flight

into

Egypt i n S c h w e r i n ( S t a a t l i c h e s M u s e u m ) ; see P i j l 1998, f i g . 2.

15. T h e A r t i s t c a m e r a (see n o t e 3) r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e ass's m u z z l e w a s at
first p l a c e d l o w e r a n d m o r e t o t h e r i g h t .
16. I n a d d i t i o n t o the p r e s e n t p a i n t i n g , these i n c l u d e t w o w o r k s i n p r i v a t e
c o l l e c t i o n s ( o n e o f w h i c h is r e p r o d u c e d h e r e as f i g . 72) a n d o n e
i n V i e n n a ( K u n s t h i s t o r i s c h e s M u s e u m ) . F o r t h e first t w o , see A n t w e r p
1998, cat. n o s . 29 ( S c h l i c h t e n m a i e r 1988, n o . G 1 6) a n d 3 0 ; f o r t h e
V i e n n a p a i n t i n g , see E r t z 1979, n o . 19a; a n d S c h l i c h t e n m a i e r 1988,
n o . G 1 7. A c o p y o f t h e l a s t - m e n t i o n e d p a i n t i n g is t o b e f o u n d i n the
S t . A n n e n - M u s e u m , L i i b e c k . F o r a c o p y after t h e p a i n t i n g i n t h e

4 . O n R o t t e n h a m m e r , see P e l t z e r 1916, S c h l i c h t e n m a i e r 1988; a n d

of Art,

J. T u r n e r , e d . , v o l . 27 ( N e w Y o r k ,

1996), pp. 2 2 7 - 2 9 .

BRUEGHEL

12. E r t z 1979 i n c l u d e s 390 p a i n t i n g s , o f w h i c h 183 are p a i n t e d o n c o p p e r ,

a n d B r u e g h e l , see P i j l 1996, p p . 7 4 - 7 6 , 78, n . 4 1 .

a w o r k by B r u e g h e l and Rottenhammer, attributing it instead to

134

( a b o u t 10 x 14 i n . ) .

n o s . 10, 15 (see A n t w e r p 1998, cat. n o . 6 9 ) , 19a, 27, 4 2 , 121, a n d 124

H e n g e l o ) m o u n t e d w i t h a C C D p r o g r e s s i v e scan i m a g e s e n s o r

K . A n d r e w s i n Dictionary

p a n e l . M o s t o f B r u e g h e l ' s I t a l i a n c o p p e r plates m e a s u r e ca. 25 x 35 c m

8 6 - 9 6 . See also E r t z 1979, p p . 4 9 9 - 5 0 4 , 552 (sources 5 8 8 - 9 7 ) a n d

a n d m a d e infrared images w i t h the A r t i s t camera ( A r t I n n o v a t i o n ,

1988-89, pp. 119-22.

11. See E r t z 1979, n o s . 1-32, t h e earliest o f w h i c h ( n o s . 4 - 5 ) are d a t e d

S c h l i c h t e n m a i e r (1988) d o e s n o t m e n t i o n a n y c o l l a b o r a t i v e p a i n t i n g s

3. B o t h p a i n t i n g s w e r e e x a m i n e d o n J a n u a r y 4 a n d 5, 2 0 0 5 , i n t h e

m a i e r 1988, n o . K 4 0 ) ; a c o p y o f The Descent into Limbo

see P h o e n i x - K a n s a s C i t y - T h e H a g u e

1998 a n d P h o e n i x - K a n s a s C i t y - T h e H a g u e 1 9 9 8 - 9 9 , cat. n o . 6;

S c h l i c h t e n m a i e r (1988, n o . K 3 ) also r e g a r d e d i t as a c o p y .

E r t z (1979, n o . 32) also m i s t a k e n l y r e j e c t e d The Descent into Limbo

with Saint Jerome;

1 9 9 8 - 9 9 , p . 147, n . 3.

13. R e g a r d i n g c o l l a b o r a t i o n s b e t w e e n R o t t e n h a m m e r a n d B r i l , see P i j l

t h e Y o u n g e r , w i t h figures b y H e n d r i c k v a n B a l e n . F o l l o w i n g E r t z ,

van Suchtelen, w h o v i e w e d t h e m u n d e r the

10. Landscape

1594. O f t h i s g r o u p , o n l y n o s . 17, 2 0 , 21, a n d 23 are p a i n t e d o n

J u n e 22, 1988, as w e l l as a c o m m u n i c a t i o n f r o m J o r g e n W a d u m ,

on the Flight

9. See P h o e n i x - K a n s a s C i t y - T h e H a g u e 1 9 9 8 - 9 9 , p p . 1 4 6 - 5 8 , 2 6 6 - 6 9 .

AND ROTTENHAMMER

M a u r i t s h u i s , see E r t z 1979, u n d e r n o . 10; E r t z 1984, n o . 151; a n d

T h e H a g u e 1 9 8 8 - 8 9 , p . 122, f i g . b (sale, S o t h e b y ' s , L o n d o n , A p r i l 11,
1 9 9 0 , l o t 38). See also S c h l i c h t e n m a i e r 1988, n o s . G I 6 - 1 0 , K 2 - 1 1 .

17- See A n t w e r p 1998, cat. n o . 29. T h e d e p i c t i o n o f t h e classical t e m p l e

is b a s e d o n B r u e g h e l ' s d r a w i n g o f 1593 ( P a r i s , F o n d a t i o n C u s t o d i a ) ;

see Cardinal

see E r t z 1979, fig. 199.

Indice delle lettere a

( M i l a n , i 9 6 0 ) . B r u e g h e l ' s letters t o

B i a n c h i , w h i c h e n d e d u p i n t h e A m b r o s i a n a i n the late s e v e n t e e n t h
c e n t u r y , are b o u n d t o g e t h e r i n o n e v o l u m e ( M S . G 2 8 o i n f ) . A l m o s t

19. See P i j l 1998, p . 6 6 0 , n . 7. T h e c l o s e r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n B r i l a n d

a l l these letters w e r e p u b l i s h e d i n C r i v e l l i 1868. B r u e g h e l ' s first l e t t e r

R o t t e n h a m m e r w e r e d o c u m e n t e d i n 1610; i b i d . , n . 4 .
2 0 . See E r t z 1979, P P - 1 1 6 - 3 6 , n o s . 5, 9, 2 5 - 2 7 , 32, 6 5 - 6 7 , 8 0 , 81, 9 9 ,
a n d 107.

t o the c a r d i n a l is d a t e d O c t o b e r 10, 1596; t h e n e x t s u r v i v i n g letter

dates f r o m J u l y 8, 1605, f o l l o w e d b y e x t a n t letters f r o m e v e r y y e a r
u p t o 1625.

21. B r u e g h e l s o m e t i m e s u s e d the s a m e m o t i f s i n h i s H e l l scenes; see

B r o o s 1993, pp- 7 9 - 8 7 .

26. See C r i v e l l i 1868, p . 51. R o t t e n h a m m e r is n o t a c t u a l l y m e n t i o n e d b y

n a m e i n a n y o f B r u e g h e l ' s s u r v i v i n g letters.

22. C o m p a r e , a m o n g o t h e r s , R e a u 1955-59, v o l . 2, p p . 531-37; see also

aurea (Golden

Legend)

(ca. 1280) w a s a p o p u l a r v o l u m e t r e a t i n g t h e lives o f t h e s a i n t s ; t h e

first D u t c h t r a n s l a t i o n s a p p e a r e d i n 1505 a n d 1516.

27. See E r t z 1979, n o s . 124 a n d 121; a n d J o n e s 1993, n o s . I A 100 a n d I A 2 9 b

(as ca. 1 6 0 5 - 0 6 ) . T h e angels i n t h e Winter

Landscape

were attributed

b y S c h l i c h t e n m a i e r (1988, p p . 3 4 - 3 5 ) t o H e n d r i c k v a n B a l e n , f o l l o w i n g
J o s t (1963, p . 92). R o s s i a n d R o v e t t a (1997, p p . 124, 1 2 7 - 2 8 ) d a t e b o t h

23. H o l l s t e i n 1 9 4 9 - , v o l . 3, p . 2 6 8 , n o . 115.

p a i n t i n g s i n t h e P i n a c o t e c a A m b r o s i a n a t o 1594-95.

2 4 . See C r i v e l l i 1868, p p . 3 - 4 .
25. " F r a t a n t o i o staro a s p e t t a n d o g l i q u a d r i de V S

Federico Borromeo, arciv. di Milano:

lui dirette, conservate alVAmbrosiana

18. See P h o e n i x - K a n s a s C i t y - T h e H a g u e 1 9 9 8 - 9 9 , cat. n o . 7.

H a l l 1974, p- 1 0 0 . J a c o b u s de V o r a g i n e ' s Legenda

F e d e r i c o B o r r o m e o a n d t o his a g e n t , the M i l a n e s e n o b l e m a n E r c o l e
B i a n c h i . T h e s e letters are k e p t i n t h e B i b l i o t e c a A m b r o s i a n a i n M i l a n ;

28. I n t h e d e e d o f gift ( d a t e d A p r i l 28, 1618) p r e s e r v e d i n the P i n a c o t e c a

111.mo

p e r o r n a r e de

p a i e s i et a l t r i c o s i s e c o n d e l ' i s t o r i d e l l i f i g u r i . " : C r i v e l l i 1868, p p . 5 0 - 5 1 .

B e t w e e n 1596 a n d 1625, J a n B r u e g h e l w r o t e at least e i g h t y letters t o

A m b r o s i a n a , Music-making

Angels

is a t t r i b u t e d t o R o t t e n h a m m e r a n d

B r u e g h e l ; see J o n e s 1993, p . 352, n o . I A 1 0 0 .

29. See also B e d o n i 1983, p . 4 5 ; a n d Q u i n t 1986.

BRUEGHEL

AND

ROTTENHAMMER

135

16
Jan Brueghel the Elder and Hendrick de Clerck

The Garden of Eden with the Fall of Man

ca.

1597-98
3

O i l on copper, diam. 27.4 cm (io /4 in.)

Neuburg an der Donau, Bayerische Staatsgemaldesammlungen,
Staatsgalerie, inv. 1274

PROVENANCE

G a l e r i e D i i s s e l d o r f , 1730 i n v e n t o r y , n o . 88
LITERATURE

T e r l i n d e n 1952, p . 102; L a u r e y s s e n s 1967,

p. 175; R e n g e r a n d S c h l e i f 2 0 0 5 , p p . 2 8 - 3 1

'HIS

P A R A D I S E

L A N D S C A P E

W I T H

T H E

F A L L

O F

M A N

painted on a round copper platehas traditionally

been seen as a collaborative creation by the Brussels
painters Denis van Alsloot (ca. 1570-ca. 1626) and Hendrick
de Clerck, the latter being responsible for the figures. As
regards the rendering of the animals and the landscape, how
ever, the picture is so closely related to several early para
dise depictions by Jan Brueghel that there can be little doubt
that these passages were painted by the Antwerp master.
O f importance is this painting's similarity to one
of BrueghePs earliest-known paintings, a Paradise Landscape
with the Creation ofAdam^ signed and dated 1594, which he
painted during his stay in Rome (fig. 7 s ) . O n that copper
plate, Brueghel combined a wooded landscape and numer
ous animals and birds with a stream full of fish and a view to
a sea with whales in the left background. Because the work
1

136

BRUEGHEL

A N D DE

CLERCK

was made without the help of a figure painter, the biblical

story is depicted on a small scale and in the distance, not
prominently in the foreground. The lionseen from the
side and turned toward the rightis identical in both
paintings, and other animals, such as the cats and the rabbits,
correspond very closely. The style of foliage in both these
works also points to the same hand, as does the use of
fine, nearly white brushstrokes for the detailing in the dis
tant background, where several animals (including a llama)
are depicted in silhouette. When Brueghel painted this
paradise scene, he had apparently never seen a live guinea
pig. The animal depicted here does not look particularly
lifelikeits head seems simply stuck onto its bodyand
must have been based on knowledge gained from prints.
A n identical lion occurs in a Paradise Landscape with the Entry
of the Animals into Noah's Ark, signed and dated 1 5 9 6 , in
4

137

F I G U R E 75 J a n B r u e g h e l t h e E l d e r , Paradise

Landscape

with the Creation

of Adam,

1594. O i l o n c o p p e r , 26.5 x 35 c m ( i o / s x i^A

in.). R o m e , Galleria D o r i a

P a m p h i l j , i n v . F C 274

which the same sheepwith its curiously close-set eyesis recognizable in the right foreground. In the context of
the present picture, this animal can perhaps be interpreted
as a reference to the Lamb of God, whose sacrifice redeemed
humankind from the original sin of Adam and Eve.
A striking detail to the left of Adam and Eve is the ass
with antlers, which was originally depicted somewhat larger
and in profile, as revealed by infrared imaging. It is not
clear how Brueghel hit upon the idea of including this myth
ical beast, which neither he nor anyone else seems subse
quently to have depicted. Its source was possibly the Greek
5

138

BRUEGHEL

AND

DE

CLERCK

writer Herodotus, who in the third century before Christ

wrote about the "horned ass" of Africa. His mention of
this animal is in fact regarded as the source of the legend
of the unicorn; a creature that appears, among other places,
in the background of BrueghePs Paradise Landscape with
the Creation ofAdam (fig. 75). In contrast to BrueghePs
two above-mentioned paradise scenes dating from 1594 and
1596, there are practically no birds in the Neuburg painting,
which means that the wooded landscape makes a less
crowdedand hence more naturalimpression.
6

In making this small painting, Jan Brueghel sought the

collaboration of the Brussels court painter Hendrick
de Clerck, who, like Brueghel, had worked for several years
in Italy. De Clerck's somewhat mannered nudes are recog
nizable by their elegant poses, the smooth modeling of their
bodies (the painted surface of which seems almost enam
eled), their elongated proportions and small heads, and
such details as their long toes, of which the second is the
longest. De Clerck was recorded in Rome in 1 5 8 6 - 8 7 , but
by 1590 he was already back in Brussels, before Brueghel
had even set foot in the holy city. After returning from Rome,
De Clerck painted large altarpieces for churches in Brussels
and its environs, as well as small cabinet pieces depicting
mythological and biblical subjects, which were popular
among high-placed collectors, including Emperor Rudolf II.
In 1596 the emperor recommended De Clerck to Archduke
Albert; indeed, De Clerck had already worked for Albert's
predecessor, Ernst of Austria (Rudolf, Albert, and Ernst
were brothers).
Given its strong similarities to Brueghel's earliest para
dise scenes, this collaborative painting depicting Adam
and Eve in the Garden of Eden must have been painted early
on, probably not long after Brueghel returned from Italy in
the autumn of 1596. The few known collaborative paintings
by Brueghel and De Clerck are generally dated 1 6 0 6 - 0 8
and include an ambitious portrayal of The Wedding of Peleus
and Thetis (Paris, Musee du Louvre) and an Allegory of
the Tour Elements (Madrid, Museo Nacional del Prado). The
present paintingwhich, as far as we know, is the first the
masters made togetherproves that they were acquainted as
much as a decade before collaborating on the two abovementioned paintings. Even so, they collaborated only
occasionally, which probably had to do with the distance
between their respective places of residence. Brueghel often
worked with his fellow townsmen Hendrick van Balen
and Rubens, whereas De Clerck regularly asked Denis
van Alsloot, who also lived in Brussels, to execute the land
scape settings for his figures.
This small painting from Neuburg shows the same
episode in the story of the Creation as The Garden of Eden by
Rubens and Brueghel in the Mauritshuis (cat. no. 4 ) , with
Eve reaching up in similar fashion to take the apple offered
to her by the serpent in the tree. It is remarkable that
at this early stage in his career Brueghel collaborated with
another artist on a Fall of Man, some twenty years before
he portrayed the subject with Rubens. A v S

NOTES

1. See N . S c h l e i f i n R e n g e r a n d S c h l e i f 2 0 0 5 , p p . 2 8 - 3 1 . F o r a v a r i a n t i n
a m u c h l a r g e r scale o f the p a i n t i n g d i s c u s s e d h e r e , see E s s e n - V i e n n a

10

2 0 0 3 , cat. n o . 104 (as b y D e n i s v a n A l s l o o t a n d H e n d r i c k de C l e r c k ) ;

the e x e c u t i o n is t o o w e a k , h o w e v e r , t o j u s t i f y t h i s a t t r i b u t i o n .
2. I n S c h l e i s s h e i m 1905, p. 216, n o . 1001, the p a i n t i n g is a s s i g n e d

to

H e n d r i c k de C l e r c k a n d the a n i m a l s t o J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r .
I n S c h l e i s s h e i m 1914, p . 56, n o . 4 0 0 1 , the b a c k g r o u n d is a t t r i b u t e d
t o D e n i s v a n A l s l o o t . T e r l i n d e n (1952, p . 102) l i k e w i s e c o n s i d e r s

the

w o r k a c o l l a b o r a t i v e effort o f H e n d r i c k de C l e r c k a n d J a n B r u e g h e l
the E l d e r .
3. E s s e n - V i e n n a 1 9 9 7 - 9 8 , cat. n o . 36.
4 . J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r , Paradise
into Noah's Ark

Landscape

with the Entry of the

Animals

( i n s c r i b e d at l o w e r left, B R V E G H E L 1596, o i l o n c o p p e r ,
5

27 x 35.5 c m [ i o / s x 14 i n . ] ; p r i v a t e c o l l e c t i o n ) ; see A n t w e r p 1998,

cat. n o . 35.
5. See R e n g e r a n d S c h l e i f 2 0 0 5 , p . 30.
6. O n the i m p o r t a n c e o f B r u e g h e l a n d P a u l B r i l (1553/54-1626) f o r the
d e v e l o p m e n t o f the w o o d e d l a n d s c a p e i n F l e m i s h art, see P i j l 2 0 0 5 ,
p. 560.
7. O n H e n d r i c k de C l e r c k , see W . L a u r e y s s e n s i n Dictionary

of Art,

J. T u r n e r , e d . , v o l . 7 ( N e w Y o r k , 1996), p p . 413-15.
8. I n f r a r e d i m a g i n g has s h o w n an e l a b o r a t e u n d e r d r a w i n g o f the f i g u r e s ;
see R e n g e r a n d S c h l e i f 2 0 0 5 , p . 30.
9. H e n d r i c k de C l e r c k a n d J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r , The Wedding

ofPeleus

and Thetis ( s i g n e d at l o w e r left H . D . C . , o i l o n c o p p e r , 54.5 x 76.5 c m

[21V2 x 30 Vs i n . ] ; P a r i s , M u s e e d u L o u v r e , i n v . R . F . 1945-17); sec
E r t z 1979, n o . 148, fig. 4 9 9 ; H e n d r i c k de C l e r c k a n d Jan B r u e g h e l
the E l d e r , Allegory

of the Four Elements

( o i l o n c o p p e r , 51 x 6 4 c m

[20 Vs x 2514 i n . ] ; M a d r i d , M u s e o N a c i o n a l d e l P r a d o , i n v . 1401); see

E r t z 1979, n o . 145, fig. 4 3 8 ; J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r a n d H e n d r i c k
de C l e r c k , Diana

andActaeon

( o i l o n p a n e l , 51 x 89.5 c m [20 Vs x

35V4 i n . ] ; P r a g u e , N a r o d n i G a l e r i e , inv. D O - 4 1 3 0 ) ; see E r t z 1979,

n o . 146, fig. 6 2 6 . See also D e M a e y e r 1955, p p . 155-56, 4 3 7 ; T e r l i n d e n
1952, p p . 1 0 5 - 0 6 ; L a u r e y s s e n s 1967, p p . 1 6 4 - 6 6 ; a n d E r t z 1979, p . 513
a n d figs. 627 a n d 628.
10. O n the c o l l a b o r a t i o n b e t w e e n H e n d r i c k de C l e r c k a n d D e n i s
v a n A l s l o o t ( e i g h t c o l l a b o r a t i v e p a i n t i n g s d a t e d b e t w e e n 1608 a n d
1612 are k n o w n ) , see L a u r e y s s e n s 1967 a n d B r o s e n s 1998. C o m p a r e ,
f o r e x a m p l e , Paradise

Landscape

with the Four Elements,

by D e Clerck

a n d V a n A l s l o o t i n the A l t e P i n a k o t h e k , M u n i c h (inv. 2 8 9 0 ) , w h i c h
is s i g n e d b y b o t h p a i n t e r s ; see R e n g e r a n d D e n k 2 0 0 2 , p p . 1 3 8 - 4 0 .
11. R e g a r d i n g t h i s g e s t u r e , see F r a n s P o u r b u s ' s Garden
( B r o o s 1993, P- 93, %

of Eden o f 1566

5).

11

B R U E G H E L A N D DE C L E R C K

139

17
Jan Brueghel the Elder and Hendrick van Balen

Allegory of Fire
ca.

1608-10

O i l on panel, 53.8 x 94.3 cm (21 Vs x 37Vs in.)

Rome, Galleria Doria Pamphilj, inv. 332

PROVENANCE

I n the G a l l e r i a f r o m 1819
LITERATURE

T o n c i 1794, pp- 132-33; S e s t i e r i 1942,

p p . 2 3 8 - 3 9 ; E e m a n s 1964, p . 8 4 ; T o r s e l l i
1969, n o . 2 4 ; E r t z 1979, p p . 364, 368,
369, 372, 599, n o . 251; S a f a r i k a n d T o r s e l l i
1982, p . n o ; B e d o n i 1983, p p . 116-17;
P a r i s - L y o n 1991, p . 30; G e n o a

1996,

p p . 7 6 , 78

=HE

????

SPLENDID

VAULTED

INTERIOR

WITH

FORGE

was one of BrueghePs most effective and versatile

inventions. Inspired by his own experience of the
ancient monuments of Rome and by the artistic responses of
other Northern artists to the city's ruins, Brueghel created a
magnificent stage set suitable for a variety of related allegor
ical themes. In this work, the element of Fire is represented
by Vulcan's forge. A t left, the muscular god of fire and
metalworking hammers out the shield of Aeneas on an anvil,
observed by Venus, his wife and the mother of Aeneas, and
Cupid. The dramatic setting portrays the "underground
cavern and galleries leading from [Mount] Etna" on the
island of Vulcania, site of Vulcan's forge as described in The
Aeneid ( 8 . 3 7 0 - 4 5 3 ) , where the terrible arms of war were
made by the Cyclopes and where "bronze and pure gold-ore
flowed along the conduits, and wounding steel melted in a
1

140

BRUEGHEL

AND VAN

BALEN

great furnace," and "the cavern rumbled under the anvils

planted on its floor."
Allegories of the elements were part of Flemish pictorial
tradition, popularized in the late sixteenth century through
print series. Brueghel and Hendrick van Balen transformed
the symbolic vocabulary of these scenes into delightfully
lush and abundant landscapes. Brueghel first undertook
allegorical subjects in Antwerp during the first years of the
seventeenth century, painting the atmospheric and primal
Allegory of Tire (fig. 76) for Cardinal Borromeo in 1608,
one of his first treatments of the vaulted interior. Perhaps as
a result of the success of this panel, he created a series of
elements, painting three additional panels for Borromeo,
with allegorical figures by Van Balen, completing the group
2

in 1 6 2 1 .

141

F I G U R E 76 J a n B r u e g h e l t h e E l d e r , Allegory

of Fire,

1608. O i l o n p a n e l , 4 6 x 6 6 c m (18 Vs x 26 i n . ) . M i l a n , P i n a c o t e c a A m b r o s i a n a , i n v . 68

The panel in the Doria Pamphilj collection is related to

another treatment of the element of Fire, which employs
a more insistent, three-part, vaulted interior with a lower
viewpoint and smaller-scale still life. Brueghel's first version
of the composition, Allegory of Fire ( 1 6 0 6 ; Lyon, Musee
des Beaux-Arts) may have been conceived as an independent
panel, the subject of which was Venus and Cupid in the
Smithy of Vulcan. Brueghel and Van Balen subsequently
executed the elements of Earth, Air, and Water to form a
series of the Four Elements. Virtually identical to the Lyon
panel, the Doria Pamphilj Allegory of Fire was probably com
pleted slightly later, about 1 6 0 8 - 1 0 , and was also part of
a series of Elements. In the Doria Pamphilj Allegory of Fire,
the top, right, and lower edges of the composition have
5

142

BRUEGHEL

A N D VAN BALEN

been extended, and small implements have been added to

the foreground.
The elegantly disposed architecture of the Allegory of Fire,
overgrown in places with foliage, recalls Brueghel's drawings
of the immense interiors of the Roman Colosseum, with
its flickering dark corners and textured masonry (see fig. 7 ) .
A detailed drawing of an antique ruin on the Palatine H i l l
(fig. 77) demonstrates the powerful impact these architec
tural remains had on Northern artists and has often been
seen as the direct source for the Rome and Lyon panels and
their variants. However, a recently discovered drawing
(fig. 78) reveals that Brueghel based his overgrown ruined
setting, and the subject of Venus in the Forge of Vulcan
within it, on a composition by Paolo Fiammingo ( 1 5 4 0 8

an Antwerp painter active in Venice. That he may

have known the composition only in the form of a print
is indicated by the fact that the angle of the main tunnel and
the bay with the forge as well as the placement of the stepped
display of objects and the large wooden waterwheel opposite
are reversed in Brueghel's paintings. Notably, Brueghel
included a number of the small elements that refer to the
theme of metalworking, including the precious objects dis
played on shelves and the mysterious chandelier. Fiammingo
was adept at devising detailed and clever mythological land
scapes for his patrons, who included the German banker
Hans Fugger. It is not surprising that Brueghel, aware of
other Venetian innovations, such as the paradise landscapes
of Jacopo Bassano (ca. 1 5 1 0 - 1 5 9 2 ) , was also interested in
the lively and detailed compositions of his older colleague.
While Fiammingo's ideas for the Forge of Vulcan stimu
lated Brueghel, the imposing distant landscape and particu
larly the dazzling array of objects strewn across the floor of
the cavern in the Allegory of Fire were the product of his own
lively imagination. In its prolific detail, the vaulted interior
was ingeniously and even conscientiously conceived. A n
entire industry takes place around the main figures. O n the
left, several men are seen working around a second anvil,
while another tends the forge. Still farther into the interior,
a worker chases a cannon with a hammer and chisel and a
horse moves a large windlass, turning a drill for boring can
non. In the right foreground, two men work molten metal
into a sheet beside a water-powered battering mill, while
two others polish finished objects on small buffing wheels.
Details such as the little footbridge over the stream and the
rickety wood bridge at the right invite the viewer to meander
through the forge and into the formidable landscape. In
the foreground, the still-life items represent the diversity of
fire's products. Precious gold and pewter items cascade
over a rough-hewn sideboard. Spread across the foreground,
appropriately adjacent to Vulcan, are pieces of steel armor,
elegant damascened armor, a crossbow, sword, and rapier, as
well as the copper pots used in the armorer's craft. In front
of the foreground trough, bench shears sit upright in a
vice, while Vulcan's anvil, and the anvil used by the Cyclopes
in the background, sit correctly on a wood support. In
the corridor behind the Cyclopes stand the main products of
the foundry and the source material for ordnance: a cannon
and a bell.
Brueghel was immensely proud of his inventive allegories
of Fire. In a letter to Ercole Bianchi, agent for his patron
1596),

10

11

F I G U R E 77 U n k n o w n N o r t h e r n artist, View of'AntiqueRuins,

5

ca. 1595.

P e n a n d i n k , 19.3 x 27.1 c m (7 /s x i o / s i n . ) . A m s t e r d a m , R i j k s m u s e u m ,
Rijksprentenkabinet, inv. 1989-187
F I G U R E 78

P a o l o F i a m m i n g o ( 1 5 4 0 - 1 5 9 6 ) , The Forge of Vulcan,

ca. 1575.

P e n a n d b r o w n i n k o v e r b l a c k c h a l k , 14.6 x 20.8 c m (5V4 x 8V4 i n . ) .

Location unknown

12

13

BRUEGHEL

AND VAN

BALEN

143

F I G U R E 79

S t u d i o o f J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r ,

Venus in the Smithy of Vulcan,

ca. 1608. P e n a n d
3

i n k w i t h w a s h , 21.4 x 36 c m (8 /s x 14 Vs i n . ) .
D r e s d e n , K u p f e r s t i c h k a b i n e t t , i n v . c 3775

Cardinal Borromeo, the artist stated (referring, perhaps,

to the 1608 Allegory of Fire) that he had a painting of Fire of
"various devilish invention and painstakingly made." A few
months later, he wrote to Cardinal Borromeo, noting that
in a few days he will send a painting of the element of Fire
in which "one sees every sort of arms, gold silver metals
and fire, also alchemy and distillation, everything done from
nature with the greatest diligence."
Some of the relationships between still-life elements
in the Allegory of Fire may have been planned in advance. A
sheet of birds apparently served as a starting point for the
arrangement of birds in the Allegory ofAir in the Lyon and
Doria Pamphilj series. Though none are known today,
when composing the still-life elements Brueghel may have
relied on drawn studies of certain pieces of armor, tools,
and other objects that would have been similar to an existing
sheet of hunting gear (see fig. 6 4 ) . Many pieces of armor
and other objects recur in other compositions, sometimes
in similar arrangements, but more often rearranged (see
cat. no. 16). The sideboard, bench, and stool were part of
his initial campaign on The Return from War: Mars Disarmed
by Venus (cat. no. 2) but were later obscured by Rubens.
Brueghel delighted in meticulously described surfaces and
in contrasting volumes, creating a visual counterpoint of
protrusions and recesses in the central pile of accouterments.
Hendrick van Balen, Brueghel's primary collaborator
in these years, painted the main trio of figures in this work
14

15

17

and the female personifications in the rest of the series.

Van Balen's elegant, polished forms contrast with the
minute, textured brushwork of his colleague and served to
set the gods subtly apart from other figures in the interior.
A drawing often considered a preparatory sketch for
the Doria Pamphilj allegory (fig. 79) is neither the work
of Jan Brueghel the Elder nor Hendrick van Balen and may
simply record the relationship of the figures to the forge
interior and the primary features in i t . A T W
18

NOTES

1. See p p . 6 - 9 i n t h i s v o l u m e .
2. V i r g i l , The Aeneid,

W . F. Jackson, trans. ( H a r m o n d s w o r t h ,

1956),

pp. 213-14.

1 6

144

BRUEGHEL

AND VAN

BALEN

3. F o r e x a m p l e , F r a n s F l o r i s (1516-1570), The Elements,

ca. 1568; see

V a n de V e l d e 1975, v o l . 1, p p . 4 2 2 - 2 3 , n o . P 1 0 3 - 1 0 6 .
4 . F o r the M i l a n Allegory

of Fire, s i g n e d a n d d a t e d B R V E G H E L 1608, see

E r t z 1979, p p . 374, 589, n o . 1 9 0 ; J o n e s 1993, p p . 7 9 - 8 0 , 86, 237 ( n o t i n g

t h a t Fire m a y h a v e b e e n r e t u r n e d t o B r u e g h e l f o r c h a n g e s ) ; a n d R o s s i
a n d R o v e t t a 1997, p . 138. T h e Element of Water ( M i l a n , P i n a c o t e c a
A m b r o s i a n a , i n v . 65) was the s e c o n d p i e c e i n the series t o be c o m
p l e t e d a n d was sent t o t h e c a r d i n a l i n t h e s p r i n g o f 1614; see E r t z 1979,
p p . 374, 6 0 7 , n o . 302. T h e Element

of Earth

(ca. 1618) a n d the

Element

of Air (dated 1621) are today i n the c o l l e c t i o n o f the Musee d u L o u v r e

inv. 1092 a n d 1921; see E r t z 1979, p p . 6 1 4 - 1 5 , n o . 342, a n d p . 6 2 0 ,
n o . 372, respectively. B o r r o m e o already o w n e d the B r u e g h e l - V a n B a l e n

c o l l a b o r a t i o n , Ceres with the Four Elements

fig. 38) b e l i e v e d t h i s sheet was a p r e p a r a t o r y s k e t c h f o r the D o r i a

( M i l a n , Pinacoteca

P a m p h i l j Allegory

A m b r o s i a n a , i n v . 7 4 - 1 6 ) , w h i c h m a y be the " C e r e s " m e n t i o n e d b y

the artist i n a letter t o B o r r o m e o d a t e d J u l y 8, 1605; see C r i v e l l i
1868, p . 50. See E r t z 1979, p p . 3 6 3 - 6 4 ( n o t an a u t o g r a p h w o r k b y Jan
B r u e g h e l the E l d e r ) ; a n d B e d o n i 1983, p . 108. F o r B r u e g h e l ' s treat

16.

See W i n n e r 1972, p p . 1 4 6 - 4 8 .

17.

W e r c h e ( 2 0 0 4 , p p . 1 9 3 - 9 4 , n o s . A 1 4 0 - A 143) dates the D o r i a P a m p h i l j

panels ca. 1 6 0 6 - c a . 1611 o n the basis o f V a n B a l e n ' s figure style.

m e n t o f the F o u r E l e m e n t s t h e m e a n d its r e l a t i o n s h i p t o the paradise

l a n d s c a p e , see K o l b 2 0 0 5 , p p . 5 2 - 5 9 .

18.

5. S i g n e d a n d d a t e d o n the side o f the table at left: B R V E G H E L / 1 6 0 6 , o i l

of Air.

T h e sheet d o e s n o t c o r r e s p o n d t o a n y o f the k n o w n v e r s i o n s o f t h i s
c o m p o s i t i o n . G e r s o n ( G e r s o n a n d T e r K u i l e i 9 6 0 , p. 59) c o n s i d e r e d

o n p a n e l , 4 6 x 83 c m (18Vs x 32V8 i n . ) ; L y o n , M u s e e des B e a u x A r t s ,

the D r e s d e n sheet a p r e p a r a t o r y d r a w i n g f o r the D o r i a P a m p h i l j

inv.

p a n e l , b u t the a t t r i b u t i o n o f the sheet t o Jan B r u e g h e l the E l d e r was

6. Air

75-78.
is s i g n e d a n d d a t e d B R V E G H E L 1611; Earth

is s i g n e d a n d d a t e d

q u e s t i o n e d b y W i n n e r (1961, p . 231) a n d E r t z (1979, p- 372).

B R V E G H E L 1610. T h e series appears i n the 1659 i n v e n t o r y o f the

c o l l e c t i o n o f A r c h d u k e W i l h e l m L e o p o l d ; see B u i j s i n P a r i s - L y o n
p p . 2 6 - 3 1 ; a n d W e r c h e 2 0 0 4 , p p . 1 9 1 - 9 3 , n o s . A 1 3 6 - A 139.

1991,

7. T h e o t h e r t h r e e p a i n t i n g s i n the series are a l l i n R o m e , G a l l e r i a

D o r i a P a m p h i l j : Allegory

of Earth,

(21V8

x 37 /4 i n . ) , i n v . 322; Allegory

o i l o n p a n e l , 54.2 x 94.5 c m
of Water, o i l o n p a n e l , 54 x 9 4 c m

(21V4 x 37 i n . ) , inv. 348; a n d Allegory

cm

of Air,

o i l o n p a n e l , 50.3 x 80.1:

(19V4 x 31V2 i n . ) , i n v . 328. See E r t z 1979, p . 599, n o s . 2 4 8 - 5 0 ; a n d

S a f a r i k a n d T o r s e l l i 1982, p . 22. S e v e r a l v e r s i o n s o f the L y o n - R o m e

Allegory

of Fire are k n o w n ; see P a r i s 1 9 7 7 - 7 8 , p . 50; E r t z 1979, n o s . 252,

254; a n d W e r c h e 2 0 0 4 , p. 192. F o r later v e r s i o n s b y J a n B r u e g h e l the

Y o u n g e r a n d his s t u d i o , see V a e s 1 9 2 6 - 2 7 , p. 184; a n d P a r i s 1 9 7 7 - 7 8 ,
p. 50.
8. F o r m e r l y V o s m a e r C o l l e c t i o n , L e i d e n . G e r s o n c o n s i d e r e d the d r a w i n g
t o be the w o r k o f J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r ( G e r s o n a n d T e r K u i l e i 9 6 0 ,
p. 59), a n a t t r i b u t i o n d o u b t e d b y W i n n e r (1961, p p . 1 9 4 - 9 5 ) . E r t z
(1979, p . 373, fi g. 4 4 4 ) t e n t a t i v e l y a t t r i b u t e d the d r a w i n g t o P a u l B r i l .
T h e d r a w i n g d o e s n o t a p p e a r i n R u b y 1999. See also B u i j s i n
P a r i s - L y o n 1991, p . 30, n . 17.
9. S o l d S o t h e b y ' s , A m s t e r d a m , N o v e m b e r 4 , 2 0 0 3 , l o t 710.

F o r F i a m m i n g o ' s d r a w i n g s , see M e i j e r 1975 a n d M e i j e r 1983; f o r his

c o m m i s s i o n s f o r the F u g g e r , see F u c i k o v a a n d K o n e c n y 1983.

ri.

F f o u l k e s 1911, p p . 4 2 , 47.

12.

T h e a p o t h e c a r y b o t t l e s i n the L y o n F i r e are l a b e l e d :
CORALORV; ARAM

1991,

P O T A B I ; A Q V A P A R A D I S I ; see

TINTVRA

Buijs in

Paris-Lyon

p . 26. F o r d i s c u s s i o n o f the M i l a n e s e - s t y l e p a r a d e a r m o r , see

cat. n o . 2.
13.

T h e w o o d s u p p o r t increases the s p r i n g o f the a n v i l ; see W e b b e r 1972,

p. 53-

14. " . . . c h e h a i n m a n e i l q u a d r o d e l f u o c o q u a l sera de u a r i o i n v e n c i o n

d i a b o l i c a p e i n a de lauor." (letter o f J u n e 13, 1608, t o B i a n c h i ) : C r i v e l l i
1868, p . 1 0 4 ; a n d B e d o n i 1983, p . 115; " I n p o c h i g i o r n i m a n d e r a i l
q u a d r o E l e m e n t a d e l f u o c o , e n q u a e l e de v e d e r e o i g n i s o r t e d a r m e r i a ,
m e t a l i o r o a r g e n t o e f u o c o , a n c h o 1'alchimio et d i s t i l a t t i o n i , t u t t i fatti
del

n a t u r a l c o n g r a n d i s m o d i l i g e n c . " (letter o f S e p t e m b e r 2 6 , 1608, t o

C a r d i n a l B o r r o m e o ) : see C r i v e l l i 1868, p. 112; a n d B e d o n i 1983, p . 116.

15.

J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r , Bird Study for an Allegory

of Air

(Braunschweig,

H e r z o g A n t o n U l r i c h - M u s e u m , i n v . K K 79). W i n n e r (1972, p . 159,

BRUEGHEL

AND VAN

BALEN

145

18
Jan Brueghel the Elde r an d Hendrick van Balen

The Prophes y o f Isaiah

ca. 160 9
O i l o n copper , 4 0 . 2 x 50. 4 c m (15 % x 19 % in. )
M u n i c h , Bayerisch e Staatsgemaldesammlungen, A l t e Pinakothek , inv . 199 9

INSCRIPTIONS

LITERATURE

O n th e table t h e l d b y Isaiah , I V D I C A B I T /

S c h l e i f i h e i m i n v e n t o r y o f 1775 , n o . 79 7

G E N T E S , E T A R: / G V E T P O P V L O S M V L T O S ; /

(Brueghel w i t h V a n Balen) ; Rittershause n

ET / C O N F L A B V N T / G L A D I O S SVO S / I N

1788, p . 305 ; M u l l e r H o f s t e d e 1962 , p . 119 ;

V O M E R E S , / E T / L A N C E A S / SVA S / I N F A L C E S .

J o s t 1963 , p p . 1 1 9 - 2 0 ; B a u m s t a r k 1974 ,

/ I S A I A E . 11 ; b e n e a t h th e p u t t o , P A X ; a t fa r

p p . 1 3 6 - 3 7 , 1 4 6 - 4 7 ; E r t z 1979 , p . 383 , 5 9 i ,

right, beneat h seate d female , F O E L I C I T A S ;

n o . 2 0 2 ; D i e m e r 1980 , p p . 16 4 ( n o . 16) , 233 ;

o n th e cross , P I E T A S ; o n th e c o r n u c o p i a ,

M u l l e r H o f s t e d e 1984 , p . 2 4 6 ; R e n g e r a n d
D e n k 2002 , pp . 78-79 ; Werch e 2004 , v o l . 1 ,

ABUNDANTIA

p p . 8 3 - 8 5 , 1 4 0 , n o . A 14 ; v o l . 2 , p . 32 4

PROVENANCE
Prince Electo r Maximilia n I , Kammergalerie ,

EXHIBITIONS

R e s i d e n z , M u n i c h , b y 162 8 ( n o . 16) ; i n t h e

M u n i c h 1980 , v o l . 2 , cat . n o . 2 6 4 ; M u n i c h

E l e c t o r a l i n v e n t o r i e s o f 1641/42 , 1775 , 1885 ,

1993, cat . n o . 3 2

a n d 190 5 ( S c h l o f i S c h l e i f i h e i m )

HE

S P A C I O U S , A R C H E

D I N T E R I O

R O

FA

R U I

N P R O

holds a n oliv e branc h i n hi s lef t h a n d an d a n ornat e helme t

vides th e settin g fo r a comple x an d unusua l allegor y

over th e flames o f a smal l fire a m o t i f f r o m antiquit y

o f Peac e tha t unite s biblica l prophes y w i t h th e classica l

signifying th e en d o f war. A t th e right , thre e femal e figure s

2

accouterments o f c o n c o r d . S t a n d i n g a m i d a profusio n o f

personify th e reward s tha t accompan y freedo m f r o m strife :

metal item s p r o d u c e d i n th e smithy , i n c l u d i n g armor, coppe r

Felicity, seate d an d h o l d i n g M e r c u r y 's caduceus, th e tradi -

vessels, an d swords , th e O l d Testament prophe t Isaia h hold s

tional attribut e o f peace , embodie s divin e happiness. B e h i n d

a table t bearin g th e L a t i n tex t o f his prophes y o f peace: "an d

her stan d Piet y i n blue , h o l d i n g a radian t cross , an d A b u n -

he shal l judge a m o n g th e nations , an d shal l rebuke man y

dance, w h o embrace s a b r i m m i n g c o r n u c o p ia an d hold s

people: an d the y shal l beat thei r sword s i n t o plowshares ,

a shea f o f wheat. A solitar y artichoke , a n a d d i t i o n a l s y m b ol

3

and thei r spear s i n t o p r u n i n g h o o k s : n a t i o n shal l not lif t u p

o f fruitfulness , visuall y bridge s th e spac e betwee n th e t w o

s w o r d agains t n a t i o n , neithe r shal l they lear n wa r an y

groups o f figures , w h i l e a spanie l an d a baske t o f flower s

more." I n th e forg e b e h i n d h i m , muscula r w o r k m e n refash -

signify faithfulnes s an d th e f l o u r i s h i n g of c o n c o r d . T h e

i o n sword s t o m o r e peaceabl e purpose s o n a n anvil . W i t h hi s

allusive visua l languag e almos t certainl y refer s t o th e Twelv e

left h a n d , Isaia h gesture s t o w a r d th e discarde d implement s

Years' Truc e signe d i n A n t w e rp o n A p r i l 9 , 1609 , b r i n g i n g

o f wa r tha t li e befor e h i m , emphasizin g thei r disuse . A

hostilities betwee n th e N o r t h e r n Netherland s an d S p a i n t o

p u t t o a t hi s feet , identifie d by a n i n s c r i p t i o n as Pax (Peace) ,

halt.4 The combination o f the O l d Testament subject with

146 B R U E G H E

L A N D V AN B A L E N

147

symbols and personifications drawn from classical and emble

matic sources reflects not only the intertwined facets of
Counter-Reformation politics in the Southern Netherlands
but also the erudite clientele for such cabinet pictures in
Antwerp. As the only overtly political subject in Brueghel
and Hendrick van Balen's joint oeuvre, The Prophesy of Isaiah
offers a refined counterpoint to large-scale treatments of
the theme of Peace.
This beautiful work on copper is one of Brueghel's most
imposing conceptions of the familiar arched interior with
its long, receding corridor. The ruins served as the setting
for the subject of Venus in the Forge of Vulcan, first painted
in 1606 and executed with Van Balen, and several variations
from 1608, along with Brueghel's Allegory of Tire (see fig. 76).
The structure represents an amalgam of Brueghel's own
observations while in Rome and the fantastic compositions
of other artists, particularly those of Paolo Fiammingo
( 1 5 4 0 - 1 5 9 6 ) , who also included the incongruent chandelier
motif (see fig. 7 8 ) . Here, the perspective is from a somewhat
lower vantage point, and the distant reaches of the corridor
are more luminous than in previous works by Brueghel
and Van Balen, while the foreground has been closed in on
the right side to form an alcove similar to the one seen in
Rubens and Brueghel's The Return from War: Mars Disarmed
by Venus (cat. no. 2). A number of the still-life objects hang
ing on the wall nearbyincluding the lamp, the quiver,
and the bridleappear in both works. As in his other forge
interiors, Brueghel littered the foreground with an astonish
ing array of metal items produced by the busy forge in
the background, as well as wonderfully detailed weapons
and their parts, such as the crossbows on the wall, and their
winders and the musket with its ornate crutch just visible
behind Felicity. Many of the implements, such as the pincers,
hammers, and shears, reflect the armorer and metalworker's
craft. In the left foreground are the tools and products
of the goldsmith and the mint master. This highly successful
and evidently popular setting was Brueghel's own invention,
and thus places the origins of this work in his studio about
5

1608.

As in his collaborations with Van Balen on similar

themes, Brueghel painted the men around the forge and in
the passage. The prophet Isaiah, as well as Felicity and
her companions, are characteristic of Van Balen's style about
1608, with its more elongated figures, an approach that
would change with the influence of Rubens, who arrived in
Antwerp later that year. Isaiah resembles the tall, bearded
9

saint in Van Balen's Saint John the Baptist Preaching from 1608
and reverses his pose.
While in other compositions of the forge by these two
artists, such as the Allegory of Tire (cat. no. 17), Van Balen's
figural contribution was a relatively straightforward addition
to an elaborate landscape, the Munich painting was a some
what more complex matter. There is a strong possibility
that the subject was altered at a late stage. Close inspection
reveals that drapery was added to all of the main figures.
Brown legs are visible through the yellow hem of Isaiah's
robe, and there appear to be objects beneath or behind him,
while creamy skin is visible through the garments of Felicity
and Abundance. A pentimento in the proper right hand of
Felicity indicates that it was once open in an outward point
ing gesture. Significantly, the sensuous seated figure of
Felicity resembles that of Venus in the 1608 Feast of the Gods
(fig. 8 0 ) . The Prophesy of Isaiah may have initially been con
ceived and executed as a Venus in the Smithy of Vulcan or
perhaps as Venus Preparing Mars for War (see, for example,
fig. 81), subjects Brueghel and Van Balen painted in collabo
ration and later modified either at the behest of a patron or
to appeal to a specialized market for subjects related to the
Twelve Years' Truce. The additional drapery would have
been required by the transition of the theme from a sensuous
scene of Mars and Venus to that of elevated political discourse.
10

1 1

12

The unusual inclusion of Isaiah may also have been speci

fied by a patron. The subject of the prophet Isaiah, while
unusual, is compatible with the ancient interior. Moreover,
an earlier episode in the life of the prophet, not directly
alluded to in this scene, when the seraph pressed a glowing
ember to his lips, links him with the element of fire.
Although the additions of draperies and attributes need not
have been made in early 1609 (other treatments of the theme
of peace were executed by other painters within a few years
of the signing of the truce), their careful integration into
the scene suggests that they were made by Van Balen him
self. In contrast to The Return from War: Mars Disarmed by
Venus, with its sensuous and playful treatment of the themes
of Peace and the sense of Touch, The Prophesy of Isaiah has
a didactic quality, perhaps reflecting a concern to emphasize
the revised content over the captivating setting.
As Renger has recently suggested, the appearance of The
Prophesy of Isaiah in the collection of the Wittelsbach prince,
later elector of Bavaria, Maximilian I (1573-1651), may offer
some insight into its early history and significance. Deeply
religious and morally rigorous, Maximilian organized the
13

14

15

16

BRUEGHEL

AND VAN

BALEN

149

FIGURE 8 0

H e n d r i c k v a n B a l e n a n d J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r , The Feast of the Gods, 1608. O i l o n c o p p e r ,

5

34.5 x 46.5 c m ( i 3 / 8 x 18 V4 i n . ) . C o p e n h a g e n , Statens M u s e u m f o r K u n s t , i n v . S p . 225

F I G U R E 81 J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r a n d H e n d r i c k v a n B a l e n , Venus Preparing

Mars for War,

160(8 ?).

O i l o n c o p p e r , 51 x 77 c m (20V8 x 3 0 i n . ) . F o r m e r l y K o n i g s W u s t e r h a u s e n , S c h l o f i ; n o w at
S t . P e t e r s b u r g , State H e r i t a g e M u s e u m S t i f t u n g P r e u f i i s c h e S c h l o f t e r u n d G a r t e n B e r l i n - B r a n d e n b u r g

150

BRUEGHEL

AND VAN

BALEN

Catholic League of German states and was almost constantly

engaged in war during his reign. H e was also an ardent
collector who expanded the princely collection and estab
lished the Kammergalerie in 1 6 1 1 . The Prophesy of Isaiah
accompanied another O l d Testament scene in the gallery,
Jan Brueghel the Elder's Jonah Emerging from the Whale of
about 1 5 9 5 - 9 6 (Munich, Alte Pinakothek). A T W
17

9. T h e m a i n figures w e r e i d e n t i f i e d as the w o r k o f V a n B a l e n as e a r l y as
1775 a n d w e r e later a t t r i b u t e d t o F r a n s F r a n c k e n the Y o u n g e r a n d
H a n s R o t t e n h a m m e r , b e f o r e t h e i r r e a t t r i b u t i o n t o V a n B a l e n i n 1962
b y M i i l l e r H o f s t e d e (1962, p . 119). See R e n g e r a n d D e n k 2 0 0 2 , p . 7 9 ,

18

a n d W e r c h e 2 0 0 4 , v o l . 1, p . 1 4 0 , f o r references t o p r e v i o u s a t t r i b u t i o n s
i n g a l l e r y c a t a l o g u e s b e t w e e n 1775 a n d 1963.
10. L o c a t i o n u n k n o w n . See J o s t 1963, p . 117; a n d W e r c h e 2 0 0 4 , v o l . 1,

19

p. 141, n o . A 17; v o l . 2, p . 326.

11. See J o s t 1963, p . 101; E r t z 1979, pp- 4 0 9 , 586, n o . 170; a n d W e r c h e
2 0 0 4 , v o l . 1, p . 183, n o . A 117; v o l . 2, p . 4 0 1 .

NOTES
12. F o r Venus Preparing

Mars for War, see E r t z 1979, p p . 383, 5 8 9 - 9 0 , n o .

191, fig. 455; W e r c h e 2 0 0 4 , v o l . 1, p . 2 0 0 , n o . A 164; v o l . 2, p . 4 3 6 ; a n d

1. I s a i a h 2 : 4 .

Bartoschek and Vogtherr 2004, pp. 102-3.

2. F o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f the m o t i f o f Peace b u r n i n g a r m s a n d its s o u r c e s ,
see B a u m s t a r k 1974, p p . 131 - 3 7 - T h e m o t i f o f the b u r n i n g o f a r m s ,

13. I s a i a h 6 : 6 0 7 .

t h o u g h relatively u n c o m m o n in A n t w e r p p r i o r to Rubens's return in

14. G i v e n its p r o p h e t i c subject, The Prophesy of Isaiah

c o u l d also have

1608, w a s k n o w n t o s i x t e e n t h - a n d e a r l y - s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y A n t w e r p

b e e n e x e c u t e d i n the m o n t h s l e a d i n g u p t o the s i g n i n g o f t h e T r u c e .

artists w h o w e r e f a m i l i a r w i t h I t a l i a n R e n a i s s a n c e e x a m p l e s , n o t a b l y

See cat. n o . 2 f o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f o t h e r a l l e g o r i e s o f Peace.

t h e fresco Peace Burning

Arms

b y F r a n c e s c o S a l v i a t i (1510-1563) i n

t h e S a l a d e l l ' U d i e n z a , P a l a z z o V e c c h i o , F l o r e n c e ; see W o o l l e t t 2 0 0 4 ,

3. I n C e s a r e R i p a ' s e m b l e m r e p r e s e n t i n g Peace {Iconologia,

15. It is n o t e w o r t h y t h a t a l l o f the m a i n figures are i d e n t i f i e d b y i n s c r i p

t i o n s , d e s p i t e t h e i r clear a t t r i b u t e s .

pp. 4 5 - 4 6 .
1603,

16. R e n g e r a n d D e n k 2 0 0 2 , p . 79. T h e p a i n t i n g appears i n the 1627/30

PP- 3 7 5 - 7 8 ) , the e l e m e n t s o f t h e earth's f r u i t f u l n e s s i n t i m e s o f peace,

i n v e n t o r y o f p a i n t i n g s i n the K a m m e r g a l e r i e as " e i n K u p f e r 1 S c h u e c h

the o l i v e and g r a i n , a n d the s y m b o l o f abundance, the c o r n u c o p i a ,

5 Z o l l h o c h , u n d 1 S c h u e c h 9V4 Z o l l b r a i t t , d a r a u f f P a x , pietas u n d

are u n i t e d w i t h t h e p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n o f Peace, a y o u n g w o m a n h o l d i n g

a b u n d a n t i a , i n d e r m i t t e n stehet d e r P r o p h e t Isaias m i t v o l g e n d e r

a t o r c h to a pile o f arms.

i n s c r i p t i o n . I u c d i c a b i t gentes et a r g u e t p o p u l o s m u l t o s , et c o n f l a b u n t
g l a d i o s suos i n v o m e r e s , et lanceas suas i n f a k e s . Isaiae 11. W i c d a n n

4 . J o s t (1963, p . 119) first s u g g e s t e d a c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e T w e l v e Y e a r s '

K r i i e g e s u n d a n d e r e W a f f e n , v o r u n d u m b i h n e h e r u m b l i n g e n , alles gar

T r u c e . See also R e n g e r a n d D e n k 2 0 0 2 , p . 7 9 . T h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f t h e

m i i h e s a m , u n d v l e i s s i g v o n o b g e d a c h t e m P r i i g e l g e m a l t , m i t N o . 16":

subject o f V u l c a n b e a t i n g s w o r d s i n t o p l o u g h s h a r e s w i t h P a x a n d

D i e m e r 1980, p . 164. W e r c h e ( 2 0 0 4 , v o l . 1, p . 14) n o t e s t h a t the p a i n t

Justitia o c c u r r e d i n the decorations for the t r i u m p h a l entry o f A l b e r t

i n g m u s t date after 1609 because it d o e s n o t a p p e a r i n the i n v e n t o r y

a n d I s a b e l l a i n t o L e u v e n i n N o v e m b e r 1599, w h e n s i m i l a r h o p e s f o r

o f t h a t year.

peace a n d p r o s p e r i t y w e r e e x p r e s s e d b y t h e city's i n h a b i t a n t s u p o n
the a c c e s s i o n o f the c o u p l e t o t h e g o v e r n o r s h i p o f t h e S o u t h e r n
N e t h e r l a n d s . See W e r n e r T h o m a s , " A n d r o m e d a U n b o u n d : T h e R e i g n
o f A l b e r t a n d I s a b e l l a i n t h e S o u t h e r n N e t h e r l a n d s , 1598-1621," i n
B r u s s e l s 1 9 9 8 - 9 9 , p . 2.
5. T h e t h e m e o f Peace r e m a i n e d c e n t r a l f o r A n t w e r p artists i n the decades

17. P i u s W i t t m a n n , " M a x i m i l i a n I," The Catholic Ency lop edia, v o l . 10 (1911),

PP- 75-7718. M u n i c h , A l t e P i n a k o t h e k , i n v . 1886; see D i e m e r 1980, p p . 1 2 9 - 1 7 4 .
A l s o d i s c u s s e d i n W e r c h e 2 0 0 4 , v o l . 1, p p . 1 4 0 , 262. M a x i m i l i a n c o m
i s s i o n e d four hunt scenes f r om Rubens, i n c l u d i n g The Hippopotamus

f o l l o w i n g the T r u c e , p a r t i c u l a r l y after its f a i l u r e a n d t h e r e s u m p t i o n o f

Hunt (ca. 1616; M u n i c h , A l t e Pinakothek, inv. 4797), for his palace at

h o s t i l i t i e s i n 1621 a n d i n l i g h t o f A n t w e r p ' s o w n l a b o r e d e c o n o m i c

S c h l e i f i h e i m ; see R e n g e r a n d D e n k 2 0 0 2 , p p . 4 4 8 - 5 1 .

recovery. Rubens's inventive allegories a b o u n d e d w i t h b o t h sacred a n d

19. N u m b e r e d 16 a n d 14 r e s p e c t i v e l y i n the 1629/30 i n v e n t o r y o f the

s e c u l a r e l e m e n t s . A l m o s t t h r e e decades later, t h e p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n s o f

K a m m e r g a l e r i e , the t w o p a i n t i n g s m a y have h u n g i n p r o x i m i t y ; see

f r u i t f u l n e s s ( A b u n d a n t i a ) , F e l i c i t y , a n d P i e t y f o u n d i n The Prophesy of

D i e m e r 1980, p . 164.

Isaiah

recur i n Rubens's design for the T e m p l e o f Janus i n his p a i n t i n g

o f the t r i u m p h a l entry o f A r c h d u k e F e r d i n a n d i n t o A n t w e r p i n A p r i l
1635 ( o n t h e r i g h t side o f t h e a r c h d e v o t e d t o Peace a n d its a t t r i b u t e s ) ;
see M a r t i n 1972, p p . 1 6 4 - 6 6 , 1 6 9 - 7 3 .
6. Allegory

of Fire ( 1 6 0 6 , o i l o n p a n e l , 4 6 x 83 c m [18 Vs x 32V8 i n . ] ;

L y o n , M u s e e des B e a u x A r t s , i n v . 75); see W e r c h e 2 0 0 4 , p p . 1 9 1 - 9 3 ,

n o . A 136.
7. See p p . 8, 1 4 2 - 4 3 a n d fig. 76 i n t h i s v o l u m e .
8. M i i l l e r H o f s t e d e (1984, p- 2 4 6 ) d i s a g r e e d w i t h E r t z (1979, p . 383) a n d
a r g u e d t h a t V a n B a l e n d e v i s e d the subject.

BRUEGHEL

AND VAN

BALEN

151

19
Jan Brueghel the Elder and Hendrick van Balen

Fruit Garland with Angels

ca. 1615
O i l on panel, 25.3 x 21.2 cm (10 x 8 /s in.)
Private collection
3

PROVENANCE

B r o d G a l l e r y , L o n d o n , 1979
LITERATURE

E r t z 1979, p p . 3 1 8 - 1 9 , n o . 352a; F r e e d b e r g
1984, p . 577; W e r c h e 2 0 0 4 , p . 155, n o . A 56
EXHIBITION

A m s t e r d a m - B r a u n s c h w e i g 1983, cat. n o . 23

'HE

????

M A D O N N A

A N D

C H I L D

( P E R H A P S

IN

T H E

C O M -

pany of Joseph or Saint John the Baptist) are missing

in this Fruit Garland with Angds by Jan Brueghel the
Elder and Hendrick van Balen. A rectangle with an arched
upper edge has been sawn out of the panel, and it was this
very piece that must have contained a little painting, most
likely by Van Balen. The garland of fruit and vegetables
is suspended from ribbons held up by angels emerging from
the clouds. Two other angels are poised to crown the nowmissing Madonna with a wreath of flowers. Yet another two
sit in the garland at the bottom, turned toward each other:
one angel holds a bunch of grapespossibly referring in this
context to the Eucharistwhile the other strokes a parrot.
About 1 6 0 5 - 0 6 Brueghel painted his first flower pieces,
depicting numerous species and varieties of flowersoften
exotic onesin full bloom. Two years later he executed his
1

152

BRUEGHEL

AND VAN

BALEN

first flower garland around a small painting on a silver plate

of the Virgin and Child by Hendrick van Balen (fig. 8 2 ) . By
1607 that composite work was already in the possession of
Cardinal Federico Borromeo in M i l a n , but Brueghel's letters
to Borromeo and his agent, Ercole Bianchi, reveal that the
cardinal sent the picture back to Antwerp at the beginning of
1608 to have Brueghel paint a small landscape behind the
Madonna. The foundation charter of Borromeo's Pinacoteca
Ambrosiana of 1618 records that the work had "a frame and
cover illuminated with gold," offering protection worthy
of a precious jewel. Unfortunately, the cover has been lost.
Brueghel informed his Maecenas of the expenses he had
incurred: "I spent a few scudi on the golden frame and the
painting of the Madonna." Brueghel praised his own flower
garland as "exceedingly precise" and rendered "completely
from nature." The Milan work is the only surviving, intact
2

153

early 1580s. The archdukes Albert and Isabella, demonstrating

their stout defense of the Catholic faith, had a basilica built
in Scherpenheuvela place of pilgrimage in the Southern
Netherlandsto house a statue of the Virgin said to possess
miraculous powers.
In Italy there was a long tradition of Einsatzbilder: holy
or miraculous images inserted into works of art specially
designed to enclose them. The best-known example is
undoubtedly the altarpiece Rubens made in 1606-08 for the
Madonna della Vallicella in the Chiesa Nuova in Rome:
the final version of the altarpiece features the miraculous
image of the Virgin and Child (originally painted on the wall
of a house), borne by angels forming a garland (compare
cat. no. 29). The holy imagewhich was covered by another
depiction of the Virgin and Child, this one painted by
Rubenswas shown only on high feast days.
While Rubens was working in Rome on his largest
Italian commission, Brueghel painted his first flower garland
around Van Balen's small painting of the Virgin and Child,
probably in close consultation with his patron, Cardinal
Borromeo, and perhaps with Rubens's work on the Madonna
della Vallicella in his mind's eye, for it is not only the depic
tion of Mary as a half-length figure that recalls miraculous
images of the Virgin but also Brueghel's splendid flower
garland, which strengthened the impressionas surely as
did the costly golden cover that once protected the whole
that the image was holy. The effect of a special painting
within a painting, whose significance is reinforced by the
garland surrounding it, continues to crop up in Brueghel's
later garlands and also in, for instance, the work of Daniel
Seghers (1590-1661).
From about 1615 Brueghel expanded his repertoire to
include garlands of fruit, vegetables, and sheaves of grain
(see fig. 83), at times combined with flowers (see cat. no. 12
and fig. 86). When used to frame a representation of the
Virgin and Child, fruit symbolizes the fertility of the mother
of G o d and the abundance of God's creation (see fig. 85).
These garlands, too, were painted with the utmost exactness,
as evidenced by the panel displayed here, in which sundry
varieties of fruit and vegetables are rendered with painstak
ing precision. Remarkably, not one of the fruits or plants
appearing in this painting is to be found in other garlands
by Brueghelas, for example, parts of the Mauritshuis
fruit garland appear identically in the Madonna and Child in
a Garland of Emit and Flowers from the Museo del Prado
9

FIGURE 82 Jan Brueghel the E l d e r and H e n d r i c k van Balen, Madonna and

Child
5

in a Flower Garland,

1 6 0 7 - 0 8 . O i l o n p a n e l a n d silver, 27 x 22 c m

( i o / 8 x 8 /8 i n . ) . M i l a n , P i n a c o t e c a A m b r o s i a n a , i n v . 71

Einsatzbild by Brueghel, who from then on painted garlands

mainly around seemingly separate paintings by such artists
as Van Balen and Rubens (see cat. no. 12 and figs. 1, 69, and
84). The work discussed hereBrueghel's smallest fruit
garlandis the only other example of a garland made to
surround a picture on a separate support.
The restoration of Catholicism in Antwerp in 1585 (still
referred to in the North as the "Fall of Antwerp") did much
to revive the worship of the Virgin Mary. New brother
hoods were dedicated to her, and there was renewed interest
in miraculous images. This reaction was provoked in part
by the fact that it was precisely such images of the Blessed
Virgin that had fallen victim to the iconoclastic furies that
raged periodically in the Netherlands between 1566 and the
8

154

BRUEGHEL

AND VAN

BALEN

(compare cat. nos. 21 and 12). After all, Brueghel generally

used his stock motifswith only small adjustments and
variationsagain and again. This is not the case here, how
ever, which suggests that this fruit garland is one of Brueghel's
earliest, and that while executing it he was not yet able
to draw upon an extensive store of preparatory studies.
The angels in this garland recall Rubens's altarpiece for
the Madonna della Vallicellain which the holy image
is supported by angels fashioned into a garlandas well as
the large flower garland surrounding the Virgin and Child
in Rubens and Brueghel's Madonna in a Flower Garland
in the Alte Pinakothek in Munich (see fig. 1), which can be
regarded as an adaptation of the Italian altarpiece. The
angelsperhaps somewhat sentimental in our eyeswere
especially popular in the art of the Counter-Reformation,
because they were considered capable of inducing in the
viewer a state of pious rapture. A v S

therefore, that B r u e g h e l t o o k the initiative to s u p p l y V a n Balen's

p a i n t i n g w h i c h he h i m s e l f h a d p u r c h a s e d (see n o t e 6 b e l o w ) w i t h
a g a r l a n d . I n t h e letter q u o t e d a b o v e , B r u e g h e l seems s i m p l y t o
be s a y i n g t h a t he is f o l l o w i n g B o r r o m e o ' s i n s t r u c t i o n s a n d a d d i n g a
landscape to the e x i s t i n g picture.
5. " c o n c o r n i c e e c o n c o p e r t a m i n i a t a d ' o r o " : J o n e s 1993, a p p e n d i x 11,
P- 3536. " i o h o spesa alle c o r n i c i o r e f r i et a le p i t t u r a d e l l e M a d o n a a l c u n i
s c u d i " (letter f r o m B r u e g h e l t o B i a n c h i o f J u n e 13, 1 6 0 8 ) : C r i v e l l i 1868,
p . 104. I n h i s letter t o B i a n c h i o f A u g u s t 1 o f t h a t s a m e year, B r u e g h e l
w r o t e t h a t he h a d p a i d f o u r filipi f o r the frame a n d t w e l v e filipi f o r
the s m a l l p a i n t i n g o f the M a d o n n a , w h i l e the cardinal had g i v e n h i m
3 0 0 filipi f o r t h e w h o l e . I t is n o t e n t i r e l y clear w h a t he m e a n t w h e n
he w r o t e t h a t he was c o n s i d e r i n g the m o n e y "as a s m a l l p r e s e n t , b u t
n o t as p a y m e n t " (per u n a g e n t i l e z z a m a n o n per p a g a m e n t o ) : C r i v e l l i
1868, p . 107.
7. " f a s t i d i o s o " a n d " t u t t o d e l n a t u r e l " (letter f r o m B r u e g h e l t o B i a n c h i
o f A u g u s t 1, 1 6 0 8 ) : C r i v e l l i 1868, p. 107.

10

8. W h a t f o l l o w s is b a s e d l a r g e l y o n F r e e d b e r g 1981.
9. R e g a r d i n g t h i s c o m m i s s i o n , see cat. n o . 29.
10. See F r e e d b e r g 1981, p p . 133-34..
NOTES

1. R e g a r d i n g B r u e g h e l ' s earliest f l o w e r p i e c e o f 1605, see S e g a l 1982.

F o r B r u e g h e l ' s flower p a i n t i n g s , see E r t z 1979, p p . 2 5 2 - 5 6 .
2. See F a l c h e t t i 1969, p p . 1 3 2 - 3 3 ; E r t z 1979, n o . 187; F r e e d b e r g 1981,
p p . 116-17; J o n e s 1993, p p . 8 4 - 8 7 , p . 233, n o . 2 6 ; a n d W e r c h e 2 0 0 4 ,
n o . A 33.
3. T h e p a i n t i n g is m e n t i o n e d i n t h e c o d i c i l t o B o r r o m e o ' s w i l l , w h i c h is
d a t e d S e p t e m b e r 15, 1607; see J o n e s 1993, a p p e n d i x 1, p . 341.
4 . T h e p a i n t i n g is m e n t i o n e d i n letters w r i t t e n b y B r u e g h e l t o B o r r o m e o
a n d B i a n c h i o n F e b r u a r y 1 ( t w o l e t t e r s ) , J u n e 13, a n d A u g u s t 1, 1608;
see C r i v e l l i 1868, p p . 9 2 , 9 9 , 1 0 4 , 107. B r u e g h e l w r o t e t o B o r r o m e o o n
F e b r u a r y 1, " I s h a l l n o t f a i l t o d o m y best as r e g a r d s the s m a l l p a i n t i n g
w i t h the c o m p a r t m e n t s o f flowers, i n w h i c h I shall a c c o m m o d a t e a
M a d o n n a w i t h a landscape, a c c o r d i n g to the instructions o f Y o u r
Illustrious H i g h n e s s [alternatively: i n w h i c h I shall insert, a c c o r d i n g
to the instructions o f Y o u r I l l u s t r i o u s H i g h n e s s , a M a d o n n a w i t h a
l a n d s c a p e ] . I h o p e a n d b e l i e v e t h a t , i f a n y w o r k o f m i n e has ever
p l e a s e d Y o u r I l l u s t r i o u s H i g h n e s s , t h i s w i l l surpass t h e m a l l . " ( N o n
m a n c h o d i n d u s t r i a r m e i n t o r n o al q u a d r e t t o d e l

compertemento

delli fiori: nel quale secondo l'ordine d v s I L L . m a accomedero dentro

u n a M a d o n n a c o n p a i e s e t t o . S p e r o et c r e d o c h e , si a l c u n a o p e r a m i a
h a b b i a p i a c e u t o a v s I l l . m d a t o g u s t o , che q u e s t a h a b b i a d a s u p p o r t a r e t u t t e . ) : C r i v e l l i 1868, p . 92. T h i s passage is a m b i g u o u s ,

but

s i n c e C r i v e l l i (1868, p . 1 0 0 ) , i t has b e e n t a k e n t o m e a n t h a t i t was

B o r r o m e o ' s i d e a t o p a i n t a g a r l a n d o f flowers a r o u n d V a n B a l e n ' s
p a i n t i n g . H o w e v e r , t h e p a i n t i n g was a l r e a d y i n t h e c a r d i n a l ' s posses
s i o n i n 1607, as e m e r g e s f r o m the c o d i c i l t o h i s w i l l , w h e r e i t is l i s t e d
as " F l o w e r G a r l a n d with M a d o n n a " (see n o t e 3 a b o v e ) . It seems l i k e l y ,

BRUEGHEL

AND VAN

BALEN

155

20
Jan Brueghel the Elder and Hendrick van Balen

Garland of Fruit around a Depiction of Ceres

Receiving Gifts from the Four Seasons
ca. 1617
O i l on panel, 1 0 4 x 6 8 . 9 cm (41 x 27Vs in.)
Antwerp, Dexia Bank, inv. 1291
Not exhibited

PROVENANCE

LITERATURE

Captain Montague Thomas collection,

A n n u a l R e p o r t M a u r i t s h u i s 1895, p- 9 7 ; J o s t

W e y m o u t h , sale, L o n d o n , J u l y 13, 1895,

1963, p . X L ; E r t z 1979, p p . 316, 614, n o . 341;

l o t 82; S a l o m o n v a n B e r g c o l l e c t i o n , N e w

W e r c h e 2 0 0 4 , n o . A 98

York; Bart van Berg collection, N e w York,

EXHIBITIONS

1950; sale, L o n d o n ( S o t h e b y ' s ) , J u n e 25, 1969,

GARLAND

l o t 8 6 ; D u i t s (art d e a l e r ) , L o n d o n ; a c q u i r e d

L o n d o n 1979, cat. n o . 37; B r u s s e l s 1 9 9 7 - 9 8 ,

1969

cat. n o . 4 9 ; A n t w e r p 1998, cat. n o . 87

OF FRUIT, V E G E T A B L E S ,

AND

BLOSSOMS

depicted against a landscape background surrounds

an oval medallion containing an allegorical repre
sentation of agriculture. A t the upper right, winged putti
fasten the garland to a tree; at the upper left, others bear the
long garland up to the heavens, where Jupiter and his eagle
are seated. In the foreground, two kneeling nymphs and
their little helpers put the finishing touches on the garland,
which consists of melons, grapes, lemons, plums, apples,
strawberries, and cherries, as well as cabbages, beans,
artichokes, carrots, and sheaves of wheat. Birds, monkeys,
squirrels, rabbits, and guinea pigs feast on the rich pickings.
In the medallion, four figures personifying the Four Seasons
present the fruits of the earth to Ceres, the goddess of
agriculture and abundance, who is seated beneath a red bal
dachin. Spring crowns the goddess with a wreath of flowers;

156

BRUEGHEL

AND VAN

BALEN

Summer, kneeling at her feet, presents her with a cornu

copia; Autumn offers her grapes; the old man representing
Winter brings her a plate of dried corncobs. The putti
around them represent the signs of the zodiac; their attri
butes are depicted on their wings and on the objects they
hold. They likewise symbolize the cycle of nature. Both
versions of this composition by Jan Brueghel and Hendrick
van Balen are autograph paintings, but small differences
between the two suggest that the panel in Antwerp was the
"principaeP (i.e., the original, or first version), and that
it was this painting which is depicted in the 1618 Allegory of
Taste by Brueghel and Rubens in the Museo Nacional del
Prado (cat. no. 8 ) . The Mauritshuis painting was probably
made slightly later, about 1 6 2 1 - 2 2 , as confirmed by the brand
marks on the back of the panel.
1

21
Jan Brueghel the Elder and Hendrick van Balen

Garland of Fruit around a Depiction of Ceres

Receiving Gifts from the Four Seasons
ca. 1 6 2 1 - 2 2
x

O i l on panel, 106.5

70 cm ( 4 1 % x 27V2 in.)

The Hague, Royal Picture Gallery Mauritshuis, inv. 233

W i l l e m V , T h e H a g u e , 1815-22; M a u r i t s h u i s ,

INSCRIPTIONS

s i n c e 1822

O n the reverse, p a n e l m a k e r ' s m a r k M V

[in ligature], A , and A n t w e r p city mark

G h e n t i 9 6 0 , cat. n o . 38; B r u s s e l s 1965,

cat. n o . 25; A m s t e r d a m - B r a u n s c h w e i g 1983,

LITERATURE

H o e t a n d T e r w e s t e n 1 7 5 2 - 7 0 , v o l . 3, p p . 6 0 6 ,

PROVENANCE

6 9 2 ; T h o r e - B u r g e r 1 8 5 8 - 6 0 , v o l . 1, p . 287;

J o h a n A n t h o n y v a n K i n s c h o t sale, D e l f t ,

A n n u a l R e p o r t M a u r i t s h u i s 1895, p . 9 7 ; J o s t

J u l y 21, 1767, l o t 2 9 , w i t h d r a w n ; s o l d

1963, p p . 9 4 , 121; D r o s s a e r s a n d L u n s i n g h

t o S t a d h o l d e r W i l l e m V , T h e H a g u e , 1767;

S c h e u r l e e r 1 9 7 4 - 7 6 , v o l . 3, p . 2 0 4 ; E r t z 1979,

Gallery o f Stadholder W i l l e m V, The Hague,

EXHIBITIONS

cat. n o . 22; E s s e n - V i e n n a 1 9 9 7 - 9 8 ,
cat. n o . 9 0 ; A n t w e r p 1998, cat. n o . 8 6 ;
Amsterdam - Cleveland 1999-2000,
cat. n o . 4 ; D e n B o s c h - L e u v e n 2 0 0 2 - 0 3 ,
cat. n o . 78

p p . 313, 323, n o . 3 4 0 ; D i a z P a d r o n 1995,

1774-95; M u s e e N a p o l e o n (Musee d u

p . 314-15; W e r c h e 2 0 0 4 , p p . 8 0 - 8 1 , 1 7 3 - 7 4 ,

L o u v r e ) , P a r i s , 1795-1815; G a l l e r y o f

no.

97

Since 1767 the Hague painting has been described as a

depiction of Cybele, the ancient Phrygian goddess of the
earth and nature. It must be said, however, that the specific
attributes of this goddess are lacking. We do see, rather,
the attributes of Ceres, or Demeter as she was known to
the Greeks, such as the scythe held by a putto on the right.
In the Antwerp painting, the enthroned goddess wears a
crown of wheatanother of Ceres' attributesbut in the
Mauritshuis painting she is bare-headed, which is possibly
what caused the confusion as to her identity, for in this
painting the crown of wheat is worn by the woman present
ing the cornucopia. A t any rate, both Cybele and Ceres
personify the abundance of nature and are sometimes com
bined in one figure.
The estate of Jan Brueghel the Elder contained a "large
fruit garland with Ceres in the middle, ' which Jan Brueghel
4

5 7

the Younger sold after his father's death for 588 guilders,
making it the costliest painting in his father's estate. Jan II
recorded this in the account book he had kept since 1625,
which has been partly preserved in an eighteenth-century
transcription. This notation might refer to one of the
fruit garlands discussed here, of which there is also an extant
copy by Jan Brueghel the Younger. It could also be the
Fruit Garland with Nature Adorned by the Graces in Glasgow
(fig. 83), in which Rubens painted the figures to accompany
an identical fruit garland by Brueghel.
With no other artist did Brueghel work so intensively as
he did with Van Balen. Brueghel seems to have collabo
rated with Rubens only on special occasions, but he worked
with his friend and colleague Van Balenhis junior by
eight yearson almost a daily basis. Indeed, a considerable
part of both their oeuvres was produced in collaboration.
8

10

11

12

BRUEGHEL

AND VAN

BALEN

157

20

158

21

159

landscapes, flowers, fruit, animals, and precious objects.

After Brueghel's death in 1625, Jan Brueghel the Younger
took over his father's studio and continued to run it in the
same way, as evidenced not only by the surviving paintings
in the style of his father but also by the uninterrupted collab
oration with such artists as Rubens and Van Balen. Jan IPs
account book for the years 1 6 2 6 - 3 1 contains such passages
as "made for Mr. van Balen a ground [background] behind
a piece," "completed a ground... the little figures are by
Mr. van Balen," and "made... a ground behind a Madonna
by Mr. van Balen." Because the working methods of
both the elder and younger Brueghel must have been nearly
identical, these passages suggest that Van Balen usually
painted the figures first, after which Brueghel added the
backgrounds. This order was not rigidly adhered to, how
ever, and was perhaps different when painting garlands;
in the medallion of the painting from the Mauritshuis,
Van Balen actually painted the figures first, after which
Brueghel added the landscape and flowers. Remarkably, the
order appears to have been reversed in the rest of the paint
ing, with Brueghel painting his garland first and Van Balen
his figures afterward. This sequence of events could be estab
lished only by close examination with a stereomicroscope.
It was difficult to unravel this working procedure because
Brueghel had deliberately obscured the transitions between
the two hands with numerous final retouches. It has not
yet been possible to determine the order in which the artists
worked on the Antwerp painting.
The Hague panel was begun by Brueghel, who painte d
the garland and probably also the frame around the medal
lion. He depicted the fruit and vegetables so precisely around
the reserves that we may assume Van Balen's figures had
already been sketched in. In several places there are traces
of an underdrawing in the figures that could not be detected
with the infrared camera, such as that seen along the thigh
of the putto at the upper right, who touches the medallion
with his foot. This preparatory line in red-brown paint
partially disappears underneath the flesh color. Beneath the
paint of the belly and foot of this same figure, several leaves
were painted out; in the Antwerp version, however, these
same leaves were applied over the flesh color. This suggests
that the artists might have worked on the latter painting
in the opposite order. Moreover, it confirms that Brueghel
scrupulously followed his own example when painting
the Mauritshuis garland. That he worked very close to the
reserves is evidenced, for instance, by the fruit above the
16

17

18

FIGURE 83 Jan Brueghel the E l d e r and Peter Paul Rubens, Fruit Garland
with Nature Adorned by the Graces, ca. 1615. O i l o n panel, 106.7 x 72.4 c m
( 4 2 x 28 V2 i n . ) . G l a s g o w A r t M u s e u m s , K e l v i n g r o v e , i n v . 6 0 9

The fact that in 1 6 0 4 both painters moved to the Lange

Nieuwstraat in Antwerp no doubt simplified their collabora
t i o n , since their panels and copper plates could now be
carried back and forth with ease. The earliest known painting
in which the hands of both masters can be recognized dates
from 1 6 0 0 , presumably just after Van Balen's return from
an Italian sojourn of several years. Their first allegory, Ceres
and the Four Elements, was painted in 1 6 0 4 . In their col
laborative paintingsallegories, mythological and biblical
scenes, and garlanded compositionsVan Balen was respon
sible for most of the figures, while Brueghel painted the
13

1 4

15

160

BRUEGHEL

AND VAN

BALEN

head of the nymph in the left foreground: with great preci

sion he painted only half a peach along the contour of
her head. The reserve left for the head of the nymph on the
right was so small that Van Balen was forced to overlap
Brueghel's fruit when painting her cheek. With regard to
the little boy on the right, who drags the branch of an apple
tree into the picture, the working procedure appears to
have been differentthis figure was painted first and only
afterward was the greenery added by Brueghel, who presum
ably also applied the final touches of flesh color bordering
the leaves.
After Van Balen had painted the two nymphs in the fore
ground, the putti in the reserves in the garland, and the
figures in the medallion, Brueghel again took the Mauritshuis
painting in hand and finished it. H e completed the repre
sentation in the medallion by adding the background, the
flowers, and a few other details, such as the scale. Finally, he
integrated Van Balen's figures into his garland by means
of detailing and retouches. H e painted the cutting from a
plum tree that the winged putto holds against the body
of the nymph in the left foreground. With the same greenish
paint he used for the plums to the left above this nymph,
he addedover his backgroundsome curly strands to her
hair. H e also added some curly strands to the hair of the
nymph on the right.
The versions in The Hague and Antwerp display a num
ber of differences in the composition, some of which con
firm that the Antwerp painting is the older version. In this
painting the nymph in the left foreground is blonde instead
of dark-haired, wears a white veil around her shoulders,
and has a large fruited branch running along the right side
of her body. This branch is missing in the Hague painting.
Curiously, the same nymph's left legwhich in the Antwerp
version is half hidden in the garlandwas not painted at
all: sloppiness of this kind occurs only in copies or variations,
not in first versions. In the Antwerp painting, the same
nymph's blue drapery was applied (carefully worked around
the green leaves) over an underlying pink layer, whereas
the drapery in the Hague version was blue from the start,
in imitation of the Antwerp example. The kneeling putto in
the left foreground has no wings in the Antwerp painting
and holds a stalk of rhubarb instead of a plum-tree cutting.
Another oversight in the Hague version is the lack of a
cord with which to fasten the garland to the tree on the right,
causing one of the putti to reach out and grasp nothing
but thin air. Numerous small differences are discernible in

the medallion as well. The putti holding the baldachin,

for instance, scatter flowers in the Antwerp painting, and the
zodiacal attributes are depicted differently. The scale held
by one of the putti at the top seems to fly through the air,
whereas in the Hague variation it hangs down stiffly, convey
ing no sense of motion. There are different birds in the sky
in the two versions, making it clear that the Hague painting
is not a slavish copy: indeed, Brueghel painted out two owls
in the latter work. A striking addition to the Mauritshuis
version is the suspension of the medallion on cords attached
to rings. In the Antwerp version a kneeling figure offers
the garland to Jupiter in the clouds, a detail which is missing
in the Mauritshuis picture.
In the Antwerp painting the frame around the medallion
was originally painted about a centimeter more to the
right; a compositional adjustment of this kind is yet another
indication that this is the first version. In this work the
transitions between Van Balen's and Brueghel's contribu
tions are somewhat more abrupt: for example, the strands
Brueghel added to the figures' hair in the Mauritshuis
version are missing in the Antwerp painting. Moreover, the
cheek of the nymph in the right foreground was not painted
over the background, as it was in the Hague painting, but
the fruits do overlap her cheek somewhat, which suggests
that in this case the figures were painted first.
The fact that it was not the Hague panel but the Antwerp
version that was included in the Allegory of Taste of 1618
(cat. no. 8) emerges from small similarities in detail: the
painting within a painting also displays the left leg of
the blonde nymph in the foreground, the wingless putto at
the front left holds a stalk of rhubarb, and the medallion
is not suspended on cords. Obviously this allegorical repre
sentation of abundance and fertility was eminently suited
to an Allegory of Taste, possibly featuring the rich yields of
the lands of the archdukes Albert and Isabella. In the
1 6 1 7 - 1 8 series of the Five Senses, Brueghel mostly depicted
the pick of the crop produced by contemporary Antwerp
painters, i.e., paintings by himself and by his co-court
painter Rubens. In the Allegory of Taste, Brueghel seems to be
advertising, as it were, the result of his latest collaboration
with Hendrick van Balen, a composition that he executed at
least twice and most likely numerous times.
Brueghel combined the same fruit garland with depic
tions by Van Balen of the H o l y Family, in which the Mother
of G o d stands in for Mother Earth, and the superabundant
garland symbolizes the richness of God's creation (fig. 8 4 ) .
19

20

2 1

BRUEGHEL

AND VAN

BALEN

161

F I G U R E 84 J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r a n d H e n d r i c k v a n B a l e n , The Holy Family

Garland

of Fruit

in a

and Flowers, late 1620s. O i l o n p a n e l , 104.8 x 74.9 c m (41 A x 29V2 i n . ) .

R i c h m o n d , Virginia M u s e u m o f Fine Arts, The A d o l p h D . and Wilkins C . Williams

F u n d , inv. 6 6 - 1 6

In similar fashion, Cornells Gallein his print after Ceres

Garlanded by Angels by Rubens and Frans Snyders in the
Hermitage replaced Ceres with the Virgin and Child
(fig. 85), who in the caption are compared with, among other
things, the Tree of Life that "brings forth everlasting abun
dance." Cardinal Borromeo praised the fruit and vegetables
in another of Brueghel's garlands, which "show us the
wisdom and refinement of divine providence; their profu
22

162

BRUEGHEL

AND VAN

BALEN

sion, abundance and great variety will open our eyes to the
liberality and generous heart of this so magnanimous and
glorious Creator." In the painting Brueghel made with
Rubens that is now in Glasgow (fig. 83), the fruit garland
encloses an allegorical image of the all-nurturing primeval
mother, endowed with multiple breasts, crowned by
putti, and adorned with drapery by the Graces; the pedestal
bears a vaguely legible inscription: M A G N A E M A T R I /
23

24

T E R R A E O M N I S P A R E N T I (To the Great Mother, Parent of

A l l Earth). Countless satyrs betraying various degrees of
beastliness were added by Rubens, whose contribution
makes this picture truly spectacular. In the face of Rubens's
brilliance, Van Balen seems like a lesser light. Although in
this painting, too, it has not yet been possible to say with
any certainty which of the two masters began to paint first, it
seems that Brueghel adapted himself to Rubens's contribu
tion. H e thus made the garland a bit thicker or stretched it
slightly to accommodate the figures, and he painted the
melon around the fingers of the female satyr in the left fore
ground, for example. Viewing the painting in raking light
makes it possible to discern the double and sometimes triple
outline of an oval that was scratched into the middle of this
panel. Rubens, for his part, paid no attention whatsoever
to this oval and painted well over its contours. Evidently,
however, another type of painting had initially been planned:
an image in a medallion surrounded by a garland of fruit,
very comparable to the two paintings with Van Balen dis
cussed here.
The existence in Antwerp and The Hague of two nearly
identical paintings clearly shows that it was part of Jan
Brueghel's daily routine to make repetitions of popular com
positions, if only in order to meet the great demand for
his work (see also cat. no. 7 ) . This was common practice
in seventeenth-century Antwerp. Indeed, the fact that the
painter Sebastian Vrancx ( 1 5 7 3 - 1 6 4 7 ) was opposed to copy
ing as a matter of principle was considered very odd by his
contemporaries. Jan Brueghel the Younger, who took over
the business from his father, frequently mentioned the mak
ing of copies, even for such prominent patrons as the "prince
of Poland," although he always made a clear distinction
also in pricebetween originals and copies. It was not only
entire compositions, however, that were repeated: Brueghel
also drew upon a repertoire of motifs that he used over
and over again. Parts of the fruit garland discussed here, for
examplethe ensemble with the artichokes and cabbages,
the ears of wheat, and the arrangement consisting of lemons
and bunches of grapescan be detected in the Madonna
and Child in a Garland of Fruit and Flowers from the Prado
(cat. no. 12). Moreover, The Holy Family in a Garland of Fruit
and Flowers by Jan Brueghel and Pieter van Avont in Munich
(fig. 86) also contains parts of the same garland, augmented
with flowers. Some of these flowers, in turn, have exact
counterparts in the large garland surrounding the Virgin and
Child by Brueghel and Rubens, also in Munich (seefig.i ) .
25

26

27

F I G U R E 8 5 C o r n e l l s G a l l e after Peter P a u l R u b e n s a n d F r a n s S n y d e r s ,
The Virgin

in a Niche Adorned

by Angels with a Garland.

Engraving,

555 x 4 0 7 m m ( 2 1 % x 16 i n . ) . A m s t e r d a m , R i j k s m u s e u m , R i j k s p r e n t e n kabinet, inv. R P P - O B - 6 7 . 6 7 4

28

29

3 0

It seems almost certain that Brueghel based his flower and

fruit ensembles on fairly detailed preparatory studies. Only a
few examples have survived, however, one of which is a
study sheet depicting the left-hand part of Brueghel's garland
in the above-mentioned work made with Van Avont (fig. 8 7 ) .
Furthermore, Brueghel's manner of painting seems to have
been extremely standardized. A typical example of this can be
seen in the Mauritshuis garland, namely the white cabbage
with the long, trailing root on the right. A few of the leaves
have been painted over the cabbage and the carrots next to
it, but the white root was painted first and only afterward
the medlar tree behind it: in the garland surrounding
Van Avont's Holy Family, Brueghel did this in exactly the
same order. To prevent the disturbing effect caused by under3 1

BRUEGHEL AND VAN BALEN

163

F I G U R E 86 Jan B r u e g h e l the E l d e r a n d
P i e t e r v a n A v o n t ( 1 6 0 0 - 1 6 5 2 ) , The Holy
in a Garland

of Fruit

Family

and Flowers, ca. 1 6 2 0 - 2 3 .

3

O i l o n p a n e l , 93.5 x 7 0 . 7 c m (36 /4 x 2 7 % i n . ) .
M u n i c h , A l t e P i n a k o t h e k , i n v . 149

F I G U R E 87 J a n B r u e g h e l t h e E l d e r , Part of a
Garland

of Fruit

and Flowers. P e n i n b r o w n i n k ,
5

b r o w n w a s h , 2 9 . 6 x 11.7 c m ( n / s x 4 % i n . ) .
Antwerp, M u s e u m Plantin-Moretus,
inv. D . i x . 2 3

lying paint layers shining through the surface, Brueghel

frequently took the trouble to paint from foreground to
background, as demonstrated by this detail. Whenever he
found a satisfactory way to realize a distinct element in
paint, he repeated this method exactlyto whatever extent
possiblethe next time he had need of the motif. A v S

p o i n t s t o 1612 as t h e earliest p o s s i b l e d a t i n g b u t suggests a d a t i n g after

1618 as m o r e p l a u s i b l e . T h e p a i n t i n g i n A n t w e r p c o n s i s t s o f o n e p l a n k ;
the t h i c k l a y e r o f w a x o n t h e b a c k o b s c u r e s a n y m a r k s i t m i g h t c o n t a i n .

32

4 . See J o h a n A n t h o n y v a n K i n s c h o t sale, D e l f t , J u l y 21, 1767, l o t 2 9 ;

a n d H o e t a n d T e r w e s t e n 1 7 5 2 - 7 0 , v o l . 3, p p . 6 0 6 , 6 9 2 . O n C y b e l e , see
H a l l 1974, p . 89.
5. A s n o t e d i n A m s t e r d a m - C l e v e l a n d 1 9 9 9 - 2 0 0 0 , p . 113.
6. O n C e r e s , see H a l l 1974, p p . 6 2 - 6 3 .

NOTES
7. " g r o o t e n f r u y t crans m e t C e r e s i n ' t m i d d e n " : V a e s 1 9 2 6 - 2 7 , p . 2 0 9 .
1. O n t h e p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n o f A g r i c u l t u r e , see C e s a r e R i p a ,

Iconologia

8. See V a e s 1 9 2 6 - 2 7 a n d D e n u c e i 9 3 4 p p . 1 3 9 - 6 0 . T h e o r i g i n a l a c c o u n t
5

b o o k k e p t b y J a n B r u e g h e l t h e Y o u n g e r has n o t s u r v i v e d , b u t its

( D u t c h e d i t i o n , 1 6 4 4 ) , p . 280 (first e d i t i o n , 1593).

c o n t e n t s h a v e b e e n p r e s e r v e d i n p a r t i n a c o p y m a d e i n 1770 b y J a c o b
2. See V a n M u l d e r s i n B r u s s e l s 1 9 9 7 - 9 8 , p . 108. C o m p a r e also E r t z i n

van der Sanden.

A n t w e r p 1998, p . 2 7 0 .
9. T h i s c o p y is n o w i n M a d r i d ( M u s e o N a c i o n a l d e l P r a d o , i n v . 1414);
3. T h e M a u r i t s h u i s p a n e l c o n s i s t s o f t h r e e v e r t i c a l p l a n k s . B u r n e d i n t o

see D i a z P a d r o n 1995, p p . 314-15. C o n s i d e r i n g t h e s m a l l differences

t h e b a c k o f t h e p a n e l is t h e m a r k ( M V i n t e r l a c e d ) o f t h e p a n e l m a k e r

between the H a g u e a n d the A n t w e r p versions, Jan B r u e g h e l the

M i c h i e l V r i e n t ( a c t i v e 1615-37), as w e l l as t h e b r a n d o f t h e c i t y o f

Y o u n g e r m u s t have c o p i e d the v e r s i o n i n the M a u r i t s h u i s ( o n l y the

A n t w e r p a n d t h e l e t t e r A . T h i s last m a r k p e r h a p s d e n o t i n g t h e

c o r d s a t t a c h e d t o t h e m e d a l l i o n are l a c k i n g ) .

y e a r a p p e a r s o n a series o f p a n e l s d a t i n g f r o m 1 6 2 1 - 2 2 . See W a d u m
1998, p p . 192, 198. D e n d r o c h r o n o l o g i c a l analysis o f t h e p a n e l c a r r i e d
o u t b y D r . P e t e r K l e i n ( U n i v e r s i t y o f H a m b u r g , A p r i l 11, 2005)

164

BRUEGHEL

AND VAN

BALEN

10.

F o r t h i s p a i n t i n g , see G l a s g o w 1961, p p . 1 1 7 - 2 0 ; a n d E r t z 1979,

n o . 349. A s t o t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t P r i n c e V l a d i s l a s Z y g m u n t o f P o l a n d

2 4 . See, f o r e x a m p l e , W e r c h e 2 0 0 4 , p p . 8 0 - 8 1 .

o n c e o w n e d t h i s p a i n t i n g , see D e n u c e 1934, p. 81; a n d M u l l e r

H o f s t e d e 1968, p . 225, n . 52.

25. T h i s w a s first m e n t i o n e d i n V a n M u l d e r s 2 0 0 0 , p p . 1 1 9 - 2 0 . T h e t r i p l e
o v a l , w h i c h is s c r a t c h e d i n t o the g r o u n d , is a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e s a m e

11. See B . W e r c h e , " D i e Z u s a m m e n a r b e i t v o n J a n B r u e g h e l d . A . u n d

size as t h e o v a l m e d a l l i o n i n the p r e s e n t p a i n t i n g s ( t h a n k s t o R o b e r t

H e n d r i c k van Balen," i n E s s e n - V i e n n a 1997-98, pp. 6 7 - 7 4 .

W e n l e y f o r t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n ) . T h e c o n t o u r s o f a n o v a l m e d a l l i o n are
12. I n K l a u s E r t z ' s 1979 m o n o g r a p h o n J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r , 6 4 o f t h e
384 c a t a l o g u e d p a i n t i n g s w e r e d o n e i n c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h H e n d r i c k
v a n B a l e n . (It is i n d e e d c u r i o u s t h a t E r t z d i d n o t d e v o t e a separate
chapter to their w o r k i n g friendship.) I n her 2 0 0 4 m o n o g r a p h o n
V a n B a l e n , B e t t i n a W e r c h e r e g a r d s 78 o f the 192 c a t a l o g u e d c a b i n e t
pieces as c o l l a b o r a t i o n s w i t h J a n B r u e g h e l .

and Child in a Garland

of Flowers

t h e t w o p a i n t i n g s b y B r u e g h e l a n d V a n B a l e n d i s c u s s e d here.
26. T h e d e m a n d f o r p a i n t i n g s b y J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r was g r e a t e r t h a n
the s u p p l y . H i s p a i n t i n g s w e r e o f t e n s o l d e v e n b e f o r e he b e g a n w o r k

13. See D e n u c e 1934, p p . 2 1 - 2 2 ; a n d W e r c h e 2 0 0 4 , d o c . n o . 15, p p . 2 5 2 - 5 3 ;

i n g o n t h e m ; see V a e s 1 9 2 6 - 2 7 , p . 181.
27. O n t h i s A n t w e r p c u s t o m o f c o p y i n g p a i n t i n g s , see, a m o n g o t h e r s ,

b o t h d o c u m e n t s are d a t e d D e c e m b e r 2 0 , 1 6 0 4 .

H o n i g 1995, p . 2 6 9 .

14. See W e r c h e 2 0 0 4 , n o . A 106.

28. A n o t h e r v e r s i o n o f t h e " l a r g e f r u i t g a r l a n d w i t h the i m a g e o f M a r y "

15. See E r t z 1979, n o . n o ; a n d W e r c h e 2 0 0 4 , n o . A 128.

( g r o o t e n f r u y t c r a n s m e t het M a r i e n b i l d ) , w h i c h J a n B r u e g h e l t h e

16. " g h e m a e c k t v o o r S . [ i g n o r ] v a n B a l e n e e n e n g r o n t acter een s t u c . . . " ;

" v o l d a e n eenen g r o n t . . .de

also s c r a t c h e d i n t o the Madonna

b y B r u e g h e l a n d R u b e n s i n the L o u v r e (fig. 6 9 ) . T h i s is n o t the case i n

figurkens

d o o r S. v a n B a l e n " ; " g h e m a e c t

Y o u n g e r s o l d f r o m h i s father's estate t o A n t o n i e C o r n e l i s s e n C h e e u s
f o r 512 g u i l d e r s (see V a e s 1 9 2 6 - 2 7 , p . 2 0 9 ) , h a d p r e v i o u s l y b e e n s o l d

. . . e e n e n g r o n d t agter een L i v r a u k e n v a n S. v a n B a l e n " : V a e s 1 9 2 6 - 2 7 ,

b y h i s father f o r " 4 0 0 escudi" t o t h e p r i n c e o f P o l a n d . See a letter f r o m

p p . 210, 213, 215; a n d D e n u c e 1934, p p . 147, 151, 154. M o r e e x a m p l e s

J a n B r u e g h e l the Y o u n g e r t o C a r d i n a l B o r r o m e o , d a t e d A u g u s t 22,

c o u l d be q u o t e d . R e m a r k a b l y , B r u e g h e l o f t e n m e n t i o n e d t h a t he h a d

1625, r e g a r d i n g h i s father's d e a t h a n d several i n t e r e s t i n g p a i n t i n g s f r o m

p r o d u c e d w o r k f o r a n art d e a l e r " f o r G o e t k i n t " ( A n t h o n i e G o e t k i n t ,

h i s estate ( C r i v e l l i 1868, p p . 3 3 9 - 4 1 ) .

his wife's uncle), "for H a n s v a n M e c h e l e n , " "for Peer v a n L i e n d e r "

w h i c h s u g g e s t s t h a t art dealers w e r e i n s t r u m e n t a l i n b r i n g i n g a b o u t

2 9 . See R e n g e r a n d D e n k 2 0 0 2 , p p . 9 2 - 9 5 , n o . 149 ( w i t h a d d i t i o n a l
literature).

these c o l l a b o r a t i v e efforts. See also H o n i g 1995, p p . 2 5 9 - 6 0 .

17. T h i s p a i n t i n g was e x a m i n e d w i t h a s t e r e o m i c r o s c o p e o n D e c e m b e r 21
a n d 23, 2 0 0 4 , i n t h e r e s t o r a t i o n s t u d i o o f the M a u r i t s h u i s b y S a b r i n a
M e l o n i , A r i a n e van Suchtelen, and Jorgen W a d u m . Infrared images
w e r e m a d e w i t h the A r t i s t c a m e r a ( A r t I n n o v a t i o n , H e n g e l o ) m o u n t e d

30. See R e n g e r a n d D e n k 2 0 0 2 , p p . 3 3 6 - 4 3 , n o . 331 ( w i t h a d d i t i o n a l

literature).
31. See W i n n e r 1961, fig. 50; a n d E r t z 1979, fig. 39. T h i s p e n - a n d - i n k w a s h
d r a w i n g seems m o r e l i k e a d r a w n c o p y t h a n a p r e p a r a t o r y s t u d y .

w i t h a C C D p r o g r e s s i v e scan i m a g e s e n s o r (1360 x 1036 p i x e l s ) a n d

C o m p a r e a s t u d y sheet d i s p l a y i n g a n i m a l s a n d f r u i t i n c l u d i n g c o l o r

a S c h n e i d e r K r e u z n a c h X e n o p l a n 1.4/23 m m c c r v - l e n s i n N12 w i t h a

i n d i c a t i o n s b y J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r i n the B r i t i s h M u s e u m ; see

1 0 0 0 n m l o n g - w a v e filter.

K o l b 2 0 0 5 , fig. 5. T h i s sheet c o n t a i n s m o t i f s b o r r o w e d f r o m J o r i s

18. T h e D e x i a B a n k p a i n t i n g was e x a m i n e d o n A p r i l 12, 2 0 0 5 , i n A n t w e r p

w i t h the a i d o f a s t e r e o m i c r o s c o p e b y S a b r i n a M e l o n i a n d A r i a n e
v a n S u c h t e l e n . I n f r a r e d i m a g e s w e r e m a d e w i t h the A r t i s t c a m e r a (see
p r e v i o u s n o t e ) . W e are g r a t e f u l t o P a t r i c i a Jaspers f o r h e r efforts o n
o u r behalf.

H o e f n a g e l ' s i l l u m i n a t e d b o o k s o n t h e e l e m e n t s , Earth, Air, Water

and

Fire (1575-82) f r o m the c o l l e c t i o n o f E m p e r o r R u d o l f I I ; see H e n d r i x

1984, p. 333; a n d K o l b 2 0 0 0 , p p . 1 4 1 - 4 3 . O n B r u e g h e l ' s d r a w i n g s ,
see, a m o n g o t h e r s , W i n n e r 1961 a n d 1972; m o s t o f these d r a w i n g s are
studies for his landscapes a n d village views.
32. See also t h e essay b y D o h e r t y , L e o n a r d , a n d W a d u m i n t h i s v o l u m e .

19. A d r a w n c o p y o f t h e scene i n t h e m e d a l l i o n ( W e i m a r , G o e t h e N a t i o n a l m u s e u m , i n v . S c h u c h a r d t I , s. 314, n o . 931) seems t o f o l l o w

t h e A n t w e r p p a i n t i n g , because the angels h o l d i n g the b a l d a c h i n also
scatter flowers; see A n t w e r p 1998, p. 2 6 8 , fig. 86c.
2 0 . See also A n t w e r p 1998, p . 2 6 6 , cat. n o . 86, fig. 8 6 b .
21. See E r t z 1979, n o . 350. C o m p a r e also v a r i a t i o n s a t t r i b u t e d t o J a n
B r u e g h e l the Y o u n g e r ; see E r t z 1979, fig. 389; E r t z 1984, n o . 302
( A n t w e r p , K o n i n k l i j k M u s e u m v o o r S c h o n e K u n s t e n , i n v . 813, as
w i t h P i e t e r v a n A v o n t ) ; a n d sale, S o t h e b y ' s , A m s t e r d a m , M a y 9, 1995,
lot 42.
22. S t . P e t e r s b u r g , H e r m i t a g e State M u s e u m , i n v . 5 0 4 ( H o l l s t e i n 1 9 4 9 - ,
v o l . 7, n o . 106). See F r e e d b e r g 1981, p p . 128, 132, fig. 17.
23. J o n e s 1993, p . 86 (after F e d e r i c o B o r r o m e o , I tre libri delle laudi

divine

[ M i l a n , 1632], p . 158).

BRUEGHEL

AND VAN

BALEN

l6

22
Peter Pau l Rubens and Frans Snyders

Prometheus Boun d
ca. 1611-1 2

O i l o n canvas , 2 4 3 x 21 0 c m (95V 2 x 82 Vi in. )

Philadelphia Museu m of Art,
purchased wit h th e W . P. Wilstach Fund , 1950 , inv . w-1950-3-1

PROVENANCE

Traded b y Ruben s t o Si r D u d l e y Carleton ,

1

S e p t e m b e r 1618 , b u t n o t s o l d ;

possibl y

LITERATURE

transferred f r o m C a r l e t o n t o K i n g Charle s I ;
perhaps w i t h th e A n t w e r p deale r M a t t h i j s
M u s s o n , 1658 ; i n t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f C h a r l e s ,
f o u r t h ear l o f Manchester , K i m b o l t o n Castle ,
H u n t i n g d o n s h i r e , b y S e p t e m b e r 28 , 1 6 8 7 ;

L i e d t k e 1992 , p p . 1 8 4 - 8 5 ; K o s l o w 1995a ,
p p . 18 , 3 0 3 - 3 0 7 ; B i k k e r 2 0 0 4

o f A r t f o r th e W . P . W i l s t a c h C o l l e c t i o n , 195 0

1618; offere d t o th e k i n g o f D e n m a r k i n
2

dealer M a r t i n B . Asscher, L o n d o n , f r o m
w h o m a c q u i r e d b y th e P h i l a d e l p h i a M u s e u m

i n t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f t h e earl s a n d d u k e s o f
M a n c h e s t e r u n t i l it s sal e a t a u c t i o n a t
K i m b o l t o n Castl e ( K n i g h t , Fran k & Rutley) ,
J u l y 18 , 194 8 (a s n o . 8 ) ; a c q u i r e d b y t h e
4

EXHIBITIONS

L o n d o n 1850 , cat . n o . 142 ; M a n c h e s t e r 1857 ,

B a u d i u s 1616 , p . 578 ; R o o s e s 1 8 8 6 - 1 8 2 , v o l . 3 ,

cat. n o . 534 ; L o n d o n 1867 , cat . n o . 126 ;

p p . 152-53 , n o . 671 ; v o l . 5 , p p . 3 4 0 - 4 1 ;

C l e v e l a n d 1956 , cat . n o . 4 1 ; P h i l a d e l p h i a

K i m b a l l 1952 ; P o p h a m 1952 ; R a g g i o 1958 ,

M u s e u m o f A r t , " P h i l a d e l p h i a : 10 0 Year s o f

p p . 58 , 6 1 - 6 2 ; H e l d 1963 , p p . 1 7 - 3 2 ; D e m p s e y

A c q u i s i t i o n s " ( M a y 3 - J u l y 3 , 1983 ) ( n o

1967, p p . 4 2 0 - 2 5 ; S t e c h o w 1968 , p p . 4 0 - 4 1 ;

c a t a l o g u e ) ; B o s t o n - T o l e d o 1 9 9 3 - 9 4 , p p . 35 ,

M a r t i n a n d B r u n o i n M a r t i n 1972 , p p . 17 ,

2 3 8 - 4 1 , cat . n o . 10 ; L i l l e 2 0 0 4 , p p . 8 8 - 8 9 ,

19; S u t t o n 1983 , p p . 2 7 0 - 7 5 ; B a l i s 1986 ,

cat. n o . 4 3

p p . 67 , 7 0 , 77 , 83 , 93 ; R o b e l s 1989 , p p . 35 ,
119, 3 5 4 - 5 6 , n o . 261 ; S u t t o n 1 9 9 0 , p p . 2 5 1 - 6 1 ,
n o . 91 ; C . v a n d e V e l d e i n B a u m a n a n d

U B E N S ' S E A R L

Y Y E A R S

, A F T E

R H

E S E T T L E

D A G A I

in Antwerp , wer e a n exceptionally fertile period

in whic h h e implemente d highly innovativ e compositions that demonstrat e hi s knowledge of ancient an d
Renaissance precedents. Prometheus Bounds an extraordinary
depiction o f torment an d contained corporeal energy,
epitomizes Rubens' s forcefu l artisti c ambition, which trans formed Flemis h painting . Shackled to th e rock y sid e of
Mount Caucasus , the Tita n Prometheu s contort s hi s muscular bod y in a heroic but vai n effor t t o evad e th e probing
beak o f a great eagle , whose talon s als o tear a t hi s face an d
groin an d which return s dail y to consum e hi s regeneratin g
liver. A joint effort betwee n Ruben s an d Frans Snyders,
Prometheus Bound i s among the best-documente d collaborations o f the earl y seventeenth century . In correspondenc e
with Si r Dudley Carleton , Britis h ambassado r t o th e Unite d

166

RUBENS A N D SNYDER S

Provinces residin g in The Hague, Rubens describe d Prometheus Bound amon g a group o f paintings he was offering
Carleton i n exchange fo r the latter' s collectio n o f antique
marbles, "a t presen t I hav e in the hous e th e flowe r o f
my stock , particularly some picture s whic h I hav e kept fo r
my own enjoyment; som e I hav e even repurchased fo r
more tha n I had sol d the m t o others," an d placed it at th e
top o f a list o f twelve paintings for Carleton' s consideration:
" 5 0 0 florins A Prometheu s boun d on Mount Caucasus ,
with a n eagle whic h peck s his liver. Origina l b y my hand,
and th e eagl e don e b y Snyders9 x 8 ft." The nature o f th e
collaboration i n the Prometheus is crucial to understandin g
the work' s significance. Rubens' s relationshi p with Snyder s a t
this time, while les s reciprocal and perhaps mor e business like tha n hi s association with Brueghel , shoul d nonetheles s
5

167

be considered an artistic partnership, one in which Rubens

played the dominant role.
Frans Snyders was only two years younger than Rubens
and a close acquaintance of Jan Brueghel the Elder. The
latter introduced Snyders to potential patrons in Italy, where
Snyders traveled between the spring of 1608 and 1 6 0 9 . In
two letters dated September 2 6 , 1608, Brueghel enthusiasti
cally described Snyders to Cardinal Federico Borromeo,
bishop of Milan, recommending him as "a young man of
good morals." H e further attests that "I am indebted to this
youth by a true act of friendship," referring to the support
Snyders had shown him during a difficult period, perhaps
following the death of his first wife. When Snyders sud
denly left Milan for Antwerp in the spring of 1 6 0 9 , Brueghel
apologized to the cardinal for his friend's behavior. Once
settled in Antwerp, Snyders established himself a specialist in
still life. Rubens may have encountered Snyders in Italy or
more likely within the circumscribed community of artists in
Antwerp who had made the same journey.
Prometheus was among the first joint works Rubens
executed with Snyders. Their relationship may have begun
when Rubens engaged him to paint a large still life in The
Recognition of Philopoemen^ a composition depicting a sub
ject from Greek history (see fig. 26). Rubens devised the
composition, including the major elements of the game
and vegetable still life, as demonstrated by an oil sketch (see
fig. 27). As the sheets of drawn motifs from some years later
suggest, Snyders may have made studies or sketches for
particular elements. After the still life had been painted,
Rubens returned to integrate and adjust certain elements.
It was characteristic of their partnership from this point on
that Snyders adopted the expressive, large scale of his partner,
along with lively brushwork, and often a high-keyed palette.
In the Philopoemen, as in Prometheus^ the concept, design,
and final integrative contributions were all made by Rubens.
Prometheus occupies a pivotal place in Rubens's oeuvre.
Unfortunately, we cannot know whether it was a work that
he painted as an investigative trial and "kept" for himself,
or a commission that he "repurchased." However, it is one
of several mythological and historical subjects from about
1611 in which Rubens explored figures in violent action.
After 1 6 0 9 Rubens increasingly pushed the boundaries of
corporeal description and strove to generate a visceral reac
tion in the viewer. The Beheading of Saint John the Baptist
( 1 6 0 9 ; private collection), notable for the extreme muscularity
of the figures, and Judith Killing Holofernes ( 1 6 0 9 - 1 0 ; Frank
6

10

168

RUBENS AND SNYDERS

furt, Stadelsches Kunstinstitut), a scene of intense nocturnal

violence, reveal Rubens's study of the robust figures of
Michelangelo and the physiognomies of antique sculptures
such as the Laocoon (Vatican City, Vatican Museums, Museo
Pio-Clementino) and the Torso Belvedere. In particular,
Rubens was fascinated by the challenges of depicting falling
figures. The inverted figure of Hippolytus in The Death
ofHippolytus (1610; Cambridge, Fitzwilliam Museum;
see also an oil sketch in London, Courtauld Institute
of Art Gallery) and the outstretched Argus in Juno and Argus
(1611; Cologne, Wallraf-Richartz Museum), both provide
antecedents for the figures of Prometheus. Many of these
works are animated by innovative compositions. The diago
nal arrangement of figures in Prometheus follows Rubens's
earlier implementation of figures placed on transverse orien
tations, for example in Saint George ( 1 6 0 8 ; Madrid, Museo
Nacional del Prado). Painted in Genoa, Saint George is
made up of several different pieces of canvas and, like the
Prometheus, was kept by Rubens in his studio.
It was in the context of such artistic challenges that
Rubens turned to the subject of Prometheus. The subject was
well established in classical texts and was associated by the
early seventeenth century with a range of conflicting moral,
philosophical, and religious interpretations. Hesiod
portrayed Prometheus as a rogue who deceived the gods and
destroyed the golden age of mankind by stealing fire and
giving it to humans, a sacrilege for which he was deservedly
punished by being shackled to the top of Mount Caucasus,
where a voracious eagle perpetually devoured his regrowing
liver until he was freed by Hercules. Aeschylus saw
Prometheus as providing mankind with both real and figura
tive fire, the flame of reason and wisdom that serves as the
basis of civilization. His punishment, while just, was evi
dence of a tragic imbalance between the order of the gods
and humanity. Plato conceived of fire as a creative force
and Prometheus's act of stealing fire from the forge of Vulcan
as a moral failing. In the medieval period, the Titan was
portrayed as an inventor and linked to the story of Genesis
by the church fathers. Renaissance emblems portrayed
Prometheus under a tree, attacked by an eagle, as an example
of punished pride and as "knowledge acquired with care."
The sheer physicality of the Philadelphia canvas, while
not precluding allegorical interpretations, suggests that
Rubens was primarily seeking to evoke the horror of Prome
theus's suffering. Dominicus Baudius, a professor at the
university of Leiden and a friend of Rubens's brother Philip,
11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

extolled the vividness of Prometheus and the terror it gener

ated in onlookers in his Poematum. The date of these
verses, April 7, 1612, helps date the canvas, which must have
been finished or nearly so by that time. It may have been
started early in 1611, following the Juno and Argus, which was
finished by May 11, 1 6 1 1 .
Rubens's debt to antique sculpture for his powerful male
figures of about 1611 has long been appreciated. His numer
ous drawings, several known today through copies by stu
dents, attest to his study of the Laocoon, the most influential
antique portrayal of suffering and violent motion. The
manner in which the chest of the central figure of the antique
group, the priest Laocoon, projects is very similar to that
of the inverted Prometheus, which may also reflect Rubens's
study of the projecting torso of the Centaur Tormented
by Cupid (Paris, Musee du Louvre). The vitally important
inventions of Raphael's Stanze (the series of rooms the
artist and his assistants decorated for the popes Julius II and
Leo X), notably the reclining figure of Heliodorus in the
Expulsion of Heliodorus fresco, were a key inspiration. As
Held observed, Prometheus's bent leg probably derives from
this source. Both the Heliodorus and the Laocoon figure
prominently among the quotations from the antique in the
early Rubens and Brueghel collaboration The Battle of the
Amazons (ca. 1 5 9 8 - 1 6 0 0 ; cat. no. 1). However, it was Michel
angelo's drawing of Tityus (1532; Windsor Castle, Royal
Library)the elongated pose and outstretched arm of the
figure, and particularly the parallel arrangement of the figure
and the birdthat was the foundation for Prometheus.
The story of Tityus was a closely related myth, in which the
son of Earth was punished for ravishing Latona by being
chained to a rock in Hades where a vulture attacked his per
petuating liver. Even knowledgeable observers were often
confused when distinguishing between the two myths.
Rubens, however, portrayed his subject very specifically, and
even without his own identification of the scene, it could
not be mistaken. The Titan is clearly chained outside,
beneath a massive tree and beside a rocky overhang. The site,
Mount Caucasus, is specified by the sharp vertical surface
to which he is chained, the crevasse beneath him over which
his torso and drapery hang, and by the distant landscape.
Prometheus's torch, by which he sought to elevate mankind,
burns brightly in the lower left corner. Titian's large Tityus
( 1 5 4 8 - 4 9 ; Madrid, Museo Nacional del Prado), dramatic in
scale and conception, may have been the primary inspiration
for Rubens's cascading figure. Titian's canvas, painted for
19

2 0

21

22

23

24

25

F I G U R E 8 8 C o r n e l l s C o r t after T i t i a n , Tityus, 1566. E n g r a v i n g ,

]

380 x 308 m m (15 x i 2 / 8 i n . ) . S a n F r a n c i s c o , F i n e A r t s M u s e u m s , Palace

o f the L e g i o n o f H o n o r , A c h e n b a c h F o u n d a t i o n for G r a p h i c A r t s ,
inv.

1963.30.36756

Mary of Hungary when she was regent of the Netherlands,

depicts one of the "Quattro Dannati" (the four damned,
Tantalus, Sisyfus, Ixion, and Tityus) who are mentioned in
Ovid's Metamorphoses. It decorated the Grote Zaal of
her palace at Binche, where it was observed and described
(as Prometheus!) by Juan Cristoval Calvete de Estrella,
secretary to Philip II, in 1549. The painting was later trans
ferred to M a d r i d . While Rubens may have seen it there,
the print after Titian's canvas by Cornells Cort (fig. 88) could
equally have served as a point of departure.
In contrast to the precedents discussed above, Rubens
gave the eagle a prominent role in Prometheus Bound. In
order to strengthen the fierce intensity of the Titan's struggle,
Rubens expanded the size of the tormenter and engaged
Snyders to follow his design. We can only speculate as
26

27

RUBENS

A N D SNYDERS

169

FIGURE 8 9 Peter Paul Rubens, Reclining Male,

ca. 1611. C h a l k a n d h e i g h t e n i n g , 55 x 4 2 . 6 c m
5

(2i /8 x 16 A in.). Paris, M u s e e d u L o u v r e ,

inv. 20207

to the reasons for this curious decision. Rubens was himself

an accomplished painter of animals and of eagles in parti
cular, as can be seen in Cupid Supplicating Jupiter ( 1 6 1 0 ; New
York, Forbes Collection) and Ganymede ( 1 6 1 1 - 1 2 ; Vienna,
Prince Karl zu Schwartzenberg Collection [on loan to the
Liechtenstein Museum, Princely Collection, Vienna]). The
eagle in Ganymede, for example, shows a fastidious, refined
treatment in keeping with the elevated mythological subject.
Snyders may have been engaged simply because he wasn't
Rubens. That is, his technique, descriptive and painterly, was
compatible but nonetheless distinct from Rubens's brushwork, thereby providing visual emphasis to this part of the
composition. Eagles feature among the stylized illustrations
in Ulisse Aldrovandi's Ornithologia ( 1 5 9 9 ) , along with a
fulsome description of the bird's observed and mythical char
acteristics. Rubens recorded an antique statue of an eagle
(Rome, Vatican Museums) in a drawing (now lost, but
known through a student's copy, Two Views of an Eagle^
Copenhagen, Royal Print Room) and used its perched form
for Cupid Supplicating Jupiter. Perhaps, as Martin and Bruno
proposed vis-a-vis the Forbes canvas, Rubens studied a
live eagle and "grasped the particulars of its appearance and
28

29

30

170

RUBENS A N D SNYDERS

31

sensed the ferocity of the bird of prey." Rulers of the

Netherlands had long kept aviaries, which included small
birds of prey such as sparrow hawks and, apparently, royal
eagles. It is certainly clear that, in contrast to the schematic
Renaissance depictions of eagles, Rubens and Snyders's
bird is based in reality; the two artists were aware not only
of the specific physical characteristics of the golden eagle,
including variations in the types of feathers in its plumage,
but also the true extent of its wingspan, which can reach
225 cm (seven and a half feet)in this case just smaller than
the writhing figure of a Titan. The relationship between
the noblest of birds, Jove's companion, and Prometheus
is expressively portrayed through the placement of the two
figures in parallel alignment, the dark form of the eagle
hovering menacingly over the illuminated nude form. It
has long been assumed that Rubens planned the composi
tion in a drawing or oil sketch which has been lost.
Rubens's drawing of a male torso (fig. 89) relates both to
Hippolytus and Prometheus. A drawing of an eagle (fig. 9 0 )
was probably Snyders's working drawing, made after Rubens's
presumptive oil sketch. Faint chalk outlines indicate the
placement of the torso and, notably, the liver. Comparison
32

33

34

35

of the Snyders drawing with the finished painting shows

that additional adjustments were made to the contour
of the right wing and the distance between the left foot and
head, presumably the result of discussions between the
two artists.
The process of execution was subsequently relatively
straightforward. Rubens painted the figure of Prometheus
with his usual economy: the proper right side of the Titan's
face, for example, was never elaborated and instead was
treated as a reserve for the eagle's left foot, while small
reserves on the face and torso anticipated the insertion
points of the talons. After Snyders painted the eagle, Rubens
added highlights to its feet and beak and may also have
enhanced the bloody effects of beak and talons with addi
tional daubs of red.
Sutton has shown that the strip of canvas on the left
side, approximately seventeen inches wide, which includes
the landscape and the torch, was added when the ground
and paint layers of the main canvas were dry and has argued
persuasively that this area could have been added at the
time of Rubens's negotiations with Dudley Carleton in the
spring of 1 6 1 8 . We should, however, reconsider the pos
sibility that the addition represents another example of
Rubens's additive working method. Carleton, an avid collec
tor who admired Rubens, approached the artist with an
offer to exchange his collection of antique marbles for paint
ings by the artist. They had recently negotiated the sale of
a hunt scene, an exchange that revealed Carleton's interest in
work by Snyders. After stating his preference for "brief
negotiations, where each party gives and receives his share at:
once," Rubens attached a list of twelve paintings, specifying
which were "by my hand" and which had been begun by a
pupil and had been or would be retouched by Rubens. One
painting, Leopards, was described as "by my hand except a
most beautiful landscape, done by the hand of a master skill
ful in that department." The dimensions given in the list
are thought to be general, but in the case of Prometheus, they
roughly correspond to the current size of the painting, rather
than to the first, more vertical, format. Carleton chose only
the "originals," including Prometheus, all of which Rubens
promised to retouch before sending them to Carleton.
It is difficult to imagine that the addition of the canvas strip,
which also involved the inclusion of an important iconographic element, the torch, would have been considered part
of the finishing touch (Pultima mano) Rubens says he has
given to the greater part of the paintings. While we cannot
36

37

38

39

40

41

FIGURE 90

F r a n s S n y d e r s , Study for an Eagle,

ca. 1611. I n k a n d w a s h ,

28.1 x 20.3 c m (nVfe x 8 i n . ) . L o n d o n , B r i t i s h M u s e u m , i n v . 1946-7-13-176

T r u s t e e s o f the B r i t i s h M u s e u m

be entirely certain when the strip was added, it seems more

likely that Rubens expanded the composition while he was
working on it in 1611 or early 1612. Among Rubens's oeuvre,
many examples of panels with additions are known, as
are an increasing number of canvases that show the same
phenomenon, including the Saint George and The Recognition
ofPhilopoemen. The tightly formulated composition of
Prometheus Bound, with its powerful downward diagonal
momentum, may have appeared too extreme in the first, nar
row, format; the sense of the figures sliding precipitously
was ameliorated with the addition of the foreground torch,
which serves to visually counterbalance this effect, and the
view into the distance.
42

RUBENS AND SNYDERS

171

Rubens and Snyders's Prometheus Bound evidently sparked

new interest in the subject in the Netherlands, where Jacob
Jordaens ( 1 5 9 3 - 1 6 7 8 ) , Dirck van Baburen (ca. 1 5 9 0 / 9 5 - 1 6 2 4 ) ,
and others painted their own versions. It has been sug
gested that i f the Prometheus remained in Dudley Carleton's
collection in The Hague following his unsuccessful sale
to the King of Denmark, the stadholder's influential secre
tary Constantijn Huygens, who had a particular appreciation
of Rubens and Snyders (see cat. no. 2 4 ) , would have had
firsthand acquaintance with the composition. If so, it
seems fitting that Rembrandt later presented to Huygens his
Blinding of Samson (1636; Frankfurt, Stadelsches Kunstinstitut), in which the figure of Samson strongly recalls that
of Prometheus. Although Rembrandt may have seen Rubens
and Snyders's original while it hung in The Hague, as an
avid collector of prints, he could also have received his
inspiration for the violent figure of Samson from Cornells
Cort's engraving.
ATW
43

B r u e g e l t h e Y o u n g e r a n d p o s s i b l y also H e n d r i c k v a n B a l e n , see R o b e l s
1989, p p . 4 7 - 4 8 ; a n d K o s l o w 1995a, p p . 1 3 - 1 6 .
7. C r i v e l l i 1868, p p . 113-14 ( B r u e g h e l t o C a r d i n a l B o r r o m e o ) a n d
p p . n o - 1 2 ( B r u e g h e l t o B i a n c h i ) ; see K o s l o w 1995a, p . 14.
8. L i t e r a l l y f o r " d ' i m p o r t u n e n t e (sua) f a m i l i a r i t a " (letter o f M a y 14,
1 6 0 9 ) : C r i v e l l i 1868, p . 135.
9. F o r e x a m p l e , t h e sheet o f s t u d i e s o f d e a d d e e r ( B e r l i n ,
K u p f e r s t i c h k a b i n e t t , i n v . 8 4 9 7 ) ; see R o b e l s 1989, p p . 4 1 6 - 1 7 , n o . Z 4 3 .
10. See G a y o G a r c i a a n d V e r g a r a 2 0 0 4 , e s p e c i a l l y f i g . 22. F o r R u b e n s ' s o i l

44

45

s k e t c h , see H e l d 1980, v o l . 1, p p . 3 7 4 - 7 5 , n o . 278; a n d R o b e l s 1989,

p p . 353-54.
11. F o r t h e a n t i q u e m o n u m e n t s , see B o b e r a n d R u b i n s t e i n 1986,
p p . 151-55 ( L a o c o o n ) a n d p p . 1 6 6 - 6 8 ( T o r s o B e l v e d e r e ) . F o r d r a w i n g s
b y a n d after R u b e n s o f these w o r k s , see V a n d e r M e u l e n 1994, v o l . 2,
pp. 9 3 - 1 0 4 , nos. 76-93 (Laocoon) and pp. 56-59, nos. 37-39 (Torso
Belvedere).
12. See H . V l i e g h e i n B a l i s et a l . 1989a, p p . 1 4 8 - 4 9 , i l l . T h e Saint

George

appears i n the i n v e n t o r y o f t h e artist's estate; see M u l l e r 1989, p p . 77,

122, n o . 155.
13. See R a g g i o 1958; H e l d 1963, p p . 2 5 - 2 6 ; S u t t o n 1 9 9 0 , p p . 2 5 6 - 5 7 ; a n d
Bikker 2004.
14. Works and Days, v. 4 2 - 8 9 ; T h e o g o n y , v. 5 0 7 - 6 1 6 ( d i s c u s s e d i n R a g g i o

NOTES

1958, p p . 4 4 - 4 5 ) .
1. S a l e c o n c l u d e d b y J u n e 1, 1618, w h e n R u b e n s w r o t e t o C a r l e t o n
" . . . I have delivered to M r . Frans Pieterssen all the pictures [(in the
m a r g i n ) : t h e D a n i e l , t h e L e o p a r d s , t h e H u n t , t h e S t . Peter, t h e
Susanna, the St. Sebastian, the P r o m e t h e u s , the L e d a , Sarah and
H a g a r ] , i n g o o d c o n d i t i o n a n d p a c k e d w i t h care. I b e l i e v e Y o u r
E x c e l l e n c y w i l l be c o m p l e t e l y satisfied w i t h t h e m . " F o r R u b e n s ' s
o r i g i n a l I t a l i a n text, see R o o s e s a n d R u e l e n s 1 8 8 7 - 1 9 0 9 , v o l . 2,
p p . 1 8 1 - 8 3 ; t h e t r a n s l a t i o n is f r o m M a g u r n 1955, p . 67, l e t t e r 34.

15. Prometheus

Bound, v. 4 3 6 - 5 0 6 ( d i s c u s s e d i n R a g g i o 1958, p . 45).

16. P l a t o , Works, v o l . 2 (Protagoras)

(Loeb Classical Library, C a m b r i d g e ,

M a s s . , a n d L o n d o n , 1967), p p . 1 2 9 - 3 7 .
17. F o r e x a m p l e , A l c i a t i , Emblematum

Liber

(1531) a n d Emblematum

Liber

( L y o n , 1549); see D a l y 1985, v o l . 2, e m b l e m 103; a n d R a g g i o 1958,

p p . 55-56.
18. A s D e m p s e y (1967, p . 421) n o t e d , " c r u e l t y is t h e t r u e subject o f h i s

2. T h e Prometheus

a p p e a r s as t h e first p a i n t i n g o n t h e " L i s t o f m y p i c t u r e s

g i v e n t h e first o f 7

b e r

s t . vet. t o t h e K : o f D e n m a r k ' s m a r c h a n t ,

brought unto me by M r . H u g g i n s . . . 9 piedi alto8 piedi largo U n

P r o m e t h e o l e g a t o s o p r a i l m o n t e C a u c a s o c o n u n a a q u i l a che l i b e c c a

painting."
19. " F l e r e , w i t h h o o k e d beak, a m o n s t r o u s v u l t u r e d i g s a b o u t i n t h e l i v e r
o f P r o m e t h e u s , w h o is g i v e n n o peace f r o m h i s t o r m e n t s as ever a n d

i l f e g a t o , i l P r o m e t h e o d i R u b e n s , l ' A q u i l a fatta d a l S n y d e r s " : R o o s e s

a g a i n t h e savage b i r d d r a w s n e a r h i s s e l f - r e n e w i n g breast a n d attacks i t

a n d R u e l e n s 1 8 8 7 - 1 9 0 9 , v o l . 2, p . 185; a n d F i s k e K i m b a l l 1952, p . 67.

p u n i s h i n g l y . H e is n o t c o n t e n t w i t h his i n h u m a n s a c r i f i c i a l feast, b u t
w i t h h i s c l a w s lacerates, here the a g o n i z e d face, t h e r e the m a n ' s t h i g h .

3. A c c o r d i n g t o a n i n v e n t o r y o f t h a t d a t e ; see F i s k e K i m b a l l 1952, p . 67.

4 . F o r e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y v i e w e r s ' a c c o u n t s o f t h e p a i n t i n g at K i m b o l t o n

H e w o u l d fly m u r d e r o u s l y o n t h e s p e c t a t o r s , d i d n o t h i s c h a i n e d p r e y
detain h i m . H e can d o n o m o r e t h a n terrify the frightened o n l o o k e r s
b y t u r n i n g h i s f l a m i n g eyes f r o m o n e t o t h e o t h e r . B l o o d f l o w s f r o m

C a s t l e , see F i s k e K i m b a l l 1952, p p . 6 7 - 6 8 .

t h e chest a n d e v e r y p a r t w h e r e h i s c l a w s leave t h e i r m a r k , a n d h i s
5. " I o m i r i t r o v o a l p r e s e n t e f i o r d i r o b b a i n casa p a r t i c o l a

t e

alcuni

q u a d r i che h o t e n u t i per gusto m i o ansi r i c o m p r a t o n e a l c u n i p i u d i

q u e l l o l i a v e v a v e n d u t i a l a l t r i " (letter o f A p r i l 18, 1618): R o o s e s
a n d R u e l e n s 1 8 8 7 - 1 9 0 9 , p . 136; t r a n s l a t i o n f r o m M a g u r n 1955, P- 6 0 ,
letter 28.

h i s feathers t r e m b l e . H o r r o r g r i p s the o n l o o k e r s . " ( H e i c r o s t r o a d u n c o

v u l t u r i m m a n i s f o d i t / Jecur P r o m e t h e i , nec datur quies malis, S i c
u s q u e et u s q u e r a b i d u s ales i m m i n e t / F a e c u n d a p o e n i s a p p e t e n s
p r a e c o r d i a . / N o n est eo c o n t e n t u s i n f a n d a e d a p i s / P a s t u , s e d u n g u e

6. S n y d e r s w a s b o r n i n A n t w e r p i n 1579 a n d b e c a m e a free m a s t e r i n t h e

172

p i e r c i n g eyes d a r t savage flames. Y o u m i g h t t h i n k t h a t he m o v e s , t h a t

laniat insuper fero / H i n c o r a palpitantis, h i n c f e m u r v e r i . / Ipse

A n t w e r p G u i l d o f S a i n t L u k e i n 1602, w h e n O t t o v a n V e e n a n d

involaret i n necem spectantium / N i vincla tardent; q u o d potest u n u m

J a n B r u e g h e l t h e E l d e r w e r e c o - d e a n s ; see R o m b o u t s a n d V a n L e r i u s

t a m e n / F l a m m a t a t o r q u e n s h u e et i l l u c l u m i n a , / T e r r e t t i m e n t e s ;

1 8 6 4 - 7 6 , p . 418. F o r h i s f a m i l y h i s t o r y a n d t r a i n i n g w i t h P i e t e r

p e c t o r e e b u l l i t c r u o r , / E t p a r t e ab o m n i q u a p e d e s s i g n a n t n o t a m , /

RUBENS AND

SNYDERS

T r u c e s q u e flam mas v i b r a t acies l u m i n u m / R a p i d a e v o l u c r i s ; h a n c

p. 355; C . v a n de V e l d e i n B a u m a n a n d L i e d t k e 1992, p. 184; a n d

m o v e r i , h a n c t u p u t e s / Q u a s s a r e p e n n s a s ; h o r r o r adstantes h a b e t . ) :

H . V l i e g h e i n L i l l e 2 0 0 4 , p . 88.

D . B a u d i u s , Poematum,

nova editio (1616), p . 578. T r a n s l a t i o n a n d

L a t i n text f r o m D e m p s e y 1967, p p . 4 2 1 - 2 2 ; see also R o o s e s 1 8 8 6 - 9 2 ,

v o l . 5, p . 341; a n d S u t t o n 1983, p . 274.

38. See R u b e n s ' s letter t o C a r l e t o n o f M a r c h 17, 1618 ( t h e i r c o r r e s p o n

d e n c e o v e r t h e e x c h a n g e c o n t i n u e d d u r i n g the c o u r s e o f the s p r i n g ) :
R o o s e s a n d R u e l e n s 1 8 8 7 - 1 9 0 9 , v o l . 2, p p . 1 3 0 - 8 3 . D u r i n g t h e c o u r s e

2 0 . A s s t a t e d b y R u b e n s i n a letter t o J a c o b de B i e ; see M a g u r n 1955,

o f earlier discussions c o n c e r n i n g Carleton's interest i n a large h u n t

scene, w h i c h was s o l d t o t h e d u k e o f A a r s c h o t ( C a r l e t o n a c q u i r e d t h e

p . 55, letter 22.

s e c o n d v e r s i o n , Wolf and Fox Hunt

2 1 . V a n d e r M e u l e n 1994, v o l . 2, p p . 9 3 - 1 0 4 , n o s . 7 6 - 9 3 .

[ N e w York, Metropolitan M u s e u m

o f A r t , i n v . 10.73]), R u b e n s was s a i d t o c o m m e n t t h a t "the t a l e n t

22. F o r t h e r e c e n t l y d i s c o v e r e d d r a w i n g s b y R u b e n s o f the C e n t a u r

o f S n y d e r s , is t o r e p r e s e n t beasts b u t e s p e c i a l l i e B i r d s a l t o g e t h e r d e a d ,

T o r m e n t e d b y C u p i d , see N e w Y o r k 2 0 0 5 , p p . 1 0 8 - n , cat. n o s . 2 0 , 2 1

a n d w h o l l y w i t h o u t a n y a c t i o n , " as r e p o r t e d b y T o b y M a t t h e w t o

( d a t e d ca. 1 6 0 6 - 0 8 ) ; a n d B r a u n s c h w e i g 2 0 0 4 , p p . 2 8 9 - 9 1 ; o t h e r

S i r D u d l e y C a r l e t o n (letter o f F e b r u a r y 25, 1617): R o o s e s a n d R u e l e n s

d r a w i n g s o f t h e g r o u p are d i s c u s s e d i n V a n d e r M e u l e n 1 9 9 4 , v o l . 2,

1 8 8 7 - 1 9 0 9 , v o l . 2, p . 9 9 . See cat. n o . 2 4 .

pp. 83-89.

39. " L e o p a r d i . . . O r i g i n a l e de m i a m a n o , e c c e t t o u n b e l l i s s i m o paese

fatto p e r m a n o d i v a l e n t h u o m o i n q u e l m e s t i e r e . " (letter o f A p r i l 28,

23. H e l d 1963, p . 28.

1618): R o o s e s a n d R u e l e n s 1 8 8 7 - 1 9 0 9 , v o l . 2, p . 137; t r a n s l a t i o n f r o m
2 4 . Inv. R L 1 2 7 7 1 ( r e c t o ) ; see F i s k e K i m b a l l 1952; a n d H e l d 1963, p p . 2 6 - 2 7 .
F o r M i c h e l a n g e l o ' s d r a w i n g , see P o p h a m a n d W i l d e 1949, p. 4 2 9 , p i . 2 1 .
25. Baudius, for example, identified the b i r d o f prey i n Prometheus Bound
as a v u l t u r e .

M a g u r n 1955, p p . 6 0 - 6 1 , l e t t e r 28. F o r the Leopards,

see cat. n o s . 4

a n d 2 6 ; a p a i n t i n g n o w i n M o n t r e a l is l i k e l y a later c o p y ; see fig. 132.

4 0 . A s n o t e d b y R u b e n s i n h i s letter t o C a r l e t o n o f M a y 12, 1618:
" . . . h a v e n d o l e i c a p p a t o s o l i l i o r i g i n a l i de che i o s o n o c o n t e n t i s s i m o . "

26. See U t r e c h t - ' s - H e r t o g e n b o s c h 1993, p . 337, cat. n o . 233; a n d W e t h e y

( Y o u r E x c e l l e n c y has t a k e n o n l y t h e o r i g i n a l s , w i t h w h i c h I a m per
fectly satisfied.): R o o s e s a n d R u e l e n s 1 8 8 7 - 1 9 0 9 , v o l . 2, p . 149, n o .

1 9 6 9 - 7 5 , v o l . 3, p p . 1 5 6 - 6 0 .

168; t r a n s l a t e d i n M a g u r n 1955, p p . 6 1 - 6 2 , letter 29.

27. C o r t a d d e d a t o r c h t o t h e c o m p o s i t i o n , t h e r e b y c h a n g i n g T i t y u s i n t o
P r o m e t h e u s ; see S u t t o n i n B o s t o n - T o l e d o 1 9 9 3 - 9 4 , p . 2 4 0 .
28. See J o h n R u p e r t M a r t i n a n d C l a u d i a L a z z a r o B r u n o , " R u b e n s ' s ' C u p i d
S u p p l i c a t i n g Jupiter'," i n M a r t i n 1972; a n d V i e n n a 2 0 0 4 , p . 68. S i m i l a r l y ,
i n Juno and Argus

(1611), R u b e n s e x e c u t e d t h e p e a c o c k s , a b i r d w h i c h

features p r o m i n e n t l y i n b o t h The Recognition

a n d Larder

of Philopoemen

(see f i g . 26)

with Game Birds (1614; C o l o g n e , W a l l r a f - R i c h a r t z M u s e u m ,

i n v . W R M 2 8 9 4 ) (the latter also i n c l u d e s a d e a d eagle).

2 9 . F i r s t n o t e d i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h R u b e n s ' s Ganymede

b y E v e r s (1942,

p p . 1 0 6 - 7 ) ; see also M a r t i n a n d B r u n o ( n o t e 28 a b o v e ) , p . 13.

41. " I o h o g i a fra t a n t o si trattava d a t o l ' u l t i m a m a n o a l l m a g g i o r p a r t e

d e l l e p i t t u r e c a p p a t e d a l e i e r i d o t t e a q u e l l a p e r f e t t i o n e c h e m i e stata
p o s s i b i l e , d i m a n i e r a che s p e r o V . E . sia p e r h a v e r n e i n t i e r a s o d i s f a t t i o n e , finit s o n o d i t u t t o p u n t o i l P r o m e t h e o , la L e d a , l i L e o p a r d i , i l
S e b a s t i a n o , et i l P i e t r o et D a n i e l i , l i q u a l i i o s o n o p r o n t o a c o n s e g n a r c
a q u e l l a p e r s o n a che l e i c o n o r d i n e espresso m i o r d i n a r a p e r r i c e v c r l i . "
(I have already, d u r i n g t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s , g i v e n t h e

finishing

touch to

t h e g r e a t e r p a r t o f the p i c t u r e s c h o s e n b y y o u , a n d b r o u g h t t h e m t o
w h a t p e r f e c t i o n I a m a b l e , so t h a t I h o p e y o u r E x c e l l e n c y w i l l be
c o m p l e t e l y satisfied. I have e n t i r e l y finished the P r o m e t h e u s , the L e d a ,
the L e o p a r d s , t h e S t . S e b a s t i a n , the S t . P e t e r . . . , a n d t h e D a n i e l , a n d

30. M a r t i n a n d B r u n o ( n o t e 28), p . 13, f i g . 9. F o r the a n t i q u e statue a n d

t h e c o p y d r a w i n g s , see V a n d e r M e u l e n 1 9 9 4 , v o l . 2, p p . 1 1 2 - 1 4 ,
n o s . 1 0 3 - 4 ; v o l . 3, figs. 181-83.
31. M a r t i n a n d B r u n o ( n o t e 28), p . 13.
32. S a i n t e n o y 1932-35, v o l . 1, p p . 73, 7 6 ; a n d K o l b 2 0 0 5 , p . 15. G o l d e n
eagles are f o u n d i n the m o u n t a i n o u s r e g i o n s o f S p a i n , w h e r e F a i b e n s
m a y have o b s e r v e d t h e m i n 1 6 0 3 - 0 4 .
33. H e l d 1963, p . 2 1 ; a n d S u t t o n 1 9 9 0 , p . 255.
34. L u g t 1 9 4 9 , n o . 1029; a n d S u t t o n 1983, p p . 2 5 7 - 5 8 .
35. T h e i n d i c a t i o n s o f t h e t o r s o a n d l i v e r are d i f f i c u l t t o see i n r e p r o d u c
t i o n , a n d I o w e t h i s o b s e r v a t i o n t o K o s l o w 1995a, p . 3 0 6 .

I a m r e a d y t o d e l i v e r t h e m t o the p e r s o n w h o has Y o u r E x c e l l e n c y ' s

express o r d e r t o r e c e i v e t h e m ) : R o o s e s a n d R u e l e n s , 1 8 8 7 - 1 9 0 9 , v o l . 2,
p p . 1 6 1 - 6 2 ; t r a n s l a t e d i n M a g u r n 1955, p . 63.
4 2 . S u t t o n (1983, p p . 2 7 2 - 7 4 ) e n u m e r a t e d s o m e o f the panels a n d canvases.
4 3 . J a c o b J o r d a e n s , Prometheus

Bound

(ca. 1 6 4 0 ; C o l o g n e , W a l l r a f -

R i c h a r t z M u s e u m , i n v . 1 0 4 4 ; see B i k k e r 2 0 0 4 ) a n d D i r c k v a n B a b u r e n ,
Prometheus

Being

Chained

by Vulcan

(1623; A m s t e r d a m , R i j k s m u s e u m ,

i n v . sic A 1 6 0 6 ) ; f o r o t h e r c o n t e m p o r a r y t r e a t m e n t s o f t h e t h e m e ,
see S u t t o n 1 9 9 0 , p . 258, n n . 37, 4 0 - 4 1 . A later c o p y o f R u b e n s a n d
S n y d e r s ' s canvas, t h e n i n the c o l l e c t i o n o f the M u s e e O l d e n b o u r g
( n o w i n t h e R i j k s m u s e u m c o l l e c t i o n ) was c o n s i d e r e d b y R o o s e s a n d
R u e l e n s ( 1 8 8 7 - 1 9 0 9 , v o l . 2, p p . 1 4 0 - 4 1 ) a n d O l d e n b o u r g (1921, p . 74)
3

36. A l s o t h e c o n c l u s i o n o f K o s l o w 1995a, p . 306.

37. P r o p o s e d b y S u t t o n (1983, p . 275), w h o a f f i r m e d h i s p o i n t i n S u t t o n
1 9 9 0 , p p . 2 5 4 - 5 5 ; a n d B o s t o n - T o l e d o 1 9 9 3 - 9 4 , p . 241, t h i s c o n t e n t i o n
w a s s u b s e q u e n t l y r e i t e r a t e d i n m o s t s o u r c e s , i n c l u d i n g R o b e l s 1989,

t o be t h e o r i g i n a l , a l t h o u g h t h e d i m e n s i o n s (189 x 2 4 0 c m [74 /s x
9 4 V 2 i n . ] ) are c o n s i d e r a b l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m the P h i l a d e l p h i a p a i n t i n g ;
see also H e l d 1963, p p . 22, 2 4 ( w i t h s u b s e q u e n t p r o v e n a n c e ) .
4 4 . V a n G e l d e r 1950/51, p . 132; a n d S u t t o n 1 9 9 0 , p. 258.
45. F o r R e m b r a n d t ' s d e b t t o R u b e n s , see H e l d 1963, p p . 3 1 - 3 2 ; a n d
R e z n i c e k 1977, p p . 8 8 - 9 1 .

RUBENS

A N D

SNYDERS

173

23
Peter Pau l Rubens and Frans Snyders

Diana Returnin g from the Hun t

ca. 161 6
O i l o n canvas , 13 6 x 182. 5 c m (5 3 V2 x 7 1 % in. )
Dresden, Staatlich e Kunstsammlungen, Gemaldegaleri e Alte Meister , N O . 9 6 2

3 6 0 , 395 ; E v e r s 1942 , p p . 1 9 6 - 2 0 1 , n o . 137 ;

provenance
A c q u i r e d f r o m d e W i t , A n t w e r p , i n 170 9 f o r
A u g u s t u s I I " T h e Strong, " electo r o f Saxon y
and k i n g o f Polan d (reigne d 1694-1733);

first m e n t i o n e d i n t h e i n v e n t o r y o f h i s c o l l e c tion o f paintings , 1722-28,

t h e n c e i n th e

R o y a l C o l l e c t i o n , a n d t h e n Stat e C o l l e c t i o n ,

B a l i s 1986 , p p . 57 , 161 ; R o b e l s 1989 , p p . 121 ,

149, 3 6 2 - 6 3 , n o . 2 6 8 ; D r e s d e n 1992 , p . 332 ;
B o s t o n - T o l e d o 1 9 9 3 - 9 4 , p . 3 0 ; K o s l o w 1995a ,
pp. 2 4 0 - 4 1
exhibitions

Dresden
literature
S m i t h 1 8 2 9 - 4 2 , v o l . 2 , p . 82 ; H i i b n e r 1872 ,

A n t w e r p 1977 , p . 103 , cat . n o . 4 0 ; B e r l i n

2 0 0 2 - 0 3 , p p . 1 2 6 - 2 7 , cat . n o . 4 7 ; L o n d o n
2 0 0 3 , p p . 132-35 , cat . n o . 4 3 ; J a c k s o n 2 0 0 4 ,
p p . 2 5 - 2 6 , cat . n o . 1.1 1

p. 202 , n o . 826 ; R o o s e s 1 8 8 6 - 9 2 , v o l . 3 ,
p p . 7 9 - 8 0 , n o . 597 ; W o e r m a n n 1905 , p . 312 ,
n o . 9 6 2 ; G l i i c k 1933 , P P - 16 0 ( n o . 133) , 185 ,

e t w e e n a b o u t 16 l 5 a n d 1 6 2 0 , r u b e ns d e v i s e d

new imager y around the them e o f the hunt . Th e

physicality an d dram a of his large-scale combat s
between men , their mounts, an d exotic beasts transforme d
ancient an d Renaissanc e traditions for the depictio n of hunting scenes. A t the sam e time , Rubens develope d idylli c
subjects tha t celebrate d nature's abundanc e an d the sensua l
aspects o f the mythologica l chase . Whil e Ruben s an d his
studio execute d the hunts , includin g th e animals , the mag nificence an d expressiveness o f the mythologica l subject s
were enhance d b y the contribution s of eminent colleagues,
notably Jan Brueghel the Elder , Frans Snyders, and Jan Wilden s
( 1 5 8 5 / 6 - 1 6 5 3 ) . Diana Returning from the Hunt i s Rubens's
seminal portrayal of Dianain i t he establishe d both th e
erotic tone an d the descriptiv e visual vocabulary for subse quent treatment s o f the huntress . Th e fruit, dea d game ,
4

174

rubens an d snyder s

and huntin g dogs painte d b y Snyders are sumptuou s attri butes tha t demonstrat e hi s skillfu l renderin g of diverse textures whic h complemen t the figures ' richly colore d draperies.
The important , thoug h subsidiary , role played by Snyders in
major figur e pictures lik e thi s one contrast s wit h Brueghel's
principal shar e i n the treatment s o f Diana an d her nymph s
from abou t 162 0 (cat . nos . 1 0 an d 11) , wher e h e was not onl y
the painte r o f the animal s and accouterments bu t als o th e
creator o f the landscape .
In Diana Returning from the Hunt, th e goddes s an d
her companion s encounter a gregarious ban d o f satyrs who,
in keepin g with thei r mischievous and lascivious nature ,
tempt th e virgina l huntresse s wit h offering s o f fruit i n the
hope o f seducing them. The scene i s a delightfully imagined
encounter i n keeping with description s in Ovid (Metamorphoses) an d Virgil (The Aeneid, Georgics) o f the goddes s Dian a

175

convey the associated theme of bacchic revelry. Rubens por

trayed the same bearded, wily satyr squeezing a bunch of
grapes in a bust-length portrait from this period (fig. 9 1 ) .
While the mythological themes of Diana's Punishment
of Callisto and the Hunt of Actaeon had been frequently
depicted by painters in the sixteenth century, particularly at
the French court of Fontainebleau, Rubens established the
subject of Diana's Return from the Hunt with the present
painting. H e drew on his empathy for the world of classical
mythology to breathe life into well-known mythological
characters, in this case portraying the charged interaction
between opposite types: the lusty, earthy personification of
nature, the satyr, and the aloof virgin goddess. The frieze
like composition, with the robust figures placed close to the
picture plane and almost no landscape visible behind them,
underscores the allusion to an antique past. Diagonal
elements, such as Diana's spear, which separates the bands
of nymphs and satyrs, and even the leaning stance of the
foreground satyr, moderate the vertical formality of the pro
cession of nymphs and continue through Snyders's grape
stems, the beak of the curlew, and the muzzles of the inquis
itive greyhounds. Witty details pervade the scene: one of the
hounds warily sniffs at the (presumably malodorous) inter
loper, while the satyr in the background uses his horns to
balance the overflowing basket of fruit on his head as he
offers a bunch of grapes to a nymph. The appeal of the Diana
theme for Rubens was the opportunity to portray the beauti
ful seminude goddess and her band as well as the boisterous
companions of Bacchus. While the outcome of the encounter
between the two groups in Diana Returning from the Hunt is
provocatively indeterminate, the licentious aspects of the
subject were emphasized in the caption on the print after the
Dresden painting by Schelte Bolswert (ca. 1 5 8 6 - 1 6 5 9 ) dating
from the early 1 6 2 0 s : "May the weary young women be a
favorable prize for you: together fruit and game make a suit
able feast. *
6

FIGURE

91 P e t e r P a u l R u b e n s , Two Satyrs, ca. 1617-19.

O i l o n panel,

75.5 x 61 c m (29 A x 2 4 i n . ) . M u n i c h , A l t e P i n a k o t h e k , i n v . 6 9

(Greek: Artemis), who was extolled for her fair beauty,

strength of character, and chastity. In the Dresden painting,
a formidably athletic Diana wears her red chiton over one
shoulder, breast exposed like an Amazon (see cat. no. 1), and
her hair pulled back (in this case, elegantly decorated with
pearls), as she was portrayed in antique sculpture and on
Roman sarcophagi. In one hand she carries a long spear and
in the other holds her bounty of colorful song- and game
birds. Behind her are three nymphs, one of whom carries a
dead hare on the shaft of her spear and looks out at the viewer.
The satyrs, bearded with short, turned horns, are wrapped in
goatskins, which also serve to support the overflowing array
of fruit clasped by the satyr in the foreground. H i s grape
vine crown (also the work of Rubens) and laughing visage
5

176

RUBENS

A N D

SNYDERS

59

Despite his concurrent absorption in vigorous hunt

subjects, in this period of his career Rubens never portrayed
the goddess actively pursuing her quarry. H e began to
depict her engaged in her favorite pastime only in the late
1 6 2 0 s . The relieflike character of the scene, profile treat
ment of the female heads, and vertical division of the com
position into two halves make this one of the most balanced
and restrained Diana compositions painted by Rubens and
Snyders between 1615 and 1620. In Diana Returning from
the Hunt, the artists created a decorum appropriate to the
9

mythological subject, in which each figure behaves in accor

dance with their rowdy or chaste character. Rubens and
his studio expanded the scene into a full-length format with
additional figures (fig. 92), a format that undercuts the
monumentality achieved in the present painting with halflength figures but elaborates on the interactions between
the satyrs and nymphs.
Rubens's attention to decorum would have resonated
in courtly circles, where hunting was a royal prerogative
pursued seriously by the archdukes and by Isabella in partic
ular. The hunting law issued by the archdukes in 1613
specified the rights, rules, and regulations of the hunt and
underscored the traditional regional view of appropriate
behavior, which required participants to hunt "fur with fur
and feather with feather." With Diana Returning from the
Hunt, Rubens addressed specifically the courtly and noble
taste for elevated and allusive treatments of the hunt. The
inventory of the archducal hunting castle, Tervuren, refers to
many paintings of similar subjects, and although it is
unclear whether Archduchess Isabella commissioned Diana
at the Hunt and Diana^s Sleeping Nymphs Observed by Satyrs
(cat. nos. 10 and 11) from Brueghel and Rubens, the subject
and particularly the collection of hounds must certainly have
carried an allusion to her pursuits. The popularity of such
10

11

12

13

images in the early seventeenth century is reflected in the

collections of the artists themselves. The inventory drawn up
at Rubens's death lists two paintings of Diana subjects exe
cuted with Jan Brueghel, and Snyders himself possessed a
"hunt" by Rubens and Brueghel.
In contrast to his friend Brueghel, Snyders was adept at
working on the large, expressive scale required by Rubens,
producing substantial and weighty still-life elements. Frans's
sojourn in Italy (1608-09) was crucial for his development
of fruit motifs in particular. With the aid of a letter of intro
duction from Brueghel, he met Cardinal Borromeo and
would thus have known Caravaggio's striking and influential
Basket of Fruit (ca. 1595-98; Milan, Pinacoteca Ambrosiana)
commissioned by Borromeo, and possibly also Caravaggio's
Boy with a Basket of Fruit (ca. 1593-94; Rome, Galleria
Borghese). A n intriguing reference to "paintings on paper
of Italian Fruit" (beschilderde papieren met Italiensche Vruchten)
in Snyders's will of 1655 may allude to studies he made
himself during this period. As Balis observed, Snyders's use
of the motif of the split melon, for example, may reflect
his exposure to Italian still life.
Rubens relied heavily on Snyders to help create the visual
richness that defined a genre where abundance and bounteousness were principal themes. The fruit and game elements
in Diana Returning from the Hunt were Snyders's own
invention as an established still-life specialist. While Rubens
planned the huge still life in one of their earliest joint works,
The Recognition of Philopoemen of ca. 1609 (see fig. 27), by
1611 Snyders had established an independent career. Brueghel
continued to promote Snyders to Cardinal Borromeo, com
menting in a letter of 1611 that Snyders had painted a tazza
of different sorts of fruit. In 1613 Brueghel related to
Borromeo (with Rubens acting as secretary) that Snyders
had "progressed in his art" and the prices of his work had
increased correspondingly.
Snyders's style was close enough to Rubens's own descrip
tive brushwork that contemporaries had difficulty distin
guishing between them. Rubens was quick to clarify the
differences for clients such as Sir Dudley Carleton. Carleton's
agent, Toby Matthew, described his confusion over the
authorship of a hunt scene to Carleton: "I have been in an
errour, for I thought as y doe, that his [Snyders] hand had
been in that peece, but sincerley and certainly it is not soe.
For in this Peece the beasts are all alive, and in act eyther of
escape or resistance, in the expressing whereof Snyder doth
infinitlie come short of Rubens, and Rubens saith that he
14

15

16

17

18

19

F I G U R E 92 Peter P a u l R u b e n s a n d w o r k s h o p a n d F r a n s S n y d e r s ,
Returning

from
3

the Hunt,

ca. 1616. O i l o n canvas, 231 x 238 c m

(91 x 93 /4 i n . ) . D a r m s t a d t , H e s s i s c h e s L a n d e s m u s e u m , i n v . G K 180

Diana

RUBENS

AND

SNYDERS

177

FIGURE

93

F r a n s S n y d e r s , Studies of Four Heads of Dogs, ca. 1615.

O i l o n p a n e l , 52 x 70 c m (20V2 x 27 V2 i n . ) . F o r m e r l y B e r l i n , S t a a t l i c h e
M u s e e n , K a i s e r - F r i e d r i c h - M u s e u m , i n v . 7 7 4 A ( d e s t r o y e d 1945)

should infinitlie take it in ill part, i f I should compare

Snyders w him on that point. The talent of Snyders, is to
represent beasts but especiallie Birds altogether dead, and
wholly w o u t anie action; and that w y LP, M r . Gage,
and I sawe of his hand, w we liked so well was a gruppo
of dead Birds, in a picture of Diana, and certain other
naked Nimphes.''
Diana Returning from the Hunt is notable among the
joint treatments of the goddess and her nymphs by Rubens
and his collaborators for the integration of the still-life and
animal elements with the figures. The bundle of fruit, the
armful of birds, and the hounds in Diana Returning from
the Hunt must have been discussed in advance in order
to achieve a harmonious balance between these components
and the figures. Although no overall preparatory sketch for
Diana Returning from the Hunt is known, the composition
was almost certainly planned by Rubens, who first painted
the figures. Robels considered an oil sketch of greyhounds by
Snyders (fig. 93) a source for the two greyhounds on the
right, and in fact the black and white hound in the lower
left of the sketch appears in the Diana as w e l l . If the sketch
preceded the painting, then Snyders already had a clear idea
of the relationship between the hound and the hanging hare
(whose ears appear in the sketch), as well as the position of
Diana's spear in front of the black and white hound. Snyders
planned some of the contours of the hounds in advance; a
t h

th

c h

smaller ear can be seen in the head of the dog in the right
foreground. H e also adjusted the contours of the rear dog's
muzzle and ear, which were painted over the blue drapery.
Rubens and Snyders enjoyed a productive and genial
partnership that continued until Rubens's death. In 1628 they
collaborated on two hunts of Diana destined for the Alcazar.
Between 1636 and 1639, Rubens received commissions
from the Spanish king Philip I V for many hunts to decorate
the royal hunting lodge, the Torre de la Parada, as well as the
Alcazar and Buen Retiro palaces. Snyders's participation is
documented for eight of these hunting scenes, including a
Diana and Her Nymphs Hunting Fallow Deer (presumed lost)
and Diana and Her Nymphs Attacked by Satyrs (Madrid, Museo
Nacional del Prado). In correspondence associated with
this prestigious commission, their individual expertise and
established division of labor were recognized by their patron,
and Rubens was directed to paint the figures and landscape,
while Snyders was expected to execute the animals.
ATW
22

NOTES

1. T h e u n i d e n t i f i e d D e W i t c i t e d b y H i i b n e r (1872, p . 2 0 2 , g i v i n g t h e
p r i c e as " 2 0 0 p i s t o l e n " ) a n d U t a N e i d h a r d t i n B e r l i n 2 0 0 2 - 0 3 (p- 126)

c h

20

21

178

RUBENS

A N D

SNYDERS

w a s p r o b a b l y t h e art d e a l e r J a c o b u s de W i t . A l a r g e n u m b e r o f p a i n t
i n g s w e r e a c q u i r e d a b o u t 1710 f r o m D e W i t f o r t h e e l e c t o r a c c o r d i n g
t o S t a r i n g (1958, p . 53). D e W i t w a s the u n c l e o f t h e D u t c h a r t i s t J a c o b
de W i t , w h o c o l l e c t e d a n d r e t o u c h e d d r a w i n g s b y R u b e n s a n d also
made drawn variations o n Rubens's compositions, including a fulll e n g t h v e r s i o n ( C a m b r i d g e , F i t z w i l l i a m M u s e u m , i n v . 2235) o f R u b e n s
a n d F r a n s S n y d e r s ' s Diana

Returning

from

the Hunt

(fig. 9 2 ) ; see n o t e

10 b e l o w . F o r t h e e l d e r a n d y o u n g e r d e W i t , see S t a r i n g 1958, a n d
M i c h i e l P l o m p , " C o l l e c t i n g Rubens's D r a w i n g s , " i n N e w Y o r k 2005,
p p . 51-53. A c c o r d i n g t o H i i b n e r , t h e p a i n t i n g w a s a c q u i r e d i n A n t w e r p
f r o m " R a s c h k e , " w h o s e i d e n t i t y is u n k n o w n , b u t w h o m a y h a v e b e e n
a n a g e n t a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e sale o f t h e p a i n t i n g t o t h e elector. J a n
B r u e g h e l t h e E l d e r ' s Dutch Landscape

( H i i b n e r 1872, p . 182, n o . 728,

p r e s u m e d l o s t ) w a s d e s c r i b e d as p u r c h a s e d t h r o u g h R a s c h k e f r o m
"Jac. de W i t . "
2. " L i t . A et B . I n v e n t a r i a Sr. K o n i g l . M a j e s t a t i n P o h l e n u n d C h u r f i i s t l .
D u r c h l . z u Sachsen grofie, w i e auch kleine Cabinets u n d andere
S c h i l d e r e y e n . . . " prepared by Johann A d a m Steinhauser between
1722-28, n o . A 4 8 .
3. " S r . k o n i g l . M a j . i n P o l e n u n d k u r f i i r s t l . D u r c h l . z u S a c h s e n S c h i l d e r e i I n v e n t a r i a s u b L i t . A et B . , " p r e p a r e d b y J o h a n n A d a m S t e i n h a u s e r ,
no. 4 8 A ; " C a t a l o g o delli q u a d r i , che s o n o n e l G a b i n e t t o d i S u a
M a e s t a , " p r e p a r e d b y P i e t r o G u a r i e n t i , n o . 136; " I n v e n t a r i u m v o n d e r
K o n i g l i c h e n B i l d e r - G a l e r i e z u D r e f i d e n , gefertiget M e n s : Julij &
A u g u s t : 1754," p r e p a r e d b y M a t t h i a s O e s t e r r e i c h , n o . 359.

4 . T h e m o n u m e n t a l h u n t scenes c r e a t e d a b o u t 1616 i n c l u d e , f o r e x a m p l e ,
f o u r p a i n t i n g s a c q u i r e d b y the E l e c t o r M a x i m i l i a n o f B a v a r i a : Boar
Hunt

( o i l o n canvas, 250 x 320 c m [98V8 x 126 i n . ] ; M a r s e i l l e s , M u s e e

des Beaux-Arts, inv. 103), Hippopotamus and Crocodile Hunt (oil o n

( A h u n t b y R u b e n s a n d B r u e g h e l ) v a l u e d at the s u b s t a n t i a l p r i c e o f
500 g u l d e n ; see D e n u c e 1 9 4 9 , P- 18915. F o r B r u e g h e l ' s letters, see C r i v e l l i 1868, p p . i n a n d 113. F o r
C a r a v a g g i o ' s r o l e i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f s t i l l l i f e , see L a u r a L a u r e o t i ,

canvas, 248 x 321 c m [97 /s x 126V8 i n . ] ; M u n i c h , A l t e P i n a k o t h e k ,

i n v . 4 7 9 7 ) , Lion Hunt

( o i l o n canvas, 248 x 324 c m [97V8 x 127V2 i n . ] ;

f o r m e r l y B o r d e a u x M u s e u m , l o s t ) , a n d Tiger, Lion, and Leopard

Hunt

( o i l o n canvas, 256 x 324 c m [100 A x 127V2 i n . ] ; R e n n e s , M u s e e

des B e a u x - A r t s , i n v . 811.1.10). F o r R u b e n s ' s h u n t scenes, see R o s a n d
1969 a n d B a l i s 1986.

" P a i n t i n g N a t u r e : F r u i t , F l o w e r s and Vegetables," i n L o n d o n - R o m e

2 0 0 1 , p p . 6 8 - 8 8 . F o r S n y d e r s ' e x p o s u r e t o C a r a v a g g i o , see R o b e l s
1989, p . 22; a n d K o s l o w 1995a, p . 34, 4516. See A r n o u t B a l i s , " W o r k i n g I t O u t : D e s i g n T o o l s a n d P r o c e d u r e s
i n S i x t e e n t h - a n d S e v e n t e e n t h - C e n t u r y F l e m i s h A r t , " i n V l i e g h e et a l .
2 0 0 0 , p . 138.

5. F o r R u b e n s ' s f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h a n c i e n t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f A r t e m i s a n d
D i a n a , see B a l i s 1986, p . 58.
6. R u b e n s a d d e d t h e s e c o n d satyr i n the M u n i c h p a n e l (see n o t e 4 a b o v e )

17. See p p . 2 5 - 2 6 i n t h i s v o l u m e .
18. " F r a n c e s c o S n y d e r s fa u n R a m o , c o n u n t a t z a de p o r c e l l a n e p e i n o

d u r i n g a later c a m p a i g n o f p a i n t i n g ; see R e n g e r a n d D e n k 2 0 0 2 ,

d i f r u t t i , d i u n i " ( F r a n s S n y d e r s has m a d e a [ p i c t u r e o n ] c o p p e r ,

pp. 366-67.

w i t h a p o r c e l a i n t a z z a f u l l o f v a r i o u s k i n d s o f f r u i t ) : C r i v e l l i 1868,

7. F o r t h e i c o n o g r a p h y o f the g o d d e s s at F o n t a i n e b l e a u , i n s p i r e d b y
D i a n e de P o i t i e r s , see B a r d o n 1963.
8. " S i c v o b i s lassae s i n t p r o e m i a fausta p u e l l a e : C o n u e n i u n t e p u l i s p o m a
feraeque bene." F o r the p r i n t , see V o o r h e l m S c h e e v o o g t 1873, p . 122,
no. 24. I thank L o u i s M a r c h e s a n o , collections curator o f prints and
d r a w i n g s , G e t t y Research Institute, for sharing his insights i n t o
S c h e l t e ' s p r e s e n t a t i o n o f the c o m p o s i t i o n .
9. Observed by Balis 1986, p. 58. Rubens's Diana and Nymphs Hunting
Deer, e x e c u t e d w i t h F r a n s S n y d e r s , was b r o u g h t t o M a d r i d b y
R u b e n s i n 1628 b u t is n o w l o s t ; see B a l i s 1986, p p . 1 8 7 - 9 1 , n o . 13;
a n d V e r g a r a 1999, p p . 4 6 , 4 8 .
10. R o b e l s (1989, P- 362) was t h e first t o p r o p o s e t h a t t h e p r e s e n t p a i n t i n g is t h e earliest v e r s i o n o f t h e c o m p o s i t i o n . A s m a l l e r c o p y o f t h e pres
ent p a i n t i n g , p e r h a p s p a i n t e d i n R u b e n s ' s s t u d i o , r e c e n t l y a p p e a r e d
o n t h e art m a r k e t ( o i l o n canvas, 72 x 104.1 c m [28V8 x 41 i n . ] ;
S o t h e b y ' s , N e w Y o r k , J a n u a r y 28, 2 0 0 5 , l o t 581). A n o t h e r v e r s i o n o f
the D a r m s t a d t canvas was f o r m e r l y l o c a t e d i n t h e D r e s d e n c o l l e c t i o n
(inv. 9 8 0 ; d e s t r o y e d 1 9 4 s ) ; see R o b e l s 1989, p . 364. A d r a w i n g

p . 185 (letter o f J u n e 10, 1611).

19. "II s i g . F r a n c e s c o S n y d e r s si c o m e h a fatto d a q u e l l h o r a che v s i l
c o n o b b e i n M i l a n o g r a n d i s s i m o p r o g r e s s o n e l l ' a r t e sua c o s i a n c o a
p r o p o r t i o n e e cresciuto i l prezzo del opre sue" (Since the t i m e w h e n
Y o u r H o n o r k n e w h i m i n M i l a n F r a n c e s c o S n y d e r s has m a d e g r e a t
p r o g r e s s i n art a n d his w o r k has p r o p o r t i o n a l l y i n c r e a s e d i n p r i c e ) :
C r i v e l l i 1868, p . 198 (letter o f J a n u a r y 25, 1613).
2 0 . L e t t e r o f F e b r u a r y 25, 1617; see R o o s e s a n d R u e l e n s 1 8 8 7 - 1 9 0 9 , v o l . 2,
p. 9 9 . K o s l o w (1995a, p . 18) p r o p o s e d t h a t t h e p a i n t i n g o f " D i a n a a n d
c e r t a i n o t h e r n a k e d N i m p h e s " m e n t i o n e d b y M a t t h e w s m a y be
i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h e Diana

and Her Nymphs Asleep Surprised

by Satyrs i n

L o n d o n , K e n s i n g t o n Palace ( R o y a l C o l l e c t i o n ) o r t h e r e l a t e d v e r s i o n
i n G e n e v a ( M u s e e d ' A r t et d ' H i s t o i r e ) .
21. R o b e l s 1989, p . 4 0 4 , n o S K 6. R o b e l s ( p p . 4 0 4 , 5 0 5 ) also a s s o c i a t e d a
drawing o f four greyhounds (Rotterdam, M u s e u m Boijmans V a n
B e u n i n g e n , i n v . v 8 8 ) w i t h the D r e s d e n Diana
22. F o r the series, see B a l i s 1986, p p . 2 1 8 - 6 4 .
R u b e n s ] m a n o y de Esneyre,

cc

Returning

from

the

Hunt.

T o d a s s o n de su [ i . e . ,

d e l u n o las figuras y paises y d e l o t r o l o s

( C a m b r i d g e , F i t z w i l l i a m M u s e u m , i n v . 2235) after the D a r m s t a d t c o m

animales" ( E v e r y t h i n g by y o u r h a n d a n d by Snyders, f r o m the f o r m e r

p o s i t i o n (fig. 92) b e l i e v e d t o be b y J a c o b J o r d a e n s (1593-1678) has

the figures a n d l a n d s c a p e s a n d f r o m t h e o t h e r t h e a n i m a l s ) , q u o t e d

recently been reattributed to the eighteenth-century A n t w e r p painter-

i n B a l i s 1986, p . 228, n . 9. F o r the e v i d e n c e c o n f i r m i n g t h a t " E s n e y r e "

c o l l e c t o r J a c o b de W i t w h o , c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y , m a d e several c h a n g e s

r e f e r r e d t o F r a n s S n y d e r s , see A l p e r s 1971, p p . 117-18.

t o t h e c o m p o s i t i o n ; see M i c h i e l P l o m p ( n o t e 1 a b o v e ) , p p . 52-53.
11. See e s p e c i a l l y cat. n o s . 9, 10, a n d 11.
12. K o s l o w 1996, p . 701. See also cat. n o s . 10 a n d 11.
13. See t h e 1617 a n d 1667 i n v e n t o r i e s o f p a i n t i n g s at T e r v u r e n p u b l i s h e d
b y D e M a e y e r 1955, p p . 3 3 6 - 3 7 , d o c . 134, a n d p p . 4 4 8 - 5 3 , d o c . 272.
A m o n g the p a i n t i n g s l i s t e d i n t h e a n t i c a m e r ( a n t i c h a m b e r ) o f the
latter (p. 452), t h r e e are i d e n t i f i e d as D i a n a subjects.
14. " A h u n t i n g e o f D i a n a ; the figures o f S r Peter R u b e n s T h e
L a n d s c h a p s a n d the beasts o f B r u g e l " ( n o . 2 6 9 ) a n d " A h u n t i n g e o f
D i a n a b y P e t e r R u b e n s a n d B r u g e l " ( n o . 270) w e r e l i s t e d a m o n g
R u b e n s ' s p o s s e s s i o n s ; see M u l l e r 1989, p p . 1 3 8 - 3 9 , a n d n o . 10, a n d
A n t w e r p 2 0 0 4 , p p . 1 9 7 - 9 8 . T h e 1659 i n v e n t o r y o f p a i n t i n g s i n t h e
estate o f F r a n s S n y d e r s i n c l u d e d " e e n J a c h t v a n R e u b e n s e n B r u e g h e l "

RUBENS

A N D

SNYDERS

179

24
Peter Paul Rubens and Frans Snyders

The Head of Medusa

ca. 1617-18

O i l on canvas, 68.5 x 118 cm (27 x 4 6 V 2 in.)

Vienna, Kunsthistorisches Museum, Gemaldegalerie, inv. 3834

H a i r s 1977, p . 16; Jaffe 1989, p . 232, n o . 4 4 8 ;

PROVENANCE

R o b e l s 1989, p p . 3 7 0 - 7 1 , n o . 2 7 6 ; F e r i n o -

Collection o f George Villiers, duke o f

P a g d e n 1991, P- 1 0 4 ; K o s l o w 1995a, p p . 303,

B u c k i n g h a m , b y 1635, f r o m w h i c h s o l d ,
l

Antwerp, 1648; sold by W i l l i a m Aylesbury

to S a l o m o n C o c k , along w i t h other paintings
f r o m t h e B u c k i n g h a m sale, M a y 14, 1 6 4 9 ;

3 0 6 , 3 0 8 - 1 2 ; K o s l o w 1995b, p p . 1 4 7 - 4 9 ,
3 4 9 - 5 0 ; V l i e g h e 2 0 0 3 , p . 115

n o t i n the i n v e n t o r y o f A r c h d u k e L e o p o l d
W i l h e l m , but p r o b a b l y b r o u g h t by his
brother E m p e r o r Ferdinand III to Prague;
P r a g u e i n v e n t o r y 1718, n o . 38; t r a n s f e r r e d
f r o m P r a g u e t o V i e n n a 1876

EXHIBITIONS

A n t w e r p 1977, cat. n o . 27; V i e n n a 1977,

cat. n o . 23; P a d u a - R o m e - M i l a n 1 9 9 0 ,
p . 118-12, cat. n o . 4 0 ; B o s t o n - T o l e d o
1 9 9 3 - 9 4 , p p . 35, 2 4 5 - 4 7 , cat. n o . 12;
V i e n n a - E s s e n 2 0 0 2 , p p . 5 8 - 5 9 , cat. n o . 12;
Braunschweig 2004, pp. 6 9 - 7 0 , 222-25,

LITERATURE

R o o s e s 1 8 8 6 - 9 2 , v o l . 3, p . 116, n o . 636; G l i i c k

cat. n o . 4 4

1928, n o . 8 4 6 ; M u l l e r H o f s t e d e 1971, p . 271;

U B E N S

U T I L I Z E D

T H E

A D V A N T A G E S

O F

P A I N T I N G

in collaboration, notably the descriptive eloquence

of separate hands, to create an arresting image of
Medusa's severed head. Working with the animal and stilllife specialist Frans Snyders, by this time a frequent partner,
Rubens updated a traditionally iconic subject. The Head
ofMedusa combines aspects of various genres, including still
life, history painting, and allegory, and Rubens and Snyders
reversed their usual roles of portraying people and animals
that are respectively, alive and lifeless, to capture the unique
power of the Gorgon's head.
Medusa's pallid countenance lies on the ground at the
edge of a precipice, her blackened lips parted to reveal her
teeth and bloody sputum, her knit brows and rolling eyes
reflecting her startled horror and rage at her fate. The mass
of snakes that make up her hair seethe around her, surging in

180

RUBENS

AND

SNYDERS

all directions, even forming in the gory remains of her throat.

The story of Medusa is told by O v i d . The most beautiful of
the three daughters of the sea gods Phorcys and Ceto,
Medusa, the only mortal, was celebrated for her beautiful
hair. Her locks were transformed by Minerva into a knot
of loathsome snakes after Medusa was violated by Neptune
in the goddess's temple. Thereafter, anyone who looked
upon this Gorgon was turned to stone. Perseus, using only
the reflection in his shield, followed Medusa and decapitated
her as she slept. Even once severed, Medusa's head, with
its writhing mass of live snakes, continued to exert its power
and was used by Perseus to transform Atlas into a moun
tain and to rescue Andromeda. In one episode, after Perseus
placed the head on a mat of seaweed to protect it from the
sand, the Gorgon's blood transformed the seaweed into a
new precious substance: coral. As Perseus traveled over Africa,
4

181

drops of blood from Medusa's head fell to the sand below

and changed into snakes of many kinds. Perseus gave the head
to Minerva, who mounted it upon her breastplate (aegis)
and thereafter utilized its terrible transfixing power in battle.
By the early seventeenth century, the iconography of the
Medusa head centered on the image's apotropaic character,
that is, its power (or reputed power) to avert evil or bad
luck by intimidating or repelling enemies. The political and
moralizing aspects of this function endowed the subject
with additional levels of complexity that appealed to learned
viewers, and perhaps particularly to the duke of Buckingham,
one of the first owners of The Head ofMedusa. According
to Ludovico Dolce, the Gorgon's head was associated with
intellect or reason, which battles the opponents of virtue.
Likewise, Cesare Ripa represented the triumph of reason
over sensuality with an emblem depicting the Gorgon's head.
A t the same time, there existed in the Netherlands a more
pessimistic view of Medusa's transformative powers, one
not likely to have interested Buckingham but certainly
known to Rubens and Snyders. In his 1 6 0 4 treatise " O n the
interpretation and explanation of Ovid's Metamorphoses"
Karel van Mander asserted that Perseus was the "reason or
the intellect of our souls while Medusa was the carnal desires
or natural lusts which transform in mankind all reason,
prudence and wisdom unto unfeeling stones." H e character
ized Medusa, once proud of her hair, as "misusing God's
gifts or dishonoring G o d or his commandments through
pride." The opposing interpretations of the subject only
served to heighten the visual effects of fascination and revul
sion. For an erudite artist like Rubens, the range of inter
pretations may have offered one of the appealing challenges
of the subject, and the forthright presentation of Medusa's
head for our scrutiny does not exclude either the positive or
negative associations and interpretations.
6

However, while the Vienna canvas has often been dis

cussed in the context of Renaissance and Baroque depictions
of Medusa, either as painted ornamental shields or as the
metalwork decoration for parade shields, The Head of Medusa
in fact departs from such precedents in a number of impor
tant ways. The earlier treatments of Medusa exploit its
apotropaic aspects, presenting the head from the front
in a confrontational and emblematic fashion. In 1568 Vasari
described a Medusa head in a round format by a youthful
Leonardo da Vinci (once in the Medici collection but now
lost), describing the tangled serpents as "the most queer
and extravagant invention." This famous work may have
9

10

182

RUBENS

A N D

SNYDERS

inspired the magnificently decorated shields made by

the Milanese armorers Filippo and Francesco Negroli in the
mid-sixteenth century. Shields made for Emperor Charles V
portray the Gorgon's head in relief, brows furrowed, eyes
rolled back and mouth ajar in a silent scream, the snakes in
her hair intertwined above and below her face. The
Gorgon's head motif appeared frequently in political allegory,
notably on the shield carried by Alessandro Farnese in a
print of about 1586, which shows the governor and general
as Hercules at the crossroads pursuing the path of militant
Catholicism and repelling (with the help of the shield and
the personification of his religious convictions) his enemies,
Envy and Ungodliness. It is thought that Rubens knew
Caravaggio's famous painted wooden shield, The Medusa
Head on Minerva's Shield (fig. 9 4 ) , which was sent by
Cardinal del Monte to Grand Duke Ferdinand of Tuscany
about 1 6 0 8 . The gaping mouth and furrowed brow of
this image have their origins in Caravaggio's physiognomic
studies, while the gushing blood, writhing serpents, and
strong illumination infuse the motif with new realism.
Giambattista Marino's poem of 1620 dedicated to Cara
vaggio's Medusa, then hanging in the grand duke's gallery,
concludes with the flattering conceit that the duke's own
valor served as the true Medusa ("la vera Medusa e i l valor
vostro"). Unlike the frontal and repellent forms of
Medusa found on these painted and sculpted shields, and in
Caravaggio's near-mirror image, Rubens rests the Gorgon's
head on the ground. The landscape format and the place
ment of Medusa's visage slightly off-center emphasize the
descriptive and observational presentation of Rubens's
composition, while the soil and the nearby vegetation call
attention to the corporeal qualities of the head.
11

12

13

14

15

The extraordinary descriptiveness of The Head of Medusa

suggests that rather than focusing on allegorical connota
tions, Rubens emphasized instead the image's terribilitd
its intense (and delightful) ability to inspire awe or dread.
Certainly Constantijn Huygens, secretary to Stadholder
Frederik Hendrik in The Hague, responded to its powerful
visual impact. Huygens saw a version of the Medusa in the
collection of his friend, the Amsterdam merchant Nicolaas
Sohier, and his comments from 1 6 2 9 - 3 0 are worth repeating
at length for their vividness and for the way in which they
reveal his obvious appreciation of the painting's effect: "of
his [Rubens's] many paintings, there is one that always sticks
in my memory. That one I was able to see once with my
friend Nicolaas Sohier, in his splendidly furnished house
16

FIGURE

94

C a r a v a g g i o (1571-1610), The Medusa

Head on Minerva's

Shield,
5

ca. 1597. O i l o n canvas a p p l i e d t o a p o p l a r - w o o d s h i e l d , 60 x 55 c m (23 /s x

FIGURE

95

X - r a d i o g r a p h s h o w i n g detail, Peter P a u l R u b e n s a n d Frans

S n y d e r s , The Head of Medusa

2i /8 i n . ) . F l o r e n c e , U f f i z i , i n v . 135

in Amsterdam. There is the compelling painted head of

Medusa, wreathed by snakes that spring from her hair. The
countenance of the extremely beautiful woman has its grace
still preserved, but at the same time evokes the horror of
the fitting beginning of death and of the wreath of hideous
snakes. The combination is so shrewdly executed that the
spectator would be shocked by the sudden confrontation
(normally the painting is covered), but at the same time is
moved by the lifelikeness and beauty with which the grim
subject is rendered." As Huygens notes, the Medusa's head
has a ghastly, deathly appearance, while retaining vestiges
of her former beauty. The skin, with its greenish undertones,
has a slightly metallic look that recalls the sculptural quality
of Rubens's expressive and dynamic early works in Antwerp
and effectively connotes death. Unlike Rubens's personi
fications of snake-haired Envy, which have the generalized,
haggard features of a type (see, for example, Envy/Invidia
peering out of the right background of The Crowning of
Virtue, fig. 38), Medusa is not abstracted.
17

18

Prohaska dated the painting to about 1617/18 based in

part on the resemblance between Medusa and the head
of a possessed woman in the great Miracles of Saint Ignatius
altarpiece of 1618 (Vienna, Kunsthistorisches Museum).
At about this time, Rubens employed similarly horrified
expressions for the tormented and damned in the Great Last
Judgment (1617; Munich, Alte Pinakothek). A n X-radiograph
of the Vienna painting (fig. 95) reveals that Medusa origi
nally was painted with her black, pointed tongue extended,
an aspect that was perhaps deemed too horrific by Rubens.
In contrast to Medusa's visage, the snakes are extremely
mobile and very much alive. They recall the Roman poet
Lucan's contention in Pharsalia that her snakes actively kept
watch while she slept and protected Medusa's face. Those
that emerge from her blood recall the Ovidian description of
snakes being birthed from drops of the Gorgon's blood.
As Sutton has shown, the snakes themselves are common
European water snakes (Natrix natrix), a nonvenomous
species. Koslow identified the grappling pair on the right as
19

20

RUBENS

A N D

SNYDERS

183

vipers, which in their exhibition of mating behavior carried

strong associations of evil. Other noxious and fearsome
animals have been included on the bare earth of the ledge,
including spiders, the magnificent European fire salamander
(Salamandra salamandra), and the mythical two-headed
amphisbaena, which follows a description by Pliny. Snakes
were not frequently depicted in Flemish painting. One of
the most extraordinary and often overlooked examples
occurs in Frans Floris's Fall of the Rebel Angels (1554; Antwerp,
Koninklijk Museum voor Schone Kunsten), the altarpiece
of the swordsman's guild in Antwerp Cathedral, in which
one of the rebel angels has serpent tresses, while in the
lower right corner vipers attack a rat. Snakes appear in only
a few works by Snyders; his detailed rendering of scales
in The Head ofMedusa may derive from sixteenth-century
bronze snakes cast from live specimens by the Paduan
sculptor Andrea Riccio ( 1 4 7 0 / 7 5 - 1 5 3 2 ) and the German gold
smith Wenceslas Jamnitzer ( 1 5 0 7 / 8 - 1 5 8 5 ) , among others.
One of the central questions about this image must be
why Rubens chose to execute it in collaboration with another
artist. H e must have felt that terribilita would be best
achieved by working with a specialist. Sir Dudley Carleton's
agent recounted that Rubens, who was skilled in the repre
sentation of animals and had already painted a large and
vicious hunt of wolves and foxes, pointedly stated that he
disliked comparison with Snyders, whose skill was depicting
"beasts but especiallie Birds altogether dead." In the
Medusa, intriguingly, it was Rubens who painted the still
life. The painting's traditional and earliest attribution to
Rubens and Snyders is maintained here, but the identity of
Rubens's coworker is still debated. Following the 1635
Buckingham inventory attribution to "Rubens and Subter"
(very likely Snyders), it was sold in 1648 as a Rubens, an
attribution maintained until Rooses proposed Jan Brueghel
the Elder as Rubens's coworker in 1892, while also noting a
suggested attribution to Snyders. However, Brueghel's
lively, graphic brushwork cannot be discerned here. G . Heinz
proposed the involvement of Paul de Vos ( 1 5 9 1 - 1 6 7 8 ) .
The possibility that Rubens, who certainly contributed some
of the reptile forms, particularly those with their roots in
Medusa's scalp, may have painted The Head ofMedusa with
out assistance has recently been reconsidered. However,
the forms of the serpents are polished and opaque and
articulated with the bright crisp highlights that are charac
teristic of Snyders's treatment of still-life objects. Unlike
Rubens's earlier grand-scale collaborative works with Frans
21

22

Snyders, such as Prometheus Bound (cat. no. 22) and The

Recognition of Philopoemen (see fig. 2 6 ) , for which he designed
the entire composition, no preparatory sketch by Rubens
for this composition survives. Snyders may have added the
serpents to the head laid down by Rubens, who perhaps
returned to apply finishing touches to the white drapery on
the right side, as well as the touches of b l o o d .
The sale of the present painting in Antwerp in 1648
enabled artists to copy it, including the Flemish artist Victor
WolfVoet ( 1 6 1 2 - 1 6 5 2 ) . The same occasion may also have
provided the opportunity for Jan van Kessel the Younger
( 1 6 2 6 - 1 6 7 9 ) to copy some of the animals. The snakes
are incorporated into his imaginative scene of Angola for the
Asia portion of the series the Four Parts of the Earth ( 1 6 6 4 6 6 ; Munich, Alte Pinakothek), while the fire salamander
appears among a myriad of studies in Insects and Reptiles
(ca. 1 6 5 0 - 6 0 ; Bonn, Rheinisches Landesmuseum).
A T W
28

29

30

23

N O T E S

1. P r o b a b l y t h e p a i n t i n g d e s c r i b e d as " R u b e n s a n d S u b t e r [sic]
M e d u s a ' s h e a d w i t h s n a k e s " ( M a y 11, 1635); see D a v i e s 1 9 0 6 - 0 7 ,
p. 379. D e s c r i b e d i n t h e 1648 a u c t i o n c a t a l o g u e as " B y R u b e n s .
M e d u s a ' s H e a d " : F a i r f a x 1758, p . 15, n o . 8.
2. " N o . 7 0 . I t e m u n e p e i n t u r e d e l a T e i t e d e M e d u z a de R u b e n s " :

24

25

2 6

27

184

RUBENS AND SNYDERS

D u v e r g e r 1 9 8 4 - , v o l . 5, p . 4 8 2 , d o c . 1559; see also B o s t o n - T o l e d o

1 9 9 3 - 9 4 , p . 245.
3. T h e a n i m a l s are a t t r i b u t e d t o F r a n s S n y d e r s a n d P a u l d e V o s .
4 . Metamorphoses

4.617-803.

5. T h e subject appears i n a d r a w i n g , Perseus Disarming

Coral,

and the Origin

of

after G i u l i o R o m a n o ' s d r a w i n g o f t h e s a m e s u b j e c t ( L o n d o n ,

B r i t i s h M u s e u m , i n v . 1895-9-15-645), w h i c h has b e e n a t t r i b u t e d t o
R u b e n s b y M . Jaffe (1977, p . 4 4 ) a n d D . Jaffe ( i n C a n b e r r a M e l b o u r n e 1992, p p . 1 9 1 - 9 4 , cat. n o . 7 6 ) , b u t d i s p u t e d b y W o o d
( i n E d i n b u r g h - N o t t i n g h a m 2 0 0 2 , p p . 6 1 - 6 2 , cat. n o . 38).
6. W . P r o h a s k a i n V i e n n a 1977, p . 83; a n d W . P r o h a s k a i n V i e n n a - E s s e n
2 0 0 2 , p . 58. A l t h o u g h The Head of Medusa

is r e c o r d e d i n t h e 1635

i n v e n t o r y o f t h e d u k e o f B u c k i n g h a m ' s c o l l e c t i o n , i t is n o t clear w h e n
he a c q u i r e d t h e p a i n t i n g . T h e d u k e , w h o m e t R u b e n s i n P a r i s i n 1625,
c o m m i s s i o n e d an equestrian portrait o f himself a n d a ceiling p a i n t i n g
The Glorification of the Duke of Buckingham, which were
p l e t e d i n 1627. B o t h w e r e d e s t r o y e d i n 1949 b u t are r e p r e s e n t e d
today by o i l sketches: Glorification of the Duke of Buckingham (London,
N a t i o n a l G a l l e r y , i n v . 187) a n d Equestrian

Portrait

of the Duke of

Buckingham (Fort W o r t h , Texas, K i m b e l l A r t M u s e u m , inv. A P 76.8);

see H e l d 1980, p p . 3 9 0 - 9 5 . T h e d u k e b o u g h t a l a r g e g r o u p o f a n t i q u i
ties a n d o t h e r w o r k s o f art f r o m R u b e n s a b o u t 1627.

w e e r g e g e v e n " : H u y g e n s / H c e s a k k e r s 1987, p p . 8 0 - 8 1 . F o r S o h i e r ' s

7. D o l c e 1913, p . 1 4 0 ; a n d R i p a 1603, p . 4 2 6 ; q u o t e d b y P r o h a s k a i n
V i e n n a 1977. F o r o t h e r uses o f t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , see also S u t t o n i n

p a i n t i n g , w h i c h r e m a i n e d i n A m s t e r d a m u n t i l the m i d d l e o f the e i g h

B o s t o n - T o l e d o 1 9 9 3 - 9 4 , p . 247, n . 6.

t e e n t h c e n t u r y , see R o b c l s 1989, p . 371.

8. " . . . d a t Perseus is te g h e l i j c k e n , oft b e d u y d t de r e d e l i j c k h e y t , oft

18.

g e n t h e y t , oft n a t u e r l i j c k e w e l l u s t i c h e y t d i e d e n M e n s c h e n a l l e n c x
b e n e m e n d e alle r e d e l i j c k h e y t v o o r s i c h t i c h e y t e n w i j s h e y t d o e t v e r a n deren en w o r d e n gelijck onbevoelijcke steenen;" " O o c k w o r d t by
h a e r [ M e d u s a ] g h e l e e r t d a t m e n de G o d l i j c k e g a v e n n i e t b e h o o r t te
m i s b r u y c k e n n o c h d o o r d e r t e l h o o g h m o e d t G o d t oft z i j n g h e b o d e n
te v e r a c h t e n g h e l i j c k sy o p haer s c h o o n h e y t e n s c h o o n h a y r

G l i i c k 1928 d a t e d The Head of Medusa

ca. 1610 a n d a t t r i b u t e d it t o

Rubens.

het v e r s t a n d t o n s e r S i e l e n , e n M e d u s a de v l e e s c h e l i j c k e q u a d e g h e n e 19.

P r o h a s k a i n V i e n n a 1977, p . 83.

20.

K o s l o w 1995b, p . 148.

21. S u t t o n i n B o s t o n - T o l e d o 1 9 9 3 - 9 4 , p. 2 4 7 ; a n d K o s l o w 1995b, p . 147.

22.

See B a l i s i n A n t w e r p 1982, p . 45 ( w i t h a reference t o C . P l i n i u s

v e r h o o v e e r d i g h t d e d e " : V a n M a n d e r 1 6 0 4 , b o o k 4 , f o l . 3 9b; q u o t e d

S e c u n d u s , Naturalia

b y S u t t o n i n B o s t o n - T o l e d o 1 9 9 3 - 9 4 , p . 247. W h i l e K o s l o w

1 9 9 3 - 9 4 , p- 2 4 7 ; a n d K o s l o w 1995b, p. 148.

historiae

libri 38.7.85); S u t t o n i n B o s t o n - T o l e d o

(1995b) e x p l o r e d p o s s i b l e m i s o g y n i s t t h e m e s i n the i c o n o g r a p h y o f
M e d u s a , i t is n o t clear t h a t these w e r e R u b e n s ' s i n t e n d e d

meanings

23. T h e o n l y o t h e r c o m p o s i t i o n b y S n y d e r s i n w h i c h snakes figure p r o m i

n e n t l y is The Eagles and the Dead

for the p a i n t i n g .

Wolf (cz. 1 6 1 0 - 3 0 , o i l o n canvas,

164 x 238 c m [ 6 4 / 8 x 93V4 i n . ] ; P a r i s , M u s e e de la C h a s s e et de l a

9. P r o h a s k a p r o v i d e d a d e t a i l e d a c c o u n t o f these p r e c e d e n t s i n V i e n n a

N a t u r e , o n d e p o s i t at the C h a t e a u C h a m b o r d , i n v . 71-1-1); see R o b c l s

1989, p p . 315-16, n o . 2 0 9 ; a n d K o s l o w 1995b, p . 147.

197710.

" a n i m a l a c c i o m o l t o o r r i b i l e e s p a v e n t o s s o , r a p p r e s t a n d o l o effeto

2 4 . L e t t e r o f F e b r u a r y 25, 1617, f r o m T o b y M a t t h e w t o S i r D u d l e y

stesso che la testa g i a d i M e d u s a " : V a s a r i 1 9 6 6 - , v o l . 4 , p p . 2 1 - 2 2 .

C a r l e t o n ; see R o o s e s a n d R u e l e n s 1 8 8 7 - 1 9 0 9 , v o l . 5, p . 9 9 . See also

L e o n a r d o ' s w o r k is d i s c u s s e d i n r e l a t i o n t o the p r e s e n t w o r k b y

cat. n o . 23.

P r o h a s k a i n V i e n n a 1977, p . 82.
11. Medusa

Shield of Charles

V (1541; M a d r i d , R e a l A r m e r i a , i n v . D 6 4 0 ;

see N e w Y o r k 1998-99, pp. 177-79, cat. no. 32) and Medusa Shield
(ca. 1550-55; V i e n n a , H o f j a g d - u n d R i i s t k a m m e r des K u n s t h i s t o r i s c h e n
M u s e u m s , i n v . A 6 9 3 a ; see N e w Y o r k 1 9 9 8 - 9 9 , p p . 2 1 6 - 2 4 , cat. n o . 4 2 ;
a n d P f a f f e n b i c h l e r i n V i e n n a 1987, p p . 1 4 8 - 5 0 ) .
12.

25.

F o r the 1635 a n d 1648 references, see n o t e s 1 a n d 2 a b o v e .

26.

M e n t i o n e d b y P r o h a s k a i n V i e n n a 1977, p . 83.

27.

P r o h a s k a i n V i e n n a - E s s e n 2 0 0 2 , p . 58.

28.

T h i s p o s s i b i l i t y is s u g g e s t e d b y a s i m i l a r a d j u s t m e n t o b s e r v e d b y G a y o
G a r c i a a n d V e r g a r a i n The Recognition

of Philopoemen

(see fig. 2 6 ) ; see

G a y o Garcia and Vergara 2004.

B y G i j s b e r t v a n V e e n after a d e s i g n b y O t t o v a n V e e n ; see A n t w e r p
1993, p p . 2 6 9 - 7 0 , cat. n o . 123.
29.

13. A c c o r d i n g t o the I t a l i a n p a i n t e r a n d b i o g r a p h e r G i o v a n n i B a g l i o n e

T h e c o p y is s i g n e d V I C T O R W O L F V O E T ( o i l o n canvas, 44.5 x 59 c m
[17V2 x 23 V4 i n . ] ; D r e s d e n , S t a a t l i c h e K u n s t s a m m l u n g e n ,

(ca. 1 5 6 6 - 1 6 4 3 ) ; see F r i e d l a e n d e r 1955, P- 157, n o . 13. F r i e d l a e n d e r

G e m a l d e g a l e r i e , i n v . 1050); see P r o h a s k a i n V i e n n a 1977, p . 81; a n d

(p. 87) discusses the c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n C a r a v a g g i o ' s w o r k a n d t h a t

R o b e l s 1989, p . 371. A n o t h e r p a i n t i n g o f the s a m e subject, " ' t H o o f t

o f R u b e n s a n d S n y d e r s . See also H e i k a m p 1966, p p . 6 2 - 7 6 ; a n d

van M e d u s a , v a n F e y t [the a n i m a l p a i n t e r J a n F y t ] , " a p p e a r e d i n

P r o h a s k a i n V i e n n a 1977, p . 82.

the estate o f E r a s m u s Q u e l l i n u s , 1678; see S u t t o n i n B o s t o n - T o l e d o

1 9 9 3 - 9 4 , p . 247, n . 1.

14. F r i e d l a e n d e r 1955, p p . 8 7 - 8 9 .
15. G i a m b a t t i s t a M a r i n o , Galeria Distinta

( V e n i c e , 1620), p . 28; q u o t e d i n

F r i e d l a e n d e r 1955, p p . 8 8 - 8 9 . See also P r o h a s k a i n V i e n n a 1977, p . 83.

30.

See R e n g e r a n d D e n k 2 0 0 2 , p. 2 3 7 - 4 0 ; a n d V i e n n a - E s s e n 2 0 0 2 ,
pp. 9 8 - 9 9 .

16. A l t e r n a t i v e l y i d e n t i f i e d b y H e i n e n as the " ^ ^ - E f f e k t e " i n

B r a u n s c h w e i g 2 0 0 4 , p. 224.
17. " V a n z i j n vele s c h i l d e r i j e n is er e e n , dat m i j a l t i j d is b i j g e b l e v e n .
D a t k r e e g i k een keer te z i e n bij m i j n v r i e n d N i c o l a a s S o h i e r , i n d i e n s
p r a c h t i g i n g e r i c h t e h u i s i n A m s t e r d a m . D a a r o p is het

afgehouwen

h o o f d v a n M e d u s a g e s c h i l d e r d , o m k r a n s t d o o r s l a n g e n d i e u i t haar
haar o n t s p r u i t e n . H e t gelaat v a n de w o n d e r s c h o n e v r o u w heeft z i j n
g r a t i e n o g b e w a a r d , m a a r t e g e l i j k w e k t het a f g r i j z e n d o o r de z o j u i s t
i n g e t r e d e n d o o d e n d o o r de k r a n s v a n a f z i c h t e l i j k e s l a n g e n . D e
c o m b i n a t i e is z o geraffineerd u i t g e v o e r d , dat de t o e s c h o u w e r d o o r de
p l o t s e l i n g e c o n f r o n t a t i e ( n o r m a a l is het s c h i l d e r i j n a m e l i j k afgedekt)
g e s c h o k t w o r d t , m a a r t e g e l i j k de o n t r o e r i n g o n d e r g a a t v a n de
l e v e n s e c h t h e i d e n de s c h o o n h e i d , w a a r m e e het w r e d e o n d e r w e r p is

RUBENS

A N D SNYDERS

185

25
Jan Brueghel the Elder

The Sermon on the Mount

1598

O i l on copper, 26.7 x 36.8 cm (10V2 x 14V2 in.)

Los Angeles, J. Paul Getty Museum, 84.PC.71
Exhibited in Los Angeles only

INSCRIPTION

A t l o w e r left, B R V E G H E L 1598
PROVENANCE

LITERATURE

E r t z 1979, p p . 9 0 , 9 2 , 4 2 9 , 4 3 1 - 3 2 , 5 6 6 ,
n o . 53; W e l u 1983, p . 35, n . 6; F r e d e r i c k s e n
1985, p . 261; K o l b 2 0 0 5 , p . 41

Private collection, V i e n n a , Austria; purchased

b y D a v i d G o l d m a n , N e w Y o r k , 1935; b y
inheritance to a private collection, N e w Y o r k ;

EXHIBITION

V i e n n a 1935, cat. n o . 25

s o l d S o t h e b y ' s , N e w Y o r k , A p r i l 19, 1984,

lot 4 4 ; purchased by N o o r t m a n & B r o d ,
L t d . , N e w Y o r k , f r o m w h o m a c q u i r e d b y the
J. P a u l G e t t y M u s e u m , 1984

N T H E E A R L Y Y E A R S A F T E R J A N B R U E G H E L R E T U R N E D

from Italy in 1596, he artfully combined thematic and

figural references to his Northern predecessors, particu
larly his father, Pieter Bruegel the Elder, with the expressive
compositional innovations accumulated during his sojourn
to create lush and sophisticated landscapes. The Sermon on
the Mount, which has a visual impact beyond its small scale,
exemplifies Brueghel's unique command of dramatic land
scape settings and his ability to compose richly descriptive
multifigure scenes. The work is painted on copper, and
Brueghel's luminous palette and refined yet energetic brushwork together create a precious, jewel-like picture intended
for close scrutiny.
Though long considered to depict the Preaching of Saint
John the Baptist, the present painting can be firmly identified
as the Sermon on the Mount, a subject tentatively proposed

186

BRUEGHEL

by Ertz, who acknowledged that some of its features were

incompatible with the more common theme of the Baptist
Preaching. In the center of a large crowd, Christ stands
on a rustic podium composed of branches, with the apostles
behind him, and fervently addresses his audience. More
and more followers ascend the hillside to join the throng,
which is made up of people of different nationalities and
stations in life. The scene is the first instance in the Gospels
where Christ's teachings are described in some detail.
According to Matthew (5:1-12), "when Christ saw the multi
tudes, he went up into a mountain, and when he was set,
his disciples came unto him, and he opened his mouth,
and taught them," beginning with the Eight Beatitudes, or
conditions of blessedness.2 Unlike the forest preaching of
Saint John the Baptist (Luke 3:1-17; Matthew 3:1-17), which
was widely depicted by Flemish landscape painters of the
1

187

FIGURE

9 6 P i e t e r B r u e g e l t h e E l d e r , Sermon of Saint John the Baptist,

1566. O i l o n p a n e l , 9 4 . 9 x 160.7 c m (37V8 x 63 V4 i n . ) . B u d a p e s t , S z e p m i i v e s z e t i

M u s e u m , i n v . 51 2829

early and mid-sixteenth century, the Sermon on the Mount

was a highly unusual subject. Brueghel might well have
known Cosimo Rosselli and Piero di Cosimo's fresco devoted
to the theme in the Sistine Chapel (ca. 1481), for example,
as a result of his residence in Rome, although it was not
a source for this scene. Instead, Brueghel's atmospheric treat
ment offers a creative refashioning of late-sixteenth-century
Flemish landscape modes to vividly describe the festive atmos
phere and excitement of the event.
The Sermon belongs to a group of landscapes with reli
gious subjects, including themes from the life of Christ,
executed around 1598, which invert the relationship between
the religious subject and its setting. Notably, the Sermon
reflects Jan's concurrent absorption in Pieter Bruegel the
Elder's Sermon of Saint John the Baptist of 1566 (fig. 9 6 ) ,
which Jan painted in two versions in 1598: the large panel in
Munich, signed and dated 1598, and the version in Basel
3

188

B R U E G H E L

(Kunstmuseum). In the 1566 composition, Pieter Bruegel

packed a colorful multitude of figures between the tree trunks
framing a forest clearing, almost obscuring the earnest figure
of Saint John the Baptist, just left of center. Painted in the
year of the iconoclastic outbreaks in the L o w Countries,
Pieter's Sermon has been interpreted as an allusion to the
Protestant hedge preachers who had sprung up in the
countryside in response to harsh anti-Protestant Habsburg
policies. However, the significance of Pieter's Sermon for
painters was not its political associations, i f indeed those
were his intention, but rather the transformation of the
theme from an earlier landscape tradition into a rationale
for portraying the great variety of humanity. Among the
diverse, colorfully attired figures are scattered more recog
nizable Netherlandish types in contemporary dress who are
seen from behind, as i f the viewer too is a spectator. The
seated woman with an infant is Egyptian, while the elabo5

rate slashed pantaloons of the standing man on the right

signify his Asian origins. The man with the fur-trimmed hat
just in front of him bears a resemblance to a contemporary
depiction of a Tartar. The larger scale of the spectators at the
edges of the crowd draws attention to their activities and
their dissociation from the divine event taking place a short
distance away. In his Munich and Basel versions of the
theme, Jan reiterated all of the colorful elements of the
scene, but leveled the terrain and altered its color harmonies
by employing a cooler, bluer palette.
The Sermon on the Mount, however, stands apart from
the versions depicting Saint John the Baptist. While Jan bor
rowed the eloquent gesture of Christ's delivery from the
1566 Sermon (though in reverse), the figure in the Los Angeles
painting does not wear the Baptist's shaggy dark brown
skins, but rather a short, belted tunic. Unlike the woodland
sermon depicted by Pieter in which Christ appears to the
right of the saint, no such prominent secondary figure can be
found in the present painting. Rather, the radiance around
the figure's head identifies him as Christ, and the group of
bearded men around and behind him as the apostles. The
view over a port to the peaks beyond alludes to the elevated
location of the gathering, as well as to the city of Capernaum
and the Sea of Galilee. The skeleton of a horse in the right
foreground was a favorite motif of Jan's, which appears
along the dirt roads of his forest scenes as a more general
reference to the arduousness of life.
Brueghel employed a similar reverse organization of reli
gious themes and bustling surroundings in two other scenes
from the life of Christ from 1598. As in the Los Angeles
Sermon, onlookers at the fringe of Calvary (fig. 9 7 ) appear
oblivious to the crucifixion of Christ in the distance. The
minute figure of Christ in Harbor Scene with Christ Preaching
(fig. 9 8 ) is embedded among the busy exchanges of the
port and the fish market in the foreground. Brueghel was
influenced by Joachim Beuckelaer (ca. 1534-ca. 1574),
an Antwerp contemporary of his father, whose fish markets
included biblical subjects in the background. Some of the
figures around the central foreground group in the Munich
Harbor Scene are derived from Beuckelaer's 1563 Miraculous
Draft of Fishes (Los Angeles, J. Paul Getty Museum).
Like his father's treatment of Saint John the Baptist,
The Sermon on the Mount is filled with an astonishing assort
ment of figures and delightful vignettes that emphasize
the dissociation of many from the message of God. Here can
be seen one of the earliest instances of Jan's extraordinary
6

ability to describe costume and facial features on a minute

scale, coupled with a sensitive and effective use of color
that moves the eye through the scene. A number of notable
figures are drawn directly from Pieter's 1566 composition,
such as the gypsy and child in the foreground, as well as the
fortune-teller reading the palm of an elegantly dressed
gentleman. The woman in the middle distance wearing a
pink gown and carrying a pack and staff is found in the 1566
composition in the left foreground. The striking red-andblue-appareled Landsknecht (a mercenary foot soldier)
behind her in the Sermon also derives from the 1566 panel.
Like Pieter, Jan included headgear typical of the Near East,
including the flat sun hat of the foreground woman and the
turbans of Turkish viewers.
10

To these received motifs Brueghel added characters of

his own who appear in other compositions of about the
same date. The woman resplendently attired in yellow, who
approaches the crowd with her companions from the right,
wears her hair in a mitre. According to Welu, this distinctive
style of headdress was worn by fashionable women in north
Italy and appears in Brueghel's Port Scene in Venice (ca. 1 6 0 0 ;
private collection). She and her companion in pink also
appear in the 1598 Landscape with Toung Tobias (Liechtenstein
Collection) and in the 1598 Munich panel (fig. 9 8 ) , along
with the decidedly Flemish woman with the bright blue
underskirt and a basket over her arm, and the boy in red and
black. The two Capuchin friars attending the fish market
in the Munich panel converse at the edge of the crowd
in the Sermon. The seated woman stroking a small white dog
recurs in the Tobias. Brueghel's assembly also reflects the
diversity of humanityon its fringes, persons from different
levels of society mingle, some pleasantly, as in the central
group around the pretzel vendor, others, such as the gentle
man having his palm read, with some concern, while
the boy behind the hunter on the left simply seems bored.
11

12

Allusions to the 1566 Sermon of Saint John the Baptist not

withstanding, The Sermon on the Mount represents a depar
ture from the 1566 compositional type and reflects Jan's
introduction of ideas from his southern travels along with
his own emerging treatment of multifigure landscapes.
Brueghel's friendship with the Flemish expatriate Paul Bril
( 1 5 5 3 / 5 4 - 1 6 2 6 ) in Rome was an important influence on his
landscape style. Some of Brueghel's early forest landscapes
employ trees in an architectural fashion, with long trunks
and arching branches mimicking the forms of ancient monu
ments. In the Sermon, Jan opened up the circumscribed
13

14

B R U E G H E L

189

F I G U R E 97 J a n B r u e g h e l t h e E l d e r , Calvary,

1598. O i l o n c o p p e r , 36.3 x 55.2 c m ( 1 4 x 21V4 i n . ) . M u n i c h ,

A l t e P i n a k o t h e k , i n v . 823
F I G U R E 9 8 J a n B r u e g h e l t h e E l d e r , Harbor
(31V4

190

BRUEGHEL

Scene with Christ Preaching,

x 4 6 / 4 i n . ) . M u n i c h , A l t e P i n a k o t h e k , i n v . 187

1598. O i l o n p a n e l , 7 9 . 4 x 118.7 c m

setting o f the elde r BruegeP s 156 6 Sermon of Saint John the

Baptist i n to a spaciou s glade . Characteristically , eve n o n thi s

K u n s t m u s e u m , i n v . 139) ; se e E r t z 1979 , p p . 7 9 , 4 2 9 - 3 0 , 4 5 9 , 566 ,

n o . 51 ; a n d R e n g e r a n d D e n k 2 0 0 2 , p p . 8 2 - 8 3 .

miniature scale , Ja n realize s th e expansivenes s o f the " w o r l d

5. Se e G r o s s m a n n 1973 , p . 6 6 ; a n d M a r i j n i s s e n e t a l . 1988 , p p . 3 0 4 - 5 .

view." T h e rusti c f o r u m , screene d i n th e rea r b y dens e

6. D i s c u s s e d b y K a v a l e r 1999 , p p . 1 8 0 - 8 1 .

foliage, i s balance d b y th e sweepin g vist a ove r a por t t o

distant mountains . Brueghel' s c o o l palett e fo r thi s v i e w wa s
part o f well-established N o r t h e r n practice i n w h i c h land scapes wer e separate d i n t o a b r o w n - t i n t e d f o r e g r o u n d, a
green m i d d l e g r o u n d, an d a blu e b e y o n d t o creat e spatia l
recession. H o w e v e r , in th e Sermon B r u e g h e l e m p l o y ed c o m plex l i g h t i n g technique s t o defin e th e audience . Figure s in
the f o r e g r o u n d ar e brilliantl y i l l u m i n a t e d , w h i l e thos e i n a
w i d e zon e a r o u n d th e attentiv e (perhap s seated? ) listener s
are i n shadow . T h e c r o w d closes t t o C h r i s t i s sharpl y define d
by b r i g h t i l l u m i n a t i o n create d t h r o u g h th e us e o f a sof t
palette. Brueghel' s sophisticated light effect s anticipat e A d a m
Elsheimer's us e o f light i n w o r ks suc h a s th e Stoning of Saint
Stephen (1602 ; E d i n b u r g h , N a t i o n a l Gallery) , wher e heavenl y
i l l u m i n a t i o n accentuate s th e dram a o f the scene , A T W

7. Se e K a v a l e r 1999 , p . 181 , f o r th e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f C h r i s t ' s p r o m i n e n t

p o s i t i o n a s th e m a i n focu s o f Pieter' s B u d a p e s t panel .
8. S i g n e d a n d d a t e d B R V E G H E L 1598 ; se e E r t z 1979 , p p . 8 0 , 4 3 3 - 3 7 , 566 ,
n o . 54 ; a n d R e n g e r a n d D e n k 2 0 0 2 , p p . 9 0 - 9 1 .
9. S i g n e d a n d d a t e d B R V E G H E L 1598 ; se e E r t z 1979 , p p . 33 , 36 , 38 , 4 1 ,
8 4 , 9 0 , 9 2 - 9 4 , 172 , 4 3 2 - 3 6 , 565 , n o . 4 6 ; a n d R e n g e r a n d D e n k 2 0 0 2 ,
pp. 85-87 .
10. Se e K a v a l e r 1 9 9 9 , p . 180 .
11. W e l u (1983 , p . 32 ) r e p r o d u c e s " F e m i n a r u m V e n e t a r u m O r n a t u s
(The Dres s o f th e W o m e n f r o m V e n i c e ) , " a detai l f r o m Piete r va n de n
K e r r e ' s m a p o f I t a l y (1616 ; M u n i c h , B a y e r i s c h e S t a a t s b i b l i o t h e k ) .
12. F o r th e L i e c h t e n s t e i n p a i n t i n g ( s i g n e d a n d d a t e d B R V E G H E L 1598) , se e
E r t z 1979 , p p . 4 1 - 4 7 , 81 , 93 , 178 , 4 7 9 , 565 , n o . 4 7 ; a n d U w e W i e c z o r c k
in E s s e n - V i e n n a 1997-98 , pp . 150-54 .
13. F o r B r u e g h e l ' s f r i e n d s h i p w i t h B r i l , se e E r t z 1979 , p p . 9 2 - 9 4 ; B e d o n i
1983, p p . 3 8 - 4 8 ; a n d p . 6 i n t h i s v o l u m e .
14. Se e p . 7 i n t h i s v o l u m e .

N O T E S

1. E r t z (1979 , pp - 4 2 9 - 3 2 ) c a t a l o g u e d t h e L o s A n g e l e s p a i n t i n g ( t h e n i n
a privat e c o l l e c t i o n i n V i e n n a ) a s on e o f thre e autograp h w o r k s b y Ja n
B r u e g h e l th e E l d e r o n t h e t h e m e o f S a i n t J o h n th e B a p t i s t P r e a c h i n g ,
o u t o f m o r e tha n t w o d o z e n attribute d t o h i m . E r t z correctl y ques t i o n e d t h e d a t e , g i v e n i n th e 193 5 e x h i b i t i o n c a t a l o g u e a s 1594 , n o t i n g
t h e w o r k ' s affinitie s w i t h Jan' s o u t p u t f r o m th e lat e 1590s . E r t z als o
e x p r e s s e d r e s e r v a t i o n s a b o u t th e subject , w h i c h h e fel t r e l a t e d b o t h t o
P i e t e r B r u e g e l th e E l d e r ' s 156 6 B u d a p e s t Sermon of Saint John the Baptist
a n d A d a m E l s h e i m e r ' s Preaching of

Saint John.

2. "(3 ) B l e s s e d ar e t h e p o o r i n s p i r i t : f o r t h e i r s i s t h e k i n g d o m o f h e a v e n .
( 4 ) B l e s s e d ar e t h e y t h a t m o u r n : f o r t h e y s h a l l b e c o m f o r t e d . (5 )
B l e s s e d ar e t h e m e e k : f o r t h e y s h a l l i n h e r i t t h e e a r t h . (6 ) B l e s s e d ar e
t h e y w h i c h d o h u n g e r a n d t h i r s t afte r r i g h t e o u s n e s s : f o r t h e y s h a l l
be r i l l e d . (7 ) B l e s s e d ar e th e m e r c i f u l : f o r t h e y s h a l l o b t a i n m e r c y .
(8) B l e s s e d ar e th e p u r e i n h e a r t : f o r t h e y s h a l l se e G o d . (9 ) B l e s s e d
are t h e p e a c e m a k e r s : f o r t h e y s h a l l b e c a l l e d t h e c h i l d r e n o f G o d .
(10) B l e s s e d ar e t h e y w h i c h ar e p e r s e c u t e d f o r r i g h t e o u s n e s s ' sake : f o r
theirs i s th e k i n g d o m o f heaven. " M a t t h e w 5:3-1 0 ( K i n g Jame s
Version).
3. T h e subjec t w a s d e p i c t e d i n s e v e r a l v e r s i o n s b y H e r r i m e t d e B l e s
( b o r n ca . 1510) , a m o n g o t h e r s ; se e G i b s o n 1989 , p p . 2 7 - 2 9 .
4 . J a n B r u e g h e l th e E l d e r , Sermon of Saint John the Baptist ( s i g n e d a t
l o w e r r i g h t , B R V E G H E L 1598 , o i l o n p a n e l , 4 1 x 5 9 c m [1 6 Vs x
23 A i n . ] ; M u n i c h , A l t e P i n a k o t h e k , i n v . 834 ) a n d Preaching of
L

John the

Baptist ( t e m p e r a o n p a n e l , 11 5 x 16 4 c m [ 4 5 A x 6 4 V 2 i n . ] ; B a s e l ,
L

BRUEGHEL

191

26
Jan Brueghe l th e Elder

The Entr y of the Animals int o Noah' s Ark

1613
O i l o n panel, 54. 6 x 83. 8 c m (21V2 x 3 3 in. )
L o s Angeles , J . P a ul Gett y M u s e u m , 92 .PB.82

w h e n s o l d a t a u c t i o n t o th e deale r L a m b e r t

INSCRIPTION

A t l o w e r r i g h t , B R V E G H E L - F E C - I 6 I 3 ; o n t he
reverse, p a n e l m a k e r ' s m a r k , R B [ i n l i g a t u r e ]
and A / no . 247

J a n v a n N i e u w e n h u y s, A n t w e r p ( B i n c k e n ) ,
J u l y 2 9 , 1822, l o t 2 7; a p p a r e n t ly s o l d b y h i m
to James-Alexandre , comt e d e Pourtales G o r g i e r , f r o m w h o s e c o l l e c t i o n i n L o n d on i t

PROVENANCE

was s o l d i n 1826 to " S m a r t " ; a b o u t 1920 ,

4

J a n - E g i d i u s Peeter s d ' A e r t s e l a a r d e C l e y d a e l

p r i v a t e c o l l e c t i o n , V i e n n a, A u s t r i a ; b y 1977 ,

( d . 1786) , A n t w e r p ; b y i n h e r i t a n ce t o H e n r i

p r i v a t e c o l l e c t i o n , S w i t z e r l a n d ; f r o m 197 7

Joseph, b a r o n Stie r d'Aertselaar , w h o b r o u g h t

w i t h R o b e r t H . S m i th ( N e w Y o r k a n d

t h e p a i n t i n g t o t h e U n i t e d State s i n 1793 t o

Washington, D.C.) ; sol d throug h Joh n an d

escape t h e F r e n c h o c c u p i e r s a n d r e t u r n e d

P a u l H e r r i n g & C o m p a n y , I n c . , N ew Y o r k , t o

t o A n t w e r p i n 1 8 1 6 ; o f f e r e d f o r sale b y S t i e r

t h e J . P a ul G e t t y M u s e u m , 1992

( u n d e r t h e n a m e Peeters) , 1817 , a n d b o u g h t

LITERATURE

B r o w n 1979 , p p . 1 7 4 - 7 7 ; E r t z 1979 , p p . 75 ,
82, 2 3 6 - 4 0 , 2 4 4 - 4 7 , 6 0 3 , n o . 273; B r u s s e l s
1980, p p . 1 7 4 - 7 5 ; E r t z 1981 , p p . 1 1 0 - 1 3 ; B r o o s
1993, p p . 91, 9 4, 95; D i az P a d r o n 1995 , v o l . 1,
p. 3 0 6 ; E s s e n - V i e n na 1 9 9 7 - 9 8 , p p . 2 9, 166 ,
168; G i f f o r d 1999 , p . 1 8 1 - 8 3 ; N e w Y o r k 2 0 0 5 ,
p . 169 ; A n t w e r p 2 0 0 4 , p p . 196, 198, n . 5;
K o l b 200 5
EXHIBITIONS

L o n d o n 1979 , p p . 19, 9 6, cat. n o. 2 9; L o s

Angeles 1999-200 0

i n ; r e m a i n e d i n t he S t i e r c o l l e c t i o n u n t i l 1822 ,

A N B R U E G H E L '

S F A M

E A

SA

S P E C I A L I S T I

N S U B J E C T

was specifie d b y the designatio n F I G R (jigura), i n d i c a t i n g

f r o m natur e derive d i n large par t f r o m th e popularit y

that h e was responsible fo r the figures a n d n ot for the

o f hi s paradis e landscapes , a genre h e redefine d fo r the

overall desig n o f the p a i n t i n g . I n a d d i t i on t o the autograp h

6

seventeenth centur y a n d b r o u g ht t o the highest level s of

version o f The Entry of the Animals into Noah's Ark i n Buda-

specialization a n d technical finish. O l d Testament theme s

pest (Szepmiiveszet i M u s e u m ) , man y replica s a n d version s

f r o m th e b o ok o f Genesis, notabl y th e story o f N o a h 's A r k

exist, attestin g t o the work's eage r receptio n b y collectors.

and th e F a l l o f M a n, serve d a s occasions t o portra y th e

T h e L o s Angeles c o m p o s i t i o n represent s Brueghel' s mos t

magnificent diversit y o f nature a s exemplified b y the carefu l

d e p i c t i o n o f a lively assortmen t o f animals a n d birds. Jan

innovative idea s fo r the genre, a n d w h i le The Entry of

the Animals into Noah's Ark wa s no t a physical collaboratio n

Brueghel considere d The Entry of the Animals into Noah's Ark

between B r u e g h e l a n d his friend Rubens , i t bears witnes s

a significan t i n v e n t i o n a m o n g hi s treatments o f earthl y

to thei r clos e associatio n a n d artistic exchange .

paradise, sinc e h e p r o u d ly a n d clearly signe d i t B R V E G H E L

O n a well-traveled pat h betwee n a stand o f trees a n d a

F E C (Brueghelfecit, i.e. , B r u e g h e l mad e it) . H e denoted a

stream r u n n i n g alon g th e edge o f the w o o d s, a parade

similarly n o t e w o r t h y late r achievemen t b y s i g n i ng The

o f animal s mak e thei r wa y t o w a r d th e distan t massiv e f o r m

Garden of Eden with the Fall of Man (cat . no. 4) in the same

o f th e ark. D r i v en alon g b y a figure i n a r ed tunic, the y p r o -

fashion, w h i l e Rubens' s c o n t r i b u t i o n t o the c o m p o s i t i o n

ceed i n pairs a n d small groups , domesti c animal s m i n g l e d

192

BRUEGHEL

193

FIGURE

9 9 S t u d i o o f J a n v a n T i e g h e m ( a c t i v e b y 1550) a n d J a n d e K e m p e n e e r ( a c t i v e b y 1540), Adam

Gives Names to the Animals,

ca. 1550. T a p e s t r y i n

w o o l , s i l k , g o l d , a n d s i l v e r t h r e a d , 465 x 815 c m (15 ft. 3V4 i n . x 26 ft. 9 i n . ) . F l o r e n c e , S o p r i n t e n d e n z a d e l l e G a l l e r i a , i n v . 18.626

with species from the Near East and Africa. Waterfowl occupy
the marshy area at the lower left as well as the stream, while
cats and monkeys clamber up the small tree in which other
feathered creatures sit. Various birds and even bats wheel
through the sky overhead. The story of the building of the
ark and saving of mankind and clean and unclean birds and
beasts is told in Genesis (chapters 6 - 8 ) : When G o d in his
wrath against the wickedness of mankind resolved to destroy
the human race as well as animals and birds, he warned
Noah, a "just" man, to build an ark "and of every living
thing of all flesh, two of every sort shalt thou bring into the
ark, to keep them alive with thee; they shall be male and
female. O f fowls after their kind, and of cattle after their
kind, of every creeping thing of the earth after his kind."
The bearded patriarch Noah, in bucolic attire, appears in the
center of the scene, with his laden donkey, wife and daugh
ter-in-law, and their supplies. In the distance, other figures,
presumably Noah's sons and their wives, lead pairs of
animals, including giraffes, up a steep ramp onto the ark.

194

B R U E G H E L

The clarity and monumentality of The Entry of the Animals

into Noah's Ark resulted in part from Brueghel's long engage
ment with richly descriptive landscape subjects. Brueghel's
earliest treatments of paradise scenes date from the period of
his Roman sojourn. The small roundel of The Garden of Eden
with the Fall ofMan (cat. no. 16), attributed here by Ariane
van Suchtelen to Brueghel and Hendrick de Clerck, probably
dates from about 1 5 9 7 - 9 8 . The careful arrangement of
animals throughout the landscape resembles earlier sixteenthcentury examples, notably the print series of subjects from
Genesis designed by Marten de Vos ( 1 5 3 2 - 1 6 0 3 ) . A t about
the same time, Brueghel experimented with the idea of a
group of animals entering the landscape from one side.
The Paradise Landscape with the Creation ofAdam of 1594
(see fig. 75) is one of the earliest examples of his use of this
device, in which some of the animals are partially depicted at
the extreme right, just as the ox and the elephant's heads
appear at the right edge of The Entry of the Animals into
Noah's Ark. While many of the animals in the Entry move
together toward the distant ark, some join the procession
8

from over a small hill on the right, and the rest fill the land
scape across the foreground and along the stream. In a midsixteenth century precedent for a parade of animals, one of a
series of tapestries with subjects from the book of Genesis by
an artist working in the circle of the Brussels weavers Jan
van Tieghem and Jan de Kempeneer (fig. 9 9 ) , many different
types of animals are neatly grouped in pairs and separate
columns. However, rather than situating the figures in the
foreground with the procession behind, as in the sixteenthcentury example, Brueghel instead elucidated the biblical
subject through the description of the setting. Even during
his early career in Rome, as demonstrated by the 1594
Paradise, Brueghel occasionally positioned the biblical subject
in the background of the landscape, behind the charming
and diverse inhabitants of paradise. This characteristic tech
nique, used effectively by his father Pieter Bruegel the Elder
in the 1560s among others, was an essential aspect of Jan's
paradise landscapes (see cat. no. 25) and is one of the seem
ingly outmoded elements that persist in his oeuvre.
After Brueghel settled in Antwerp in 1596, he painted
Paradise Landscape with the Entry of the Animals into Noah's Ark
(private collection), an important early treatment of the sub
ject. H e did not revisit the paradise landscape for more
than a decade, concentrating instead on garlands and flower
still lifes for his patron Cardinal Borromeo, the archbishop
of Milan, allegorical paintings executed with Hendrick
van Balen (see, for example, cat. nos. 17 and 18), and forest
landscapes. Among these, the Allegory of Eire (cat. no. 17), the
first in a series of the four elements created for Borromeo,
offers an important precedent for the paradise landscapes and
shows Brueghel's predilection for filling his compositions
with a tremendous variety of objects and creatures that invite
the eye to linger over the scene. O n April 22, 1611, in a letter
to Borromeo in which he alludes to the ongoing series of
elements for the Cardinal, Brueghel mentions a painting
of Noah's A r k . In 1612 Brueghel returned to subjects from
the book of Genesis, and particularly to the development
of a landscape genre that was similarly rich in its description
of the natural world. In The Garden of Eden from that year
(see fig. 4 3 ) , Brueghel devised a lush wooded landscape
suitable for the subject of paradise. The complex topog
raphy, with a stream, small hillocks, a distant glade in
which Adam and Eve accept the apple from the serpent, and
a soaring view over a river landscape is further elaborated
by the profusion of animal and bird life contained within
it. The type of paradise landscape established in this painting
10

11

12

13

permitted considerable adjustment in subsequent related

compositions but remained the perfect embodiment of the
lush, idyllic Garden of Eden.
By contrast, The Entry of the Animals into Noah's Ark has
a more sober and monumental character. The landscape
is less enclosed, and the open foreground recedes vigorously
into the distance, emphasizing the processional march to
the ark. Despite the abundant display, there is a sense that
Brueghel's approach in this landscape was more measured
and controlled. As with the arched interiors, in which earlier
iterations (see cat. nos. 17 and 18) were characterized by
picturesque detail, while the later Return from War: Mars
Disarmed by Venus (cat. no. 2) employed a tighter and
simpler treatment of the same setting, so The Entry of the
Animals into Noah's Ark offers an alternative paradise type in
contrast to the lush 1612 depiction of Eden (see fig. 4 3 ) .
The strong diagonal recession of the Entry developed from
Brueghel's many scenes of travelers and cattle drovers,
though here the viewpoint is lower, and monumental figures
anchor the foreground. Brueghel's only other treatment of
a subject from the story of Noah, The Flood with Noah's Ark
(fig. 1 0 0 ) , also employs a strong diagonal to create different
zones within the landscape, but this early work emphasizes
the dramatic confusion and terror of the Flood, a prospect
not yet felt in the paradisiacal Entry.
14

15

16

The impact of Rubens and Brueghel's artistic friendship

shaped The Entry of the Animals into Noah's Ark, where it is
particularly evident in Brueghel's treatment of animals.
Brueghel was himself a skilled painter of animals, and his
refined technique was particularly suited to executing
smaller-scale figures, such as the lively animals in the Paradise
Landscape of 1594 (see fig. 75). Jan depicted those animals
with which he presumably had firsthand experience, notably
the domesticated creatures such as the goats and donkey,
with greater specificity and assurance than the leopard, for
example. Even before leaving for Rome, Rubens demon
strated his skill at capturing the twisting, vigorous forms of
horses (see cat. no. 1), and Brueghel absorbed his friend's
more robust approach from their earliest joint endeavor.
The domestic animals in the 1612 Garden of Eden and the 1613
Entry are much more solid and convincing than his earlier
attempts during his Italian sojourn. Exotic animals and
their sinuous movement remained a challenge, however. In
the Daniel in the Lions' Den, a small-scale work painted for
Cardinal Borromeo in 1 6 1 0 , Brueghel's leopards and lions
appear almost fantastic when compared to the sculptural
17

1 8

B R U E G H E L

195

FIGURE

100 J a n B r u e g h e l t h e E l d e r ,

The Flood with Noah's Ark,

1601. O i l o n c o p p e r ,

26.7 x 3 5 . 9 c m (10V2 x 14.V8 i n . ) . Z u r i c h ,

Kunsthaus, Stiftung Betty u n d D a v i d M .
Koester, inv. KS4. 2 0 0 6 Kunsthaus Z u r i c h

forms in Rubens's Daniel in the Lions'Den (ca. 1613/15;

Washington, D . C . , National Gallery of Art). By this period,
Brueghel had also developed the ability to impart a sense
of lively activity in his depictions of animals, and in general
the scene is characterized by looser brushwork that con
tributes to the overall sense of momentum between the
different animal elements.
Brueghel's friendship with Rubens is most evident in his
direct borrowing of animals: the lions, the magnificent gray
stallion, and the pair of playful leopards, all of which he
also incorporated into the Garden of Eden (see fig. 43) of the
preceding year. Brueghel would certainly have had access
to Rubens's studio, both as a colleague and as a collaborator.
There can be no greater expression of their intimacy than
Rubens's willingness to allow Jan to utilize his animal studies,
the kind of preparatory material he guarded closely. O f the
pair of growling lions, the lioness looking to the left survives
in a colored chalk drawing made by Rubens (fig. 101) in
preparation for the huge Daniel in the Lions' Den, where she
appears life-size on the right with her male companion. In
Rubens's drawing, the lower part of the animal's back left leg
is elongated, and this area was corrected when it was painted

196 BRUEGHEL

in the Daniel. Brueghel, however, repeated the drawn

form of the leg in both the Rome and Los Angles landscapes.
While Daniel in the Lions' Den could have been started as
early as 1612, it is more often dated between 1613 and 1615.
It either remained in Rubens's studio or was, as he said,
"repurchased" by him before it was given, along with eleven
other paintings, including Prometheus Bound (cat. no. 22)
to Sir Dudley Carleton, British ambassador to The Hague,
in exchange for his collection of antique marble sculpture.
Although Brueghel almost certainly knew Rubens's drawing,
he could, over some years, also have seen the painting in
Rubens's studio. Brueghel's lion does not replicate the
white highlighting used in the drawing and has a smoother,
less textured appearance, similar to that of the large painted
animal. While Brueghel may have studied and copied
preparatory materials for the leopards, any such copies have
not survived. Rubens lists a "Leopards" among the paintings
he offered Carleton in March 1 6 1 7 . The original compo
sition appears to have been lost, but is represented by a
later copy after Rubens (see fig. 131) and a print by CharlesNicolas Varin ( 1 7 4 1 - 1 8 1 2 ) based on a design by Antoine
Borel (1743-ca. 1 8 1 0 ) .
19

20

2 1

F I G U R E 1 0 1

P e t e r P a u l R u b e n s , Lioness,

Seen from the Rear, Turning

Left, ca. 1613.

Black chalk w i t h touches o f yellow, heightened

w i t h white o i l or b o d y color, some gray
5

w a s h , 39.6 x 2 9 . 6 c m ( i 5 / s x n / s i n . ) . L o n d o n ,
B r i t i s h M u s e u m , i n v . 1994.5.14.46 T r u s t e e s
o f the B r i t i s h M u s e u m

FIGURE

102 J a n B r u e g h e l t h e E l d e r ,

Ostrich,

ca. 1594. P e n a n d b r o w n i n k a n d g o u a c h e
a n d w a t e r c o l o r o n c r e a m p a p e r , 20.5 x 14.2 c m
(8V8 x 5 % i n . ) . P r i v a t e c o l l e c t i o n

Although Rubens may have based the lioness on a

Renaissance bronze sculpture from Padua, he stated in his
letter to Carleton that both the lions and the leopards were
"done from life." As court painters, both Rubens and
Brueghel had access to the menagerie kept by the archdukes
Albert and Isabella at their court in Brussels. Brueghel's
familiarity with the attitudes and coloring of different apes
(see cat. no. 28) attests to his firsthand observation of these
favorite companions of the archduchess, and he notes in a
letter of 1621 that the birds and animals in a (garland with a)
"beautiful Madonna" he was making with Rubens were
"made from life from some of the Infanta's." The rulers of
the Netherlands had long kept exotic animals, including
lions and tigers, in the park of the Brussels palace (an early
account [ 1 4 4 6 ] records payment for a half-mutton to feed
the lion each day). Rubens, however, may have studied
two lions, named Flandria and Brabantia, in Ghent. A n
eighteenth-century biographer recounts a scene in Rubens's
studio in which a lion was tickled in order to encourage
it to open its mouth in a suitably fierce fashion. Rubens
painted several large hunt scenes involving wild animals
between 1613 and 1618, and his interest in lions and leopards
22

23

24

25

26

27

in the period around 1612 may have been part of his prepara
tion for those subjects.
The gray horse commanding the foreground of the Entry
affirms Brueghel's partnership with Rubens, who was cele
brated for his ideal portraits of this animal. Brueghel had
appropriated and emphasized the element of the horse in his
early paradise scenes (see, for example, fig. 75), where
it was an important though not completely successful figure,
and incorporated a similar regal light-colored horse from
Rubens's oeuvre in The Rxturnfrom War (cat. no. 2) of
1 6 1 0 - 1 2 . However, the prancing dappled horse in the Entry
descends from Rubens's 1603 Equestrian Portrait of the Duke
ofLerma (see fig. 22). The frontal pose used by Brueghel
in the Entry can be seen in one of three equestrian studies
by Rubens, known from a copy, The Riding School ( 1 6 0 9 - 1 3 ;
formerly Berlin, Staatliche Museen, Gemaldegalerie) and
in a lost equestrian portrait of Archduke Albert, visible in the
foreground of the Allegory of Sight (see fig. 5 4 ) . Brueghel's
animated handling of the mane captures the energy of the
muscular Spanish/Arabian stallion, a breed associated
with royalty (Arabians with dappled coats were rare, which
further underscored their kingly lineage). Contemporary
28

29

B R U E G H E L

197

accounts refer to the heroic "Spanish horse" that saved

the life of Archduke Albert in 1 6 0 0 at the battle of Nieuport
and Ostend by absorbing a musket ball to the neck. The
skin of the horse was preserved, along with that of a
horse believed to have belonged to Archduchess Isabella.
The inclusion of this type of horse in their paintings
confirmed Brueghel and Rubens's relationship to the arch
ducal court.
Many of the other animals and birds in the Entry attest
to BrueghePs study from life of a diverse array of creatures.
The subtle variations in texture and particularly in the color
ing of fur and feathers, even on the relatively small scale
of the creatures in the present painting, reflect his meticulous
preparation. The royal menagerie and collections of birds
were a rich source for both mundane and unusual creatures.
Jean Ernst, duke of Saxony, visited the park at the Brussels
court in 1 6 1 3 - 1 4 and recalled seeing wood pigeons, pea
cocks, sparrow hawks, pheasants, and parakeets fly free
in a small valley. The seemingly exotic ostriches, originally
from Africa, were also part of the collection and were a
long-standing element in Brueghel's oeuvre. They appear in
one of the earliest works of this type, the 1594 Paradise (see
fig. 75). Ostriches had been depicted in the sixteenth century,
although their flightless nature was not always understood
(see fig. 9 9 , where they hover in the air, along with turkeys,
eagles, and insects). A drawing by Brueghel of two views of
an ostrich, formerly dated to 1613, but perhaps executed
earlier, includes color notations for reference (fig. 102).
Brueghel's friend Frans Snyders recorded the bird's wideeyed gaze in his drawing of an ostrich. Similar details
appear on a sheet of studies, notably on the figure of the
eagle (see fig. 114). A 1507 account of the Brussels court
mentions camels and ostriches being introduced for the plea
sure of the duke of Burgundy. Camels remained a fixture
of the archducal collection and appeared in the Ommeganck,
a yearly procession held to celebrate the Virgin Mary.
Even creatures which had arrived in Europe from the New
World and Africa were already familiar elements by 1613.
The splendid male turkey, somewhat timidly described in
the 1594 Paradise, figures prominently in Brueghel's Allegory
ofAir (ca. 1611; Rome, Galleria Doria Pamphilj), and in
the 1612 Paradise and 1613 Entry.35 The wonderfully precise
delineation of the monkeys scaling the tree full of birds
on the left leaves no doubt that Brueghel had seen a Cercohimself.3 6 While guinea pigs figured even
in the early Garden of Eden with the Fall ofMan (cat. no. 16)
30

31

32

33

34

198

B R U E G H E L

and the 1594 Paradise, their forms were generalized. It

seems, however, that Brueghel closely studied a particular
pair of guinea pigs with distinctive markings (one with a
black head and shoulders and a white spot on the nose
and another that was predominantly pale with a horizontal
dark band across the back) after 1 6 0 0 , when a different
closely observed pair were painted in the Venus and Cupid
on which he collaborated with Hendrick van Balen. The
pair in the Entry appear in several compositions, including
The Return from War: Mars Disarmed by Venus (cat. no. 2)
and The Garden of Eden with the Fall ofMan (cat. no. 4 ) .
Perhaps they were not members of the royal menagerie but
familiar pets.
Around 1 6 0 0 the interest in examining and describing
the natural world was intense and diverse. Brueghel mas
tered the challenge of depicting a tremendous variety of
birds and beasts by separating them according to type, placing
waterfowl, for example, in their appropriate marshy and
aqueous setting. As Kolb has shown, this taxonomic approach
was a novel mode of visual cataloguing that paralleled con
temporary encyclopedic publications on the natural w o r l d .
Although the sixteenth-century naturalists Conrad Gesner
and Ulisse Aldrovani had published seminal treatises on
species, their illustrations were highly schematic and were
not the main sources for Brueghel's animals. In 1613 Rubens
began to acquire a number of Aldrovani's treatises, perhaps
as a result of his own desire to understand the characteristics
of animals in advance of allegories and hunt scenes. The
printed illustrations for specialized treatises, such as Adriaen
Collaert's series of birds for Avium vivae icones (1580), an
early attempt to show birds in a naturalistic setting, likewise
remain stiff and posed. A t about the same time, Joris
Hoefnagel ( 1 5 4 2 - 1 6 0 1 ) , working for the court of the H o l y
Roman Emperor Rudolf II, created some of the most
delightful and novel images of minutely rendered animals
and insects. To these traditions, Brueghel brought a calli
graphic, painterly technique that served his compositional
integration of the separate spheres of different types of
quadrupeds, birds with webbed feet, animals with hooves,
and so on. While these types are distinctly portrayed in the
Entry, they are not separate from one another. Among the
most delightful aspects of the assembly of creatures moving
toward the ark are the encounters between groups: cats
climbing the tree full of resplendent macaws and two
doleful owls; dogs barking at waterfowl; the bull, its hide
beautifully modulated with liquid strokes of gray, olive,
37

38

39

40

41

42

and pink confronting the reclining leopard; the ram chal

lenging the boar.
The complicated composition integrating large and
small animal figures as well as human figures necessitated
careful planning, and Brueghel's preparation for The Entry of
the Animals into Noah's Ark was characteristic of his pro
duction. H e selected a large radial-cut panel of Baltic oak,
prepared by an Antwerp panelmaker known only as " R B "
from his initials in ligature burned into the back of the
panel. As Gifford demonstrated, the Entry was prepared
according to a process used by sixteenth-century Flemish
landscape painters. The main landscape features and figures
were first underdrawn on the prepared panel. This prepara
tion was not extremely meticulous, and there is no evidence,
for example, that the animals after Rubens were transferred
from another source. Brueghel later largely followed the
underdrawn preparation but, notably, moved the ears of the
gray stallion to an inward, pricked position. The com
position was then laid in by zone, using broad areas of color,
leaving reserve areas for the foreground figures. Some ani
mals, such as the spotted hound, were painted directly over
the green grass. In the final stage, Brueghel worked from
the background to the foreground, a process that naturally
led to the overlapping of figures and helped to create the
effect of spatial recession. This process furthermore allowed
Brueghel to emphasize certain animals: the light-colored
small heads of the ostriches were placed against the dark
forms of the buffalo and therefore become much more legi
ble. The monkey on the tree trunk is more visible for its
placement against the lighter form of the ark, which is itself
dramatically backlit by the luminous glow of the sky. Such
juxtapositions also underscored the unique nature of certain
animals, and it cannot be accidental that the wild stallion
stands directly in front of Noah's humble donkey. Brueghel
also repeated several pairs of animals from the 1612 Garden of
Eden (see fig. 4 3 ) , where the two lions and the horse appear
together, the bull and leopards are in proximity, and the pair
of swans paddle in the stream. Although there is no clear
physical evidence for the manner in which Brueghel reused
animals such as the lions, leopards, and horse, it is not hard
to imagine that he was technically capable of repeating these
figures without the aid of transfer measures just as he was
able to repeat still-life items in the forge scenes, even enlarg
ing those same items in The Return from War (cat. no. 2 ) .
43

paradise landscapes were highly coveted by collectors.

Rubens possessed several works by Jan Brueghel the Elder,
including a "Paradise by Brugel" that was listed in the
Specificatie following his death. Rubens's interest in the
natural world, as shown by his ad vivum animal studies and
growing library of encyclopedic resources, testifies to his
own engagement in capturing the exact characteristics of
animals, a process he shared with Brueghel. The Old Testa
ment subject of the Entry, however, was far from an idle
vehicle for description but was integral to the meaning of
the image as a revelation of God's creation. The artistic
exchange between Brueghel and Rubens about 1613 naturally
led to their joint authorship in The Garden of Eden with the
Fall of Man (cat. no. 4 ) , although there, too, Brueghel firmly
established his role as the originator of "paradise." A T W
47

44

45

NOTES

1. O b s e r v e d a n d d e c i p h e r e d b y Y v o n n e S z a f r a n , associate c o n s e r v a t o r ,
P a i n t i n g s C o n s e r v a t i o n , J. P a u l G e t t y M u s e u m ; i d e n t i f i e d b y J o r g e n
W a d u m as a n u n k n o w n A n t w e r p p a n e l m a k e r " R B , " w h o s t a m p e d h i s
C

panels w i t h a b r a n d made u p o f a "large ' R ' w i t h a smaller letter B '

b e t w e e n the l e g s " ( c o r r e s p o n d e n c e o f O c t o b e r 1999). F o r o t h e r p a n e l s
f r o m R u b e n s a n d B r u e g h e l ' s c i r c l e b e a r i n g t h e s t a m p o f R B , see B r o o s

46

Precisely painted, inventive, allusive, and associated with

revered earlier traditions of landscape painting, Brueghel's

a n d W a d u m 1993 a n d W a d u m 1993.
2. P a i n t e d i n b l a c k , i n a v e r t i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n , t h i s n u m b e r appears t o be
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e F o r c h o n d t firm o f art dealers, a c t i v e i n A n t w e r p
d u r i n g the s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y .
3. N o . 23 o n the p a c k i n g l i s t o f p a i n t i n g s s h i p p e d b y S t i e r t o A m e r i c a ,
1794,

a n d seen i n S t i e r ' s R i v e r d a l e m a n s i o n , R i v e r s d a l e H o u s e ,

i n 1812; i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m t h e G e t t y P r o v e n a n c e I n d e x a n d B u r t o n
F r e d e r i c k s e n (correspondence i n G e t t y M u s e u m p a i n t i n g s depart
ment

file).

4. P r o b a b l y t h e d e a l e r W i l l i a m S m a r t ( d . 1828); i n f o r m a t i o n p r o v i d e d b y
B u r t o n Fredericksen (correspondence in Getty M u s e u m paintings
department

file).

5. A t least 106 p a r a d i s e c o m p o s i t i o n s are a t t r i b u t e d t o h i m ; see E r t z

1979, p . 236.
6. It is n o t clear w h e t h e r B r u e g h e l s i g n e d R u b e n s ' s n a m e o r R u b e n s
s i g n e d h i s o w n n a m e at t h e s a m e t i m e u s i n g t h e s a m e p a l e t t e , see
cat. n o . 4 . A l t h o u g h R u b e n s r a r e l y s i g n e d h i s p a i n t i n g s , he p r i n t e d h i s
n a m e i n R o m a n c a p i t a l s o n a s m a l l g r o u p o f p a i n t i n g s f r o m 1613-14,
i n c l u d i n g Jupiter

and Callisto

(Kassel, G e m a l d e g a l e r i e , inv. G K 8 6 ) ,

w h i c h is s i g n e d P - P - R V B E N S - F - I 6 I 3 .
7. A n a u t o g r a p h v a r i a n t d a t e d 1615 i n is the W e l l i n g t o n M u s e u m , A p s l e y
H o u s e , L o n d o n (inv. 1637); see E r t z 1979, p . 6 0 5 , n o . 287. V a r i a n t s b y
B r u e g h e l a n d c o p i e s b y o t h e r artists i n c l u d e : f o l l o w e r o f J a n B r u e g h e l

B R U E G H E L

199

t h e E l d e r , B a l t i m o r e , the W a l t e r s A r t G a l l e r y , i n v . 37.1988 ( E r t z 1979,

16.

p. 6 0 3 , u n d e r n o . 273); w o r k s h o p o f J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r , D e s s a u ,
G e m a l d e g a l e r i e , i n v . 2 6 6 ( E r t z 1979, p . 6 0 3 , u n d e r n o . 273); w o r k
s h o p o f J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r , M a d r i d , M u s e o N a c i o n a l d e l P r a d o ,
inv.

1407 ( D i a z P a d r o n 1995, v o l . 1, p p . 3 0 6 - 7 , n o . 1407, i l l . (as J a n

F o r The Flood with Noah's Ark,

see E r t z 1979, p . 570, n o . 7 9 ; a n d

E s s e n - V i e n n a 1 9 9 7 - 9 8 , p p . 1 5 4 - 5 6 , cat. n o . 32.
17.

K o l b 2 0 0 5 , p . 47.

18.

J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r , Daniel

in the Lions'Den

(1610, o i l o n c o p p e r ,

B r u e g h e l the Y o u n g e r ) ; w o r k s h o p o f Jan B r u e g h e l the E l d e r , M a d r i d ,

28.5 x 38.5 c m ; M i l a n , P i n a c o t e c a A m b r o s i a n a , i n v . 62). B r u e g h e l ' s

L a z a r o C o l l e c t i o n ( E r t z 1979, p . 6 0 3 , u n d e r n o . 273); w o r k s h o p o f J a n

i d i o s y n c r a t i c t r e a t m e n t o f Daniel

B r u e g h e l t h e E l d e r , P a u , M u s e e des B e a u x - A r t s , i n v . 39.1.1 ( E r t z 1979,

deserve t h e c r i t i c i s m l e v e l e d b y H e l d 1963; see E r t z 1979, p . 569,

p. 6 0 3 , u n d e r n o . 273); w o r k s h o p o f J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r , U t r e c h t ,

n o . 72; a n d K o l b 2 0 0 5 , p p . 6 8 , 7 0 .

in the Lions' Den s u r e l y d o e s n o t

C e n t r a a l M u s e u m , i n v . 1366 ( E r t z 1979, p- 6 0 3 , u n d e r n o . 273); w o r k

s h o p o f J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r , c o l l e c t i o n o f the E a r l o f V e r u l a m ( E r t z

19.

F o r the c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n R u b e n s a n d C a r l e t o n , see R o o s e s a n d
R u e l e n s 1 8 8 7 - 1 9 0 9 , p p . 135-83; a n d M a g u r n 1955, p p . 5 9 - 6 8 . See also

i 9 7 9 P- 603 , u n d e r n o . 273); w o r k s h o p o f J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r ,

5

cat. n o . 22.

C o l o r a d o , R o c k y M o u n t a i n Conservation Center; and Jan Brueghel

t h e Y o u n g e r , C h r i s t i e ' s , M o n a c o , D e c e m b e r 7, 1991, l o t 25 (see also

20.

K o l b 2 0 0 5 , p p . 7 7 - 8 1 , esp. n . 1 9 0 ) ; i m i t a t e d b y the A n t w e r p artist

G a s p a r B o u t a t t s ( S o t h e b y ' s , N e w Y o r k , J a n u a r y 14, 1993, l o t . 2 2 ) ;

t h u o m o i n q u e l m e s t i e r e , 9 x 11" ( 6 0 0 f l . L e o p a r d s , t a k e n f r o m life,

Isaak v a n O o s t e n , The Entry

w i t h Satyrs a n d N y m p h s . O r i g i n a l b y m y h a n d , e x c e p t a m o s t b e a u t i

into the Ark,

R e n n e s , M u s e e des B e a u x -

A r t s (see A . B a l i s i n A n t w e r p 1982, p . 8 9 , cat. n o . 2 0 ) ; a n d J a c o b

ful l a n d s c a p e , d o n e b y the h a n d o f a m a s t e r s k i l l f u l i n t h a t d e p a r t m e n t .

S a v e r y , l o c a t i o n u n k n o w n (see J a n B r i e l s , " F l a m i s c h e M a l e r i n

9 x 11 f t ) : R o o s e s a n d R u e l e n s 1 8 8 7 - 1 9 0 9 , p . 137; a n d M a g u r n 1955,

H o l l a n d u m 1 6 0 0 , " i n C o l o g n e - A n t w e r p - V i e n n a 1 9 9 2 - 9 3 , p . 89).

p. 61, letter 2 9 . See also cat. n o . 22.

21.

8. E n g r a v e d b y N i c o l a a s B r u y n ( A n t w e r p , S t e d e l i j k P r e n t e n k a b i n e t ,
inv.

F o r the c o p y , see R o o s e s 1 8 8 6 - 9 2 , v o l . 3, n o . 661. F o r V a r i n ' s e n g r a v

ing,

I / B . 5 6 2 - 5 7 0 , 5 7 2 ) ; see A n t w e r p 1982, cat. n o s . 5 6 - 6 5 .

9. T h e D o r i a P a m p h i l j Paradise

e n t i t l e d Pan and Syrinx,

see V o o r h e l m S c h e e v o o g t 1873, p . 131, n o .

115 ( a t t r i b u t e d t o M a r t e n de V o s ) . T h e p a i n t i n g s e r v e d as t h e s o u r c e
is s i g n e d a n d d a t e d at l o w e r r i g h t

for

B R V E G H E L 1594; see K . E r t z i n E s s e n - V i e n n a 1 9 9 7 - 9 8 , p p . 1 6 3 - 6 5 ,

a n e t c h i n g o f ca. 1 6 4 0 b y W e n c e s l a s H o l l a r w i t h o u t the satyr

a n d n y m p h b u t i n s c r i b e d p. p. R U B E N S P I N X I T ; see H e l d 1973, after

cat. n o . 36.
10.

" n o r i n i 6 0 0 L e o p a r d i cavati dal naturale can satiri e nimfe. O r i g i n a l e

de m i a m a n o , e c c e t o u n b e l i s s i m o paesse fatto p e r m a n o d i u n v a l e n -

p. 350; a n d C o r b e i l et a l . 1992.

T h e s e v e n - p a r t t a p e s t r y series o f t h e S t o r y o f the C r e a t i o n w a s s o l d t o

22.

C o s i m o I de ' M e d i c i i n 1551 b y J a n v a n d e r W a l l e , a n A n t w e r p m e r

" f i o r i n i 6 0 0 D a n i e l fra m o l t i L e o n i c a v a t i d a l n a t u r a l e . O r i g i n a l e
t u t t o de m i a m a n o 8 x 12 p i e d i " ( D a n i e l a m o n g m a n y l i o n s t a k e n f r o m

c h a n t ; see G u y D e l m a r c e l i n A n t w e r p 1982, p p . 65, 6 7 ; a n d N e w Y o r k

life. O r i g i n a l e n t i r e l y b y m y h a n d ) : R o o s e s a n d R u e l e n s 1 8 8 7 - 1 9 0 9 ,

2 0 0 2 , p . 276. M i c h i e l C o x c i e ( 1 4 9 9 - 1 5 9 2 ) also d e s i g n e d a n i n e - p i e c e

p. 136. T h e s c u l p t u r e is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h the w o r k s h o p o f F r a n c e s c o

series o f tapestries w i t h subjects f r o m G e n e s i s , i n c l u d i n g the s t o r y o f

S u s i n i ; see R o s e n b e r g 1931, p p . 1 0 5 - 6 , as w e l l as K o l b 2 0 0 5 , p . 7 0 .

N o a h , f o r S i g i s m u n d I I A u g u s t u s ; see N e w Y o r k 2 0 0 2 , p p . 219, 2 9 4 ,

11.
12.

397-99.

23.

See cat. n o . 16, n o t e 4 , i n t h i s v o l u m e .

24.

w h i c h is the m o s t b e a u t i f u l a n d p r e c i o u s I've m a d e f r o m l i f e . A l s o ,

has t h e r e b e e n a r e s p o n s e t o t h e letter. I a w a i t y o u r d i r e c t i o n s . ) :

S i g n o r R u b e n s has m a d e a p a i n t i n g o f the best k i n d i n the c e n t e r

C r i v e l l i 1868, p . 169. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e r e is n o f u r t h e r m e n t i o n o f t h i s

s h o w i n g h i s m e r i t , a l o v e l y M a d o n n a . T h e b i r d s , a n d a n i m a l s are m a d e

w o r k i n h i s c o r r e s p o n d e n c e . F o r the series o f the F o u r E l e m e n t s , see

f r o m life f r o m s o m e o f t h o s e o f the m o s t S e r e n e I n f a n t a " (letter o f

J o n e s 1993, p p . 2 3 7 - 3 8 .

S e p t e m b e r 5, 1621): C r i v e l l i 1868, p . 272.

See E r t z 1979, p p . 2 4 4 , 6 0 5 - 6 , n o . 291, f i g . 314; B e d o n i 1983,

p p . 6 8 - 7 2 , f i g . 25; a n d A n t w e r p 2 0 0 4 , p p . 1 9 7 - 9 8 , cat. n o . 39; see

25.

t r a d i t i o n o f c o l l e c t i n g a n i m a l s , see K o l b 2 0 0 5 , p p . 1 3 - 2 0 .
of the Animals

into Noah's

Ark

t h e p r i m a r y e x a m p l e o f t h e s i x t h o f s e v e n types he i d e n t i f i e d i n
Brueghel's oeuvre.
T h e m a n u r g i n g t h e a n i m a l s a l o n g i n t h e E n t r y r e s e m b l e s the h e r d e r s
w i t h l o n g p r o d s i n a d r a w i n g , Peasants,

oxen, geese, a family

in a cart

and various barrel makers ( s t u d y ) ( p e n a n d i n k a n d w a s h , 15.9 x 23.5 c m

(6V4

200

x 9 /4 i n . ) ; S o t h e b y ' s , N e w Y o r k , J a n u a r y 27, 1999, l o t 75).

B R U E G H E L

S a i n t e n o y 1932-35, v o l . 1, p . 72. R e f e r e n c e s i n t h e r o y a l a c c o u n t s t o
f o o d f o r the l i o n c o n t i n u e i n t o t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y . F o r the r o y a l

also cat. n o . 4 .

15.

A c h o s i g . R u b e n s h a fatta b e n m o s t r a n d e s u a v i r t u i n el q u a d r o

fatto a d v i v o de a l c u n i d e l l i s e r e n . m a E n f a n t o ( . . . a different p a i n t i n g ,

I l l u s t r i o u s C a r d i n a l ' s p a i n t i n g o f N o a h ' s A r k , I have n o t h i n g to w r i t e .

14. E r t z (1979, p . 75) c o n s i d e r e d The Entry

..,. u n a l t r o q u a d r o , i l p i u b e l l o et rara c o s a c h e h a b b i a fatta i n v i t a

de m e g i o , e s s e n d u n a M a d o n n a b e l l . m a . L i o i t c e l l i , et a n i m a l i s o n

ne a n c o l a l e t r a n o n v a r i s p o s t a : aspettera l ' o r d i n a sua." ( A s far as the

13.

cc

mia.
" Q u a n t o i l quadro del Ill.m Cardina del Area d ' N o i , n o n m a schritto:

Nor

K o l b 2 0 0 5 , p p . 1, 1 3 - 1 7 ; see cat. n o s . 4 a n d 12.

26.

N e w Y o r k 2 0 0 5 , p . 168.

27.

C a m p o Weyerman 1729-69, pp. 287-89.

28.

P r e s u m e d l o s t i n 1945; see B e r n h a r d 1965, p . 2 0 , fig. 134. F o r The

Riding
For

School, see L i e d t k e 1989, p . 232; a n d K o l b 2 0 0 5 , p . 68, f i g . 6 6 .

the e q u e s t r i a n p o r t r a i t o f A r c h d u k e A l b e r t , see cat. n o . 9 A .

2 9 . K o l b ( 2 0 0 5 , p p . 63, 65, 6 7 - 6 8 ) i d e n t i f i e d the b r e e d a n d d i s c u s s e d the

i m p o r t a n c e o f t h i s t y p e o f h o r s e i n the Entry

a n d at the a r c h d u c a l

court.

tree, i n c l u d i n g cat. n o . 12; see B r o o s a n d W a d u m 1993, W a d u m 1993,

a n d W a d u m 1998, p p . 1 7 9 - 8 1 .
4 4 . A l t h o u g h o n e c a n n o t r u l e o u t the p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t B r u e g h e l u s e d w h i t e

30. See F r a n c i s v a n N o t e n , " T h e H o r s e s o f A l b e r t a n d I s a b e l l a : H i s t o r i c a l

Background," and Francis Verschooten, "The Horses o f A l b e r t and
Isabella: R a d i o g r a p h i c E x a m i n a t i o n , " i n Brussels 1 9 9 8 - 9 9 , pp. 3 4 3 - 4 6
a n d 3 4 7 - 5 7 , r e s p e c t i v e l y . F o r the e p i t a p h c e l e b r a t i n g A l b e r t ' s f a m o u s

c h a l k ( n o t v i s i b l e i n i n f r a r e d r e f l e c t o g r a p h y ) w h e n s k e t c h i n g the
c o m p o s i t i o n o n the p a n e l . I o w e t h i s o b s e r v a t i o n t o Y v o n n e S z a f r a n .
45. O b s e r v e d a n d d o c u m e n t e d b y Y v o n n e S z a f r a n ; see the i n f r a r e d
r e f l e c t o g r a p h r e p r o d u c e d i n K o l b 2 0 0 5 , fig. 13.

s t e e d , see S a i n t e n o y 1932-35, v o l . 1, p . 123.

31. S a i n t e n o y 1932-35, v o l . 1, p . 76. F o r the best a c c o u n t o f the

occupants

o f t h e a r c h d u c a l aviaries a n d m e n a g e r i e , see K o l b 2 0 0 5 , p p . 1 3 - 2 0 .

4 6 . G i f f o r d 1999, p . 182.
47. It is n o t p o s s i b l e t o i d e n t i f y t h i s p a i n t i n g o n the basis o f t h i s g e n e r a l
d e s c r i p t i o n . See M u l l e r 1989, p . 139, n o . 271; a n d A n t w e r p 2 0 0 4 ,

32. B r u e g h e l ' s d r a w i n g a p p e a r e d at S o t h e b y ' s , N e w Y o r k , J a n u a r y 2 0 ,

1982, l o t 53. F o r F r a n s S n y d e r s , Ostrich

(pen and b r o w n ink and b r o w n

p p . 1 9 6 - 9 8 , cat. n o . 39.

w a s h , 27.7 x 13.4 c m [ 1 0 % x 5V4 i n . ] ; R o t t e r d a m , M u s e u m B o i j m a n s

V a n B e u n i n g e n , i n v . F S I ) , see M a r c V a n d e n v e n i n A n t w e r p 1982,
p p . 114, 116, cat. n o . 51.
33. S a i n t e n o y 1932-35, v o l . 1, p . 73.
34. F o u r c a m e l s a p p e a r i n D e n i s v a n A l s l o o t ' s p a i n t i n g o f the

Ommeganck

h e l d o n M a y 31, 1615 ( L o n d o n , V i c t o r i a a n d A l b e r t M u s e u m , i n v .
5928-1859); see L o i s e l 1912, v o l . 2, p . 2 6 ; a n d K o l b 2 0 0 5 , p . 15.
35. A n A m e r i c a n species, t u r k e y s w e r e b r o u g h t t o S p a i n as e a r l y as 1500,
a n d later t o Italy, F r a n c e , a n d E n g l a n d , a n d w e r e p r i z e d f o r t h e i r
d e l i c i o u s m e a t ; see K i s l i n g 2 0 0 1 , p . 35; a n d K o l b 2 0 0 5 , p p . 2 0 , 2 9 . F o r
Allegory

of Air,

p a i n t e d w i t h H e n d r i c k v a n B a l e n , see E r t z 1979, p . 599,

n o . 2 4 9 ; a n d W e r c h e 2 0 0 4 , p . 194, n o . A 143
36. T h e s a m e m o n k e y , f r o m the P o r t u g u e s e c o l o n y o f B o i k o , A f r i c a , is
o n e o f the types r e p r e s e n t e d i n the Studies of Asses, Cats, and
(cat. n o . 28) a n d w a s i n c l u d e d i n The Garden
Man

Monkeys

of Eden with the Fall of

(cat. n o . 4 ) ; see K o l b 2 0 0 5 , p p . 8, n - 1 2 .

37. H e n d r i c k v a n B a l e n a n d J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r , Venus and

Cupid

( s i g n e d H . v . B A L E N a n d d a t e d 1 6 0 0 , o i l o n canvas, 190 x 148 c m

[747/8 x 58*4 i n . ] ; S t . P e t e r s b u r g , H e r m i t a g e State M u s e u m , i n v . 3256);
see W e r c h e 2 0 0 4 , v o l . 1, p . 181, n o . A 114; v o l . 2, p . 399. See cat. n o . 2.
38. G u i n e a p i g s a r r i v e d i n E u r o p e f r o m S o u t h A m e r i c a , p e r h a p s v i a W e s t
A f r i c a , b e t w e e n a b o u t 1550 a n d 1580; see W e i r 1974 a n d K i s l i n g 2 0 0 1 ,
p . 3539. C e r t a i n aspects o f B r u e g h e l ' s g r o u p i n g s a n t i c i p a t e later p u b l i s h e d
f o r m s o f c l a s s i f i c a t i o n ; see K o l b 2 0 0 5 , p p . 2 1 - 3 1 .
4 0 . F o r the v o l u m e s a c q u i r e d b y R u b e n s a n d the i m p e t u s b e h i n d his a c t i v
i t i e s , see Jeffrey M u l l e r , " R u b e n s ' s C o l l e c t i o n i n H i s t o r y , " i n A n t w e r p
2 0 0 4 , p . 334 1 . See K o l b 2 0 0 5 , p . 27.
4 2 . F o r H o e f n a g e l , see p a r t i c u l a r l y H e n d r i x a n d V i g n a u - W i l b e r g 1997.
4 3 . A c c o r d i n g t o s t u d i e s b y J o r g e n W a d u m a n d J a n v a n D a m m e , the
A n t w e r p G u i l d o f Saint L u k e o n l y required such brand marks
after 1617. A t t h a t t i m e b r a n d s also h a d t o be a c c o m p a n i e d b y the a r m s
o f t h e c i t y o f A n t w e r p (a castle w i t h t w o o p e n h a n d s ) . W a d u m has
d e t e r m i n e d t h a t o t h e r panels w i t h t h e R B m a r k c a m e f r o m the s a m e

B R U E G H E L

201

27
Jan Brueghel the Elder

Studies of Huntin g Dogs

ca. 1615-1 6
O i l o n panel , 3 4 x 55. 5 c m (i3 /s x 2 1 % in. )
3

V i e n n a , Kunsthistorische s M u s e u m , Gemaldegalerie , inv . 698 8

28
Jan Brueghel the Elder

Studies of Asses , Cats , an d Monkeys

ca. 1615-1 6
O i l o n panel , 3 4 . 2 x 55. 5 c m (1 3 V2 x 2 1 % in. )
V i e n n a , Kunsthistorische s M u s e u m , Gemaldegalerie , inv . 698 5

PROVENANCE

G u s t a v v o n B e n d a b e q u e s t , 193 2
LITERATURE

G l i i c k 1912 , p p . 222 , 2 3 0 ; K o l b 2 0 0 5 , p p . 111 3

202 B R U E G H E

EXHIBITIONS

V i e n n a 1930 , cat . n o s . 12 4 a n d 125 ; P a r i s 1936 ,

cat. n o . 16 ; E s s e n - V i e n n a 1 9 9 7 - 9 8 , cat . n o s .
93 a n d 2 0 0 ( w i t h a d d i t i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e ) ;
A n t w e r p 1998 , cat . n o . 9 2 ; T o k y o - K o b e 2 0 0 4

' H E S E

T W O

P A N E L S

W I T H

A N I M A L

S T U D I E S

A R E

somewhat larger, a capuchin monkey. T h e squirrel monkey,

a m o n g the rare s u r v i v i n g o i l sketches by Jan B r u e g h e l

w h i c h is depicted i n some sketches eating a piece o f fruit, is

the Elder. T h e y are exceptionally spontaneous, lifelike

rendered from various angles, sometimes w i t h o n l y a few

portrayals i n various stages o f c o m p l e t i o n , displaying asses,

strokes o f the brush, sometimes i n color. There is also a little

monkeys, cats, and dogs, seen f r o m various angles. B r u e g h e l

sketch o f its hands alone. T o the right o f the squirrel m o n

not o n l y observed w i t h care the animals' appearance but

key, the capuchin m o n k e y is w o r k e d up completely i n color,

also succeeded i n capturing their characteristic movements.

and next to it is a sketch i n w h i c h o n l y the animal's head

H e d i d not make these o i l sketches w i t h the i n t e n t i o n o f

and shoulders are c o l o r e d i n . T o make use o f the space

selling t h e m ; instead, they were kept i n his studio to serve as

r e m a i n i n g o n the right-hand side o f the panel, B r u e g h e l gave

examples o n w h i c h to base his w o r k . Indeed, he c o p i e d

the plank a quarter t u r n clockwise and recorded his impres

these animals exactly i n his paintings. T h e sketches are most

sions o f a litter o f kittens. T h e wide-eyed cat above t h e m to

comparable to drawings by A l b r e c h t D i i r e r (1471-1528),

the right is perhaps their mother. A s already m e n t i o n e d ,

Jacques de G h e y n (1565-1629), and R o e l a n d t Savery (1576-

Brueghel not o n l y captured the animals' forms and colors but

1639), w h i c h display animals depicted f r o m life, observed

also carefully observed their behavior. T h e mother cat, for

f r o m various angles and sometimes rendered i n c o l o r .

example, is somewhat crouched, its ears turned slightly back,

Since B r u e g h e l executed his studies i n o i l o n panel, they

as it keeps a careful watch o n the m u d d l e o f sleeping kit

are naturally less fragile than preparatory drawings o n

tens. B r u e g h e l depicted the monkeys' n i m b l e nature and was

paper, and this must have been a great advantage i n studio

2

practice. A s far as we k n o w , o n l y four such o i l sketches

3

w i t h animal motifs by B r u e g h e l have s u r v i v e d . O f these,

the w o r k s displayed heregenerally v i e w e d as pendants

apparently fascinated by their dexterous hands. T h e asses'

large ears are especially s t r i k i n g , seeming i n some poses to
move forward and i n others backward.
O n the other panel are seven dogs, most o f them depicted

o w i n g to their nearly identical measurementsare the most

f r o m various angles. Some o f the dogs are sketchily ren

impressive.

dered, their contours consisting o f o n l y a few lines o f the

O n a l i g h t g r o u n d o v e r w h i c h a light gray i m p r i m a tura (a t h i n , intermediate layer) was applied w i t h clearly

4

visible, diagonal strokes o f the b r u s h B r u e g h e l sketched

brush. O f others, o n l y the head is depicted, whereas some

are portrayed i n great detail. T h e fact that these are h u n t i n g
dogs is stressed by the presence at the l o w e r right o f the

or painted the various animals, filling nearly all the avail

dead boar w i t h its entrails s p i l l i n g out. Several dogs sniff at

able space. Sometimes he painted them w i t h cast shadows,

the boar, a beagle jumps up, and the s w o l l e n nipples o f the

i n order to give t h e m some g r o u n d beneath their feet,

b i t c h o n the left l o o k very lifelike indeed.

so to speak. Brueghel's extraordinarily true-to-life rendering

o f animals has often led to the assumption that he painted
5

t h e m f r o m l i f e . It is more likely, however, that he used

Brueghel used these animal motifs whenever his c o m p o

sitions required them. F o r example, the squirrel m o n k e y i n
the act o f eatingseen frontally f r o m the rightwas copied

study drawings to compose o i l sketches such as these

exactly i n The Garden of Eden (cat. no. 4 ) , and the hunting

i n his studio. N o t o n l y was it especially difficult at this time

dogs occur repeatedly i n his paintings. T h e t w o black-and-

before the i n v e n t i o n o f paint i n tubesto w o r k i n oils

white dogs at the upper left are recognizable i n Diana's

out o f doors, but these panels actually display c o m p o s i t i o n s

Sleeping Nymphs Observed by Satyrs (cat. no. 1 1 ) , while one o f

that were carefully designed to incorporate as many animals

these t w o animals occurs i n Diana at the Hunt (cat. no. 10).

as possible.

T h e l i g h t b r o w n d o g at the far right i n the sketch is also

O n one o f the panels an asspresumably the same

recognizable i n the latter p a i n t i n g . S u c h b o r r o w i n g s a l l o w

animal i n every caseis seen f r o m the side, f r o m b e h i n d ,

us to date these o i l studies to about 1615-16. I n a series o f

and (obliquely) f r o m the front; sometimes no more than

etchings f r o m 1646, Wenceslas H o l l a r (1607-1677) copied a

the animal's head or hindquarters are s h o w n . Occasionally

n u m b e r o f Brueghel's d o g studies that have not survived

o n l y the contours have been sketched, u s i n g merely a

(see figs. 6 5 - 6 7 ) . T h e prints depict i n reverse a n u m b e r o f

few lines o f the brush or possibly the pen, whereas several

dogs seen i n Brueghel's paintings. T h e recurring appearance

o f the sketches s h o w the animal completely c o l o r e d i n . T w o

o f these a n i m a l s a n d , for that matter, the same flowers

kinds o f monkeys are also depicted: a squirrel m o n k e y and,

and fruitsshows that B r u e g h e l must have made frequent

BRUEGHEL

203

27

204

28

205

FIGURE

Monkeys,

103 J a n B r u e g h e l t h e E l d e r , Study of
a Deer, and Other Animals,

1620. O i l o n

p a n e l , 20.1 x 3 0 . 9 c m ( 7 % x 12Vs i n . ) . G h e n t ,
M u s e u m v o o r Schone K u n s t e n , inv. 1902-c

use of oil sketches and preparatory drawings. After his death

in 1625, this material passed into the hands of his son and
successor, Jan Brueghel the Younger, whose work displays
the same pictorial motifs. Most of the studies in this onceextensive studio stock have been lost.
O f the other two surviving panels with animal motifs,
one contains various ducks and birds (see fig. 4 4 ) , two
of whichthe surf scoter and the black-tailed godwit
were used by Brueghel in the Mauritshuis Garden of Eden.
The other panel, a Study ofMonkeys, a Deer, and Other
Animals, now in the Museum voor Schone Kunsten in Ghent
(fig. 1 0 3 ) , displays three motifsa bird, a squirrel monkey
sitting on a melon, and a marmoset with cherriesthat are
rendered identically in The Holy Family in a Garland of Fruit
and Flowers by Brueghel and Pieter van Avont in Munich
(see fig. 86). The dead deer and the dead pheasant have
identical counterparts in Brueghel's Wooded Landscape with
Nymphs, Dogs, and Hunting Spoils in Neuburg an der Donau
(see fig. 6 8 ) .
In addition to these oil sketches on panel, animal studies
on paper have also survived, including a drawing of an
ostrich (see fig. 102), on which Brueghel not only gave sev
eral color indications but also noted the size of the animal:
" 9 feet high" (9 voeten hooghe). Brueghel must have made
7

many more such drawings from lifeassuming he made

a sketch of every new species he laid eyes onbut nearly all
of them have been lost. Exotic animals abound in his
depictions of paradise, whereas the ass and the house cat are
perfectly ordinary creatures. Owning hunting dogs was a
princely prerogative in those days, so it is assumed that
Brueghel studied these animals at the court of the archdukes
Albert and Isabella (see cat. nos. 10 and 11). South
American monkeys, too, were probably found only in the
possession of well-to-do collectors. A v S
10

11

12

206

B R U E G H E L

NOTES

1. See K o l b 2 0 0 0 , p p . 1 6 - 3 5 .
2. F o r a c o m p a r a b l e o i l s k e t c h b y R u b e n s , see H e l d 1980, n o . 411; see
also G r e e n w i c h - C i n c i n n a t i - B e r k e l e y 2 0 0 4 - 0 5 , cat. n o . 7.
3. See n o t e s 7 a n d 8 b e l o w a n d f i g . 103. A Study of the Head of a Roebuck
( N a r b o n n e , M u s e e d ' A r t et d ' H i s t o i r e ) is s o m e t i m e s a t t r i b u t e d t o
J a n B r u e g h e l t h e E l d e r ; see P a r i s 1 9 7 7 - 7 8 , cat. n o . 18; a n d A . B a l i s i n
A n t w e r p 1982, p . 74. H o w e v e r , t h e s o m e w h a t coarse e x e c u t i o n o f
t h i s o i l s k e t c h seems t o p o i n t t o J a n B r u e g h e l t h e Y o u n g e r ; c o m p a r e
E r t z 1984, n o . 330. A v a r i a n t is a Study of a Roebuck,

sale, S o t h e b y ' s ,

L o n d o n , A p r i l 21, 2 0 0 5 , l o t 12, also b y t h e h a n d o f J a n t h e Y o u n g e r ;

see E r t z 1984, n o . 331. A Study of Parrots,

Toucans, and Songbirds

was

p r o b a b l y also p a i n t e d b y J a n the Y o u n g e r ; see E r t z 1984, n o . 337

( L e g g a t t B r o t h e r s [art d e a l e r ] , L o n d o n , 1963). A p a r r o t a n d a t o u c a n
i n t h i s s t u d y h a v e i d e n t i c a l c o u n t e r p a r t s i n The Garden

of Eden b y

B r u e g h e l a n d R u b e n s (cat. n o . 4 ) , m a k i n g i t l i k e l y t h a t t h i s s t u d y is
a c o p y after a l o s t o i l s k e t c h b y B r u e g h e l the E l d e r . A Study of
an Artichoke,

Asparagus,

Fruit,

and Oak Twigs w a s also a t t r i b u t e d b y E r t z t o

J a n the Y o u n g e r ( E r t z 1984, n o . 334; f o r m e r l y L . B u r c h a r d c o l l e c t i o n ,

L o n d o n ) , a l t h o u g h it is m o r e l i k e l y t o be the w o r k o f B r u e g h e l the
E l d e r ; see also B a l i s i n A n t w e r p 1982, p . 74.

9. S a l e , S o t h e b y ' s , N e w Y o r k , J a n u a r y 2 0 , 1982, l o t 53; see K o l b 2 0 0 5 ,

p. 10, fig. 16.
10. O t h e r a n i m a l s t u d i e s b y J a n B r u e g h e l the E l d e r i n c l u d e : Studies of a
Rooster ( p e n a n d b r u s h , w a s h , 29.8 x 19.9 c m [11V4 x 7V4 i n . ] ; P a r i s ,
M u s e e d u L o u v r e , inv. L 2 2 0 7 ) ; Bare Branch

with Birds ( p e n , 9 - 2 x

13 c m [3V8 x $Vs i n . ] ; P a r i s , F o n d a t i o n C u s t o d i a , F r i t s L u g t c o l l e c t i o n ,
inv. 6 4 0 7 ) ; Trees and Branches

with Fruit

and Parrots

(pen and b r o w n

i n k , w a s h , a n d b l a c k c h a l k , 4 9 x 38.4 c m [19 V4 x 1 5 i n . ] ;
M o n t p e l l i e r , M u s e e A t g e r , inv. M A 4 8 7 ) ; Bare Branches

4 . R e g a r d i n g B r u e g h e l ' s use o f an i m p r i m a t u r a , see the essay b y D o h e r t y ,

L e o n a r d , and W a d u m i n this v o l u m e .

with

Koninklijke M u s e a voor Schone Kunsten, D e Grez collection,

[inv.] cat. 1913, n o . 4 7 4 ) ; Studies of Deer in Various Positions

5. See, a m o n g o t h e r s , E r t z 1979, p. 392; A . B a l i s i n A n t w e r p 1982, p . 7 4 ;

Parrots

( p e n a n d b r o w n i n k , w a s h , 14.2 x 19.6 c m [5V8 x 7V4 i n . ] ; B r u s s e l s ,

(Haboldt

[art d e a l e r ] , Paris a n d N e w Y o r k , sales cat. 2 0 0 1 - 0 2 , n o . 8 ) ; see fig. 45.

a n d A . W i e d i n A n t w e r p 1998, p . 282.
6. Z o e g e v o n M a n t e u f f e l 1923.
7. S a l e , P a r i s , G a l l i e r a , N o v e m b e r 23, 1972, l o t 28.

11. W e l z e l 1997, p . 183.

12. T h i s s u g g e s t i o n c a n be t r a c e d t o R o g e r de P i l e s (1677, p . 156); see also
M u l l e r H o f s t e d e 1968, p . 205; a n d E r t z 1979, p. 392.

8. See A n t w e r p 1982, cat. n o . 7.

B R U E G H E L

207

29
Peter Paul Rubens

Madonna della Vallicella, Adored by Angels

1608
O i l o n canvas, 87 x 58 c m (34V4 x 2 2 % in.)
V i e n n a , A k a d e m i e der B i l d e n d e n K i i n s t e , Gemaldegalerie, inv. G G 629
Exhibited

in The Hague

C o s t a m a g n a 1995, p p . 1 5 0 - 7 3 ; V o n z u r

PROVENANCE

C o u n t A n t o n Lamberg-Sprinzenstein
( 1 7 4 0 - 1 8 2 2 ) c o l l e c t i o n ; b e q u e a t h e d t o the
A k a d e m i e der b i l d e n d e n K i i n s t e , G e m a l d e
galerie, V i e n n a , 1822

only

M i i h l e n 1996; V o n z u r M i i h l e n 1998
EXHIBITIONS

V i e n n a 1977, cat. n o . 4 ; C o l o g n e 1977,

LITERATURE

I n c i s a d e l l a R o c c h e t t a 1963; M u l l e r H o f s t e d e

cat. n o . 19; L o n d o n - R o m e 2 0 0 1 , cat. n o . 138;

B r u s s e l s 2 0 0 2 , cat. n o . 1; L i l l e 2 0 0 4 ,
cat. n o . 25

1966; W a r n k e 1968; Jaffe 1977, p p . 9 6 - 9 8 ;

H e l d 1980, n o . 397; V o n z u r M i i h l e n 1 9 9 0 ;

? ??? ?????? ?? ?? ?? ?????? ??? ???????

sioned to paint an altarpiece for the R o m a n c h u r c h o f

Santa M a r i a i n Vallicella, also k n o w n as the Chiesa

N u o v a ( N e w C h u r c h ) o f the Oratorians. It was by far the

most prestigious o f the commissions he received d u r i n g
his stay i n Italy (ca. 1 6 0 0 - 0 8 ) . T h e order o f the Oratorians
founded i n 1564 by F i l i p p o N e r i , w h o was later canonized
consists o f lay brothers (secular priests) devoted to a c o m m o n
life o f prayer and pastoral w o r k . I n the spirit o f the C o u n t e r R e f o r m a t i o n , the Oratorians focused their devotions o n the
veneration o f the V i r g i n M a r y . I n 1575 Pope G r e g o r y X I I I
gave t h e m the c h u r c h o f Santa M a r i a i n Vallicella i n R o m e ,
but this c h u r c h s o o n p r o v e d t o o small for their b u r g e o n i n g
order. T h e medieval c h u r c h b u i l d i n g was demolished to
make way for a n e w church, literally the Chiesa N u o v a . A
fourteenth- or fifteenth-century fresco o f M a r y being blessed

208

RUBENS

by the C h r i s t C h i l d , surrounded by angels, was taken f r o m

an adjacent house and carefully preserved for the purpose
o f placing it o n a side altar i n the n e w church; this Madonna
della Vallicella had i n fact been revered as a miraculous
i c o n since the sixteenth century, w h e n it had b l e d after b e i n g
damaged by a stone t h r o w n by an infidel. O n A u g u s t 2,
1606, the Oratorians decided to move this image o f divine
mercythe church's greatest attractionto the h i g h altar
and to c o m m i s s i o n an altarpiece. Rubens signed the
contract for this c o m m i s s i o n o n September 25 o f the same
year. It was stipulated that the altarpiece was to contain
portrayals o f Saints Gregory, M a u r u s , Papianus, D o m i t i l l a ,
Nereus, and Achilleus (whose relics were w o r s h i p p e d i n
the church) and, above them, the miraculous image o f M a r y .
O n December 2, 1606, Rubens wrote a letter to A n n i b a l e
C h i e p p i o t h e agent o f his employer, the duke o f M a n t u a
2

209

requesting permission to stay in Rome a few months longer

in order to paint this altarpiece: "When the finest and
most splendid opportunity in all Rome presented itself, my
ambition urged me to avail myself of the chance. It is the
high altar of the new church of the Priests of the Oratory,
called Santa Maria in Vallicella, without doubt the most cele
brated and frequented church in Rome today, situated right
in the center of the city." Rubens could not have foreseen
that this would prove a long and laborious task; in fact.,
he eventually felt compelled to take back his altarpiece and
produce another one, based on a different conception.
In 1 6 0 6 - 0 7 , after his patrons had approved his designs,
Rubens painted an altarpiece with six saints, transfixed
by the miraculous image of the Madonna and Child above
them (now in the Musee de Peinture et de Sculpture in
Grenoble). This painting was finished sometime during 1607
and placed on the high altar, but light reflecting from it
made it difficult to see. Moreover, it seems that the patrons
were displeased with the icon's position in the altarpiece, for
on January 30, 1608, they accepted Rubens's offer to execute
the work again, making adjustments to the upper part. O n
April 2 4 , 1608, however, it appeared that Rubensfor whom
it was apparently very important to bring this commission
to a satisfactory conclusionhad completely altered the
design, for he was now granted permission to divide the
altarpiece into three separate paintings, one of which would
be placed above the high altar and the other two lower
down, on the side walls of the choir. To avoid annoying
light reflections, the works were to be painted on slate
instead of canvas, which meant that Rubens would have to
execute them in situ. As was customary, the artist was asked
to submit designs, which appear to have been approved
quickly, since on May 13, 1608, the patrons authorized pay
ment for the slate.
In the new ensemble produced for the high altar, which
can still be admired in the Chiesa Nuova, all attention is
focusedmuch more so than in the original designon the
miraculous image in the central piece, which is adored by
angels and borne heavenward by putti. The six saints are
distributed over the two side pieces and placed lower down,
outside the heavenly spheres, from which vantage point
they may worship the holy image, side by side with the
churchgoers. Flying putti hold wreaths above the heads of
the early Christian saints with palm branches in their hands,
while a putto on the ground holds the tiara of the church
father Gregory the Great (ca. 5 4 0 - 6 0 4 ) . In the central
5

10

FIGURE

1 0 4 P e t e r P a u l R u b e n s , Madonna

della Vallicella,

Adored

by

Angels,

1608. O i l o n slate, 425 x 250 c m (168 x 98V8 i n . ) . R o m e , C h i e s a N u o v a

11

RUBENS

211

FIGURE

Putti,

106 P e t e r P a u l R u b e n s , Madonna

M u s e u m , inv. 7098

FIGURE

105 P e t e r P a u l R u b e n s , Madonna

della Vallicella,

Adored

by

Angels,

1608. P e n a n d b r u s h i n b r o w n i n k , h e i g h t e n e d i n w h i t e , o v e r traces o f
g r a p h i t e , 26.8 x 15.2 c m (10V2 x 6 i n ) . V i e n n a , G r a p h i s c h e S a m m l u n g
A l b e r t i n a , i n v . 8231

212

RUBENS

della Vallicella,
5

Borne Aloft

by

1608. R e d c h a l k , 4 4 . 9 x 34.6 c m ( i 7 / 8 x 135/8 i n . ) . M o s c o w , P u s h k i n

depiction, an opening has been cut in the stone for the

fresco of the Madonna della Vallicella, which is displayed, on
high feast days. The fresco is normally covered by a copper
plate, on which Rubens painted a paraphrase of the mirac
ulous image.
In late October 1 6 0 8 , Rubens departed in haste for
Antwerp-before the unveiling of the tripartite altar ensemble
in the Chiesa Nuovaupon receiving news of his mother's
deteriorating health. Attempts to sell the rejected Oratorian
altarpiece in Italy had failed, so he took it home with him.
Learning at his arrival of his mother's death, Rubens had the
altarpiece installed by her grave in the Abbey of Saint
Michael (Sint-Michielsabdij) at Antwerp. It hung there for
nearly two centuries, until it was carried off to France during
the Napoleonic era.
The painting from the Gemaldegalerie of the Akademie
in Vienna is the modello, the design painted in oil, for the
central part of the revised altarpiece that Rubens completed
in 1 6 0 8 , shortly before his return to Antwerp (fig. 1 0 4 ) .
Also preserved are a pen and wash drawing of the same
depiction (fig. 105) and a drawing in red chalk of the upper
most part, with the putti carrying the image of the Madonna
and Child (fig. 1 0 6 ) . These sheets must have preceded
the modello. The drawings, for example, show various sug
gestions for the frame of the holy image, decorated with
such things as scrolls and rectangular protrusions; in the
final version of the altarpiece, the Madonna is set in an
oval frame. It is also apparent from the poses of the various
angels and putti that the Vienna modello comes closest to
the finished altarpiece. It was probably the last in a series of
designs made for the patrons' approval, although Rubens
modified several details of the final altarpiece. For instance,
the angels below no longer kneel on clouds, and the arched
cloud with angels' heads seen in the modello has disappeared
completely from the finished altarpiece.

possess miraculous powers and not true icons like the fresco
that is the focal point of the Vallicella altarpiece. A v S

NOTES

1. A f t e r R u b e n s ' s r e t u r n f r o m I t a l y , sketches f o r t h e t h r e e p a i n t i n g s i n
the C h i e s a N u o v a w e r e t o be f o u n d i n t h e A b b e y o f S a i n t M i c h a e l

12

( S i n t - M i c h i e l s a b d i j ) at A n t w e r p ; see D e P i l e s 1677, p . 189. It is p o s s i b l e

t h a t these o i l sketches w e r e s t o l e n d u r i n g the N a p o l e o n i c era, as
w a s t h e Madonna

della Vallicella,

Adored

by Saints ( G r e n o b l e , M u s d c de

P e i n t u r e et de S c u l p t u r e ) ; see H e l d 1980, p . 542.

2. See V o n z u r M i i h l e n 1998, fig. 4 0 .
3. I n c i s a d e l l a R o c c h e t t a 1963, p. 162, d o c . n o . 1.
4. I n c i s a d e l l a R o c c h e t t a 1963, p p . 1 6 3 - 6 7 , d o c . n o . i v .
5. " O f f e r e n d o s i d u n q u e l a p i u b e l l a e s u p e r b a o c c a s i o n e d i t u t t a R o m a m i
s p i n s e a n c o r a z e l o d ' h o n o r e a p r e v a l e r m i d e l l a m i a s o r t e . Q u e s t ' e l'altar
m a g g i o r e de l a C h i e s a n u o v a d e l l i P r e t i d e l l ' O r a t o r i o d e t t a S. M a r i a
i n v a l l i c e l l a , s e n z a d u b b i o h o g g i d i l a p i u c e l e b r a t a et f r e q u e n t a t a c h i e s a
d i R o m a p e r esser s i t u a t a g i u s t o n e l c e n t r e d'essa": Jaffe 1977, p . 119,
n . 27; a n d M a g u r n 1955, l e t t e r n o . 14. I n r e a c t i o n t o R u b e n s ' s letter,
D u k e V i n c e n z o G o n z a g a gave h i m p e r m i s s i o n t o stay i n R o m e l o n g e r ;
six m o n t h s later, o n J u n e 9, 1607, R u b e n s a g a i n asked C h i e p p i o f o r

13

p e r m i s s i o n t o e x t e n d h i s R o m a n s o j o u r n ; see V o n z u r M i i h l e n 1998,
p. 151.
3

6. O i l o n canvas, 477 x 288 c m (i87 /4 x i i 3 / s i n . ) . T h e modello f o r t h i s

14

The final version of the altarpiece made for the Chiesa

Nuova is an impressive ensemble, all parts of which focus
on the veneration of the miraculous image at the heart
of the composition. As the garlanding of a holy image, it
anticipates the garlands with Madonnas that Rubens later
painted in Antwerp with Jan Brueghel the Elder (see cat.
no. 12 and fig. 6 9 ) . Thus the ambitious Madonna in a Flower
Garland in Munich (see fig. 1) can be seen as an elaboration
of the upper half of the central part of the Rome altarpiece.
In these collaborative works, however, the portrayals of the
Madonna and Child are merely depictions of images said to

p a i n t i n g is t o be f o u n d i n t h e S t a a t l i c h e M u s e e n B e r l i n ; see H e l d 1980,
n o . 396.
7. M a g u r n 1955, letter n o . 17.
8. I n c i s a d e l l a R o c c h e t t a 1963, p . 169, d o c . n o . v .
9. I n c i s a d e l l a R o c c h e t t a 1963, p . 173, d o c . n o . V I I I .
10. I n c i s a d e l l a R o c c h e t t a 1963, p . 173, d o c . n o . i x . I n m i d - J u n e t h e
O r a t o r i a n s p a i d f o r the d e l i v e r y o f t h e c o p p e r p l a t e o n w h i c h R u b e n s
p a i n t e d the V i r g i n a n d C h i l d ; see V o n z u r M i i h l e n 1998, p . 153, n . 545.
11. R u b e n s ' s c o m p o s i t i o n w a s i n s p i r e d b y D u r a n t e A l b e r t i , Madonna
Vallicella,

Adored

by Angels

della

( R o m e , S S . N e r e o e d A c h i l l e o ) ; see M u l l e r

H o f s t e d e 1966, fig. 16 (as a t t r i b u t e d t o C r i s t o f o r o R o n c a l l i , c a l l e d II

P o m a r a n c i o ) a n d fig. 14; a n d also b y F e d e r i c o Z u c c a r o , The Worship of
God's Name

( R o m e , II G e s u ) ; see M u l l e r H o f s t e d e 1966, fig. 2 0 .

12. See V o n z u r M i i h l e n 1998, p. 154 a n d n . 548.

13. Jaffe 1977, figs. 329 a n d 328. F o r the d r a w i n g i n the A l b e r t i n a , V i e n n a ,
see H e l d 1986, n o . 4 2 ; a n d N e w Y o r k 2 0 0 5 , cat. n o . 18. See also a
d r a w i n g i n the M u s e e d u L o u v r e , P a r i s , L u g t n o . 1 0 0 8 . P r e p a r a t o r y
d r a w i n g s a n d a n o i l s k e t c h f o r b o t h s i d e pieces h a v e also b e e n
p r e s e r v e d ; see M u l l e r H o f s t e d e 1966, figs. 9, 10, a n d 8, r e s p e c t i v e l y ;
H e l d 1980, n o . 398; a n d V o n z u r M i i h l e n 1998, p p . 1 7 1 - 7 2 , n . 622.
14.

See N e w Y o r k 2 0 0 5 , p . 106.

RUBENS

213

Brueghel and

?????? ?? ????
Technique and the Practice
of Collaboration

TIARNA

DOHERTY,

MARK

LEONARD,

AND J0RGEN

WADUM

215

F I G U R E 107 S i g n a t u r e / i n s c r i p t i o n s , The Garden

216

BRUEGHEL

A N D RUBENS

AT

WORK

of Eden with the Fall of Man

(cat. n o . 4 )

?
1598,

H E C O L L A B O R A T I V E

W O R K S

For this e x h i b i t i o n , a n u m b e r o f the collaborative w o r k s

O F J A N B R U E G H E L A N D

Peter Paul Rubens n u m b e r approximately t w o d o z e n

o f Rubens and B r u e g h e l have been studied f r o m a technical

paintings. T h e artists began w o r k i n g together i n about

vantage p o i n t , leading to some general conclusions about

just p r i o r t o Rubens's sojourn i n Italy; their close rela

t i o n s h i p c o n t i n u e d u n t i l 1625, the year o f BrueghePs death.

how

the w o r k s originated and h o w they evolved d u r i n g their

creation. It seems likely that these w o r k s most often o r i g i

W i t h i n the g r o u p o f their k n o w n collaborative w o r k s there is

nated w i t h B r u e g h e l ; i n the majority o f cases, the first stages

a range o f subject matter, size, and quality. T h e latter distinc

o f d r a w i n g and p a i n t i n g began i n Brueghel's studio. I n the

t i o n raises the question o f studio involvement, m a i n l y o n the

instances where B r u e g h e l initiated the c o m p o s i t i o n it seems

part o f R u b e n s , since he is k n o w n to have operated a large

most likely that he was the leading collaborator and chose

w o r k s h o p , a n d it was n o t unusual for his studio assistants to

the subject matter. B r u e g h e l turned to Rubens to paint

play a role i n the execution o f his w o r k s .

the figures, n o t because o f any inability o n his part to paint

Few

documents exist regarding the artists collaborative

process. There are o n l y a few letters that indicate w h o was

the h u m a n f o r m , b u t because the w e a v i n g o f another

master's hand i n t o a p a i n t i n g added a rich d i m e n s i o n to the

the leading artist i n a specific w o r k , n o extant drawings that

tapestry o f visual effects and surfaces that was the hallmark o f

s h o w h o w the artists may have gone about p l a n n i n g their

Brueghel's w o r k . S u c h collaborative efforts h i g h l i g h t e d the

c o m p o s i t i o n s , a n d n o records regarding the movement o f the

exceptional skills o f each artist i n v o l v e d , p r o d u c i n g a finished

paintings between the artists' studios. A l t h o u g h frustrating,

w o r k o f art that was more than the s u m o f its i n d i v i d u a l

this underscores the fact that the practice o f c o l l a b o r a t i o n

parts a n d o f greater value to collectors a n d patrons.

Some o f the strongest pieces o f evidence s u p p o r t i n g the

was very c o m m o n i n seventeenth-century A n t w e r p and so

accepted that it was n o t considered particularly noteworthy.
A r t i s t s ' studios were complicated, vibrant environments.

assumption that B r u e g h e l played the leading role i n the

development o f the collaborative w o r k s are the occasional

A l t h o u g h overseen by a master, studios d i d n o t necessarily

inscriptions f o u n d o n the paintings. N o t a b l e a m o n g these

produce w o r k s that were exclusively by the master's o w n

rare occurrences is the i n s c r i p t i o n o n The Garden of Eden

hand. M a n y seventeenth-century collectors defined a work's

with the Fall ofMan

desirability n o t b y the degree o f the master's hands-on par

n o t a t i o n I B R V E G H E L F E C . [Brueghel made it] lays claim to

t i c i p a t i o n b u t rather by its being recognizable as b e l o n g i n g

Brueghel's role as o r i g i n a t o r o f the p a i n t i n g . R u b e n s , o n the

to the master's style. T h a t all o f the productions o f an artist's

other hand, is acknowledged as the author o f the figures:

(cat. no. 4 ) . A t the right o f the panel, the

studio were considered to be " o r i g i n a l " is indicated b y the

P E T R I P A V L I . R V B E N S F I G R . (fig. 107). Brueghel's " s i g n i n g "

fact that they often bore the master's signature, regardless o f

for Rubens is n o t surprising, since Rubens rarely signed his

how

own

many studio assistants may have been i n v o l v e d i n the

3

creative process. W i t h i n a studio, w o r k was usually assigned

paintings (see cat. n o . 4 ) .

In three o f the pictures f r o m the series o f collaborative

to assistants based u p o n their particular skills o r talents.

works for w h i c h Rubens and B r u e g h e l are best k n o w n t h e

The

Five Senses at the M u s e o N a c i o n a l del Prado i n M a d r i d

size o f a w o r k s h o p was often directly related to the scale

and quantity o f the w o r k s p r o d u c e d . B r u e g h e l and Rubens

Brueghel features his o w n name p r o m i n e n t l y , b u t Rubens's

were court painters w h o were exempt f r o m g u i l d regulations

name does n o t even appear. I n the Allegory of Sight (fig. 5 4 ) ,

that w o u l d have required them to record w h o their studio

Brueghel signed and dated one o f the scattered sheets

members were. W e d o k n o w that the prestigious flower

o f paper i n the l o w e r left foreground: B R V E G H E L . F. 1617

painter D a n i e l Seghers (1590-1661) w o r k e d w i t h B r u e g h e l

4

for a short p e r i o d o f t i m e . R u b e n s , to meet the demands

(fig. 108) and i n the Allegory of Taste, his name and the date
appear again, i n the l o w e r far right corner: B R V E G H E L . F E .

o f his patrons and their commissions at the height o f his

1618 (fig. 109). As w i t h The Garden of Eden, the use o f a form

career, oversaw an unusually large studio, positions i n w h i c h

of fecit i n b o t h these signatures implies that B r u e g h e l was

were m u c h c o v e t e d .

Since w e cannot rely u p o n documentary evidence alone

c o n f i r m i n g his role as the p r i m a r y "maker" o f the paintings.

A l t h o u g h it may be assumed that many o f the collabora

to understand h o w collaborations between artists may have

tive w o r k s originated w i t h i n Brueghel's studio, the ways i n

w o r k e d , w e must t u r n to the pictures themselves.

w h i c h the two artists w o r k e d togetherparticularly regarding

BRUEGHEL

AND RUBENS

AT W O R K

217

(cat. no 3), it has proven nearly impossible to sort through

their complex interaction and definitively establish a time
line for the process that led to the completed work of art.
It is only possible to speculate as to what specific
logistical arrangements may have been followed during the
creation of a painting. D i d the paintings move back and
forth between the studios? Or did the artistic collaborators
who worked with Brueghel come to his studio and add
their figures there? It is perhaps more likely that the paint
ings moved, as artists would certainly have preferred to
have their own materials and tools at hand within the familiar
comfort of their own studios. The studios in Antwerp
were, in fact, in close proximity to one another (see fig. 11).
Transportation would have been simplified by the use of
handling frames, and evidence of such constructions has
been found on some of the collaborative works.
6

M a t e r i a l s and Techniques

In order to understand how Rubens and Brueghel worked

together, it will be helpful first to review the painting mate
rials and techniques that both artists used in their individual
studios as well as in their collaborative productions.
SUPPORT

FIGURE

108 S i g n a t u r e / i n s c r i p t i o n , Allegory

of Sight (fig. 54)

FIGURE

109 S i g n a t u r e / i n s c r i p t i o n , Allegory

of Taste (cat. n o . 8)

the sequence of events that led to a finished paintingare

not always quite so clear. Their partnership seems to have
evolved over time, and they did not always adhere to a con
sistent working method. Careful study of some of the
paintings, particularly the earlier works such as The Battle of
the Amazons (cat. no. 1), from about 1598, or The Return from
War: Mars Disarmed by Venus (cat. no. 2 ) , from about 1 6 1 0 12, reveals a logical progression back-and-forth throughout
the creation of the painting; each artist's participation can
be traced in a fairly straightforward series of steps from start
to finish. In other pictures, though, the two artists were
extraordinarily adept at integrating their individual contri
butions into a seamless whole. In considering some of their
most elaborate compositions, such as The Feast ofAchelous

218

B R U E G H E L

A N D

RUBENS

AT

WORK

The majority of the collaborative works attributed to Brueghel

and Rubens were executed on oak panels. One of the under
lying motivations for using this type of support was an aes
thetic choice: the smooth, hard surface of the wood allowed
for the creation of an enamel-like paint surfacea character
istic that was particularly well suited to Brueghel's meticu
lous style. For his smaller pictures Brueghel, in fact, favored
the use of copper, which produced an even more jewel-like
surface (but which was not available in sizes suitable for use
as a support in larger compositions).
In the seventeenth century, the preparation of artists'
panels was a highly developed and regulated professional
undertaking. Panelmakers, or tafereelmakers, were registered
members of Antwerp's Guild of Saint Luke. The wood used
for panel supports was predominantly oak; either imported
by timber merchants from the eastern Baltic regions of
northern Europe or taken from western European forests
and allowed to season for some years.
Panels were often constructed of two or more planks
of wood that were joined to one another to achieve a finished
8

d i m e n s i o n o f a particular size. Panels were constructed to

the purchaser's specifications or i n one o f a series o f standard
10

sizes w h i c h c o u l d then be sold " o f f the shelf." T h e planks

were relatively t h i n : most c o m m o n l y a r o u n d A i n c h ( 0 . 8
l

to 1.5 cm) i n thickness. T h e planks w o u l d be aligned parallel

to one another, and the s m o o t h edges o f the planks w o u l d
be j o i n e d along their longest d i m e n s i o n w i t h animal glue
(a type o f construction c o m m o n l y referred to as a butt j o i n ) .

11

For most panels, p r i o r to g l u i n g , dowels were inserted i n t o

pre-drilled holes i n the edges o f b o t h planks i n the center
of the j o i n i n order to facilitate the alignment o f the planks
d u r i n g hardening o f the glue. S u c h dowels are seen i n the
X-radiographs taken o f the large panel support for The Return

from War: Mars Disarmed by Venus (fig. n o ) ; i n this case,

three dowels were spaced along the length o f each panel
j o i n . S i m i l a r internal dowels are f o u n d i n the G l a s g o w

Fruit Garland with Nature Adorned by the Graces (fig.

The

83).

panelmaker w o u l d then plane the panel so that

it was s m o o t h o n the side to w h i c h the g r o u n d layer and

subsequently the paint were to be applied. M a n y panelmakers were also witters (literally, whiteners), w h o also applied
the w h i t i s h g r o u n d , made up o f chalk and glue, that p r o v i d e d
a s m o o t h surface for p a i n t i n g .

13

In 1617 the A n t w e r p g u i l d introduced strict new guidelines

for the p r o d u c t i o n o f panels.

14

O n c e panels were approved

for sale by the dean o f the g u i l d , or one o f the keurmeesters

(inspectors), they were branded o n the back w i t h the city's
coat o f arms: t w o severed hands and the A n t w e r p citadel.

F I G U R E 110 D e t a i l f r o m The Return from War: Mars Disarmed

A b r a n d i n g i r o n i n the shape o f a handclearly an allusion

(cat. n o . 2) s h o w n i n n o r m a l l i g h t ( t o p ) a n d i n an X - r a d i o g r a p h s h o w i n g

to this coat o f armsis portrayed by B r u e g h e l i n the forge

o n e o f the d o w e l s u s e d t o j o i n the p a n e l s ( b o t t o m )

by Venus

of the Allegory of Touch (fig. i n ) . After approval and b r a n d i n g

of the panels, the panelmaker w o u l d stamp his o w n personal
mark i n t o the w o o d .

1 5

O f the paintings exhibited here, The Garden of Eden with

the Fall ofMan (cat. no. 4 ) and Flora and Zephyr (cat. no. 6)
are the o n l y t w o panels f r o m Rubens and Brueghel's col
laborative w o r k s where, thus far, evidence o f a panelmaker's
mark has been f o u n d .

16

T h i s is, i n part, because the A n t w e r p

b r a n d and the associated makers' marks were not routinely

used before 1617. B u t it is also perhaps due to the fact that
the backs o f m a n y panels have been t h i n n e d or planed d u r i n g
subsequent conservation treatments, r e m o v i n g or obliterat
ing any marks i n the process.
The

17

outside edges o f a panel were sometimes planed

d o w n to create a groove that w o u l d fit i n t o a temporary aux

F I G U R E 111 D e t a i l horn Allegory

iliary frame that made the panel portable, a l l o w i n g for easier

b r a n d i n g i r o n at r i g h t

of Touch (fig. 56), s h o w i n g h a n d - s h a p e d

BRUEGHEL

AND RUBENS

AT

WORK

219

F I G U R E 112 R e m b r a n d t v a n R i j n ( 1 6 0 6 - 1 6 6 9 ) ,
The Painter

in His Studio,

c a . 1628. O i l o n

p a n e l , 2 4 . 8 x 31.7 c m (9V4 x 12V2 i n . ) .

B o s t o n , M u s e u m o f F i n e A r t s , i n v . 38.1838

h a n d l i n g i n the studio a n d possibly facilitating transport

m o l d i n g s have n o t been p r i m e d . H o w e v e r , at some p o i n t

between studios. S u c h a temporary framework can be seen i n

d u r i n g the p a i n t i n g process the strips o f w o o d o f the tempo

Rembrandt's famous p a i n t i n g o f The Painter in His Studio

rary frame were r e m o v e d a n d some final detailsmost

(fig. 112), where a panel p a i n t i n g is seen, f r o m the reverse,

likely added b y B r u e g h e l w e r e c o n t i n u e d o u t to the edges

sitting o n an easel. I n this case, the panel has been fitted w i t h

o f the panel.

w o o d e n braces at the t o p a n d b o t t o m edges.

T w o o f R u b e n s a n d Brueghel's collaborative w o r k s , The

G R O U N D

Return from War (cat. n o . 2) and The Garden of Eden with the

After construction o f the panel was complete, i t was

Fall ofMan (cat. n o . 4) are o n panels that appear to have

prepared for p a i n t i n g b y the application o f sizing layers a n d

been fitted w i t h similar auxiliary frameworks. I n b o t h cases,

one o r more layers o f g r o u n d . A sizing layer o f animal glue

grooves were channelled a l o n g the reverse side o f the right

was applied to seal the w o o d panel, so that i t w o u l d n o t

and left vertical edges. O n the surface o f The Return from

absorb the b i n d i n g media o f the g r o u n d o r the paint layers.

War, there is evidence that the frame was i n place d u r i n g the

A c c o r d i n g t o p e r i o d recipes for m a k i n g glue, such materials

course o f p a i n t i n g , as the o r i g i n a l painted surface does n o t

as calf skin a n d leather glove clippings were a m o n g the

continue t o the far edges, a n d a ridge o f paint (or barb) was

most c o m m o n i n g r e d i e n t s .

created several centimeters i n f r o m b o t h edges as a result

o f the paint h a v i n g been brushed u p against the edge o f the
temporary f r a m e .

18

vertical edges (see fig. 126). I n this case, the frame must have
been i n place even p r i o r t o application o f the g r o u n d layer,
as the p o r t i o n s o f the panel that were protected b y the frame

BRUEGHEL

A N DRUBENS

T h e simplest g r o u n d layers were typically made from chalk

(calcium carbonate) b o u n d i n animal g l u e .

20

G r o u n d layers

i n a n u m b e r o f i n d i v i d u a l w o r k s b y B r u e g h e l a n d Boibens

T h e Garden of Eden has comparable grooves along the

220

19

AT WORK

share a basic similarity i n that they are all w h i t e t o off-white

i n c o l o r a n d p r o v i d e d a s m o o t h , hard surface for p a i n t i n g .
T h e preparation layer o n a panel w o u l d have been applied
by the panelmaker, a witter, o r i n the artist's studio. G r o u n d

layers could be applied with a brush (as was commonly done

for wood panels) or priming knife (for canvas supports)
and, if necessary, could be smoothed down mechanically with
a tool such as a reed or drawknife.
21

IMPRIMATURA

Both Brueghel and Rubens favored the use of an additional

preparatory layercommonly referred to today as an imprimatura (stemming from the Italian, imprima, meaning "first"
or "before all"). The imprimatura was a semitranslucent
pigmented preparation applied in a thin layer on top of the
ground. It served a variety of roles: as an isolating layer, it
could protect the highly absorbent chalk-based ground from
soaking up too much oil medium from the paint layers;
as a preliminary layer, it toned down the bright white of the
ground; and as a paint layer of sorts, it had an aesthetic
impact due to the fact that it often remained visible in local
areas on the finished surface of the painting.
The imprimatura was applied thinly with a broad, flat
brush, and in a medium which left a streaky texture that
added an additional dimension to the ground layers. The
origins of this type of imprimatura can be traced back
to Flemish paintings of the late fifteenth and early sixteenth
centuries, notably those of Pieter Bruegel the Elder (Jan
Brueghel the Elder's father) and Hieronymus Bosch
22

(ca. 1 4 5 0 - 1 5 1 6 ) .

2 3

In order for an imprimatura layer to retain the streaky

texture imparted by the flat-brush application, it is speculated
to have been executed in a medium that would have dried
quickly rather than in a slower-drying medium that might
have flowed and relaxed into a more uniform, flat surface.
The usual assumption is that a water-based mediumsuch
as egg tempera or glue temperawas used. Unfortunately,
this point remains speculative, as no recipes have been found
and specific identification of the binding media of impri
matura layers by modern analytical techniques has proven to
be quite challenging. When taking a sample of such a thin
layer it is nearly impossible to avoid contamination, either
from the underlying ground layer or the overlying paint
layers. The imprimatura layers used by Rubens, for example,
have been variously identified by different sources as oilbased, water-based, or an emulsion.
The colors favored by Brueghel and Rubens for the
imprimatura layer in their collaborative works range from
cool grays to warm browns. The imprimatura in The Garden
of Eden with the Fall ofMan, for example, contains primarily
24

25

lead white and carbon black, resulting in a thin, semitransparent gray layer. Conversely, in The Return from War,
lead white, carbon black, and a red-brown umber combined
to form a warm brown layer. This warmer-colored prepara
tion is the type of imprimatura that has been found in the
majority of the collaborative works.
Brueghel took full advantage of the warm-colored imprimaturas in the details of many of his landscape paintings.
He would paint the contours of large tree trunks, for example,
directly over the imprimatura, followed by an economic
application of highlights and shadows, but leaving the pre
paratory layer visible as a middle tone, thus creating a
heightened sense of depth and volume. In a similar fashion,
the imprimatura layer also imparted a sense of depth to the
foliage of treetops, where the warm color was incorporated
into the deepest clusters of leaves.
Perhaps the clearest example of Brueghel's use of the
imprimatura layer can be seen in two panels of animal studies
in Vienna (cat. nos. 27 and 28). Executed from life and kept
by the artist as references for later paintings, these two pan
els functioned much like sketchbook pages and most of the
streaky, warm brown imprimatura layer remains visible. The
imprimatura plays a role as a middle tone in the modeling
of the animals; highlights and shadows were added in more
opaque paint to heighten the illusion of form and texture.
Rubens, perhaps more than any other artist, made the
most elaborate use of the streaky, semitransparent imprima
tura in his paintings: it moderated the austerity of the
white ground layer in his oil sketches and played an equally
important role as a middle tone both in the sketches and
in his highly finished paintings. In Rubens's Meeting of King
Ferdinand of Hungary and the Cardinal-Infante Ferdinand of
Spain at Nordlingen (fig. 113), the warm brown imprimatura
serves as the middle ground, and the artist has simply
added occasional highlights or shadows to create the illusion
of three-dimensional forms on the hard panel surface.
26

UNDERDRAWING

During the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, a traditional

final step in preparation for painting often involved applying
a full-scale drawing of the subject to the prepared panel
or canvas in order to lay out the basic framework for the
composition. This underdrawing was done in varying degrees
of detail and finish and is a much-studied phenomenon.
Northern European painters of the early Renaissance typi
cally used exceptionally detailed drawings, and while both
27

B R U E G H E L

A N D

RUBENS

AT

WORK

221

FIGURE 113????? ???? ??????? ??????? ?? ???? ????????? ?? ??????? ??? ??? ???????????????? ?????????

?? ????? ????????????? ????? ??? ?? ?????? ???? ?? ? ???? ?? ?????? ? ?? ?? ????? ??? ???????? ?? ????
G e t t y M u s e u m , 87.PB.15
FIGURE

114 J a n B r u e g h e l , Sheet with Animals

and Garlands,

1 6 0 4 . P e n a n d b r o w n i n k , 19.3 x 30.7 c m

(7 /8 x 12V8 i n . ) . L o n d o n , B r i t i s h M u s e u m , i n v . S L 52 T r u s t e e s o f the B r i t i s h M u s e u m
5

??? ???????? ??? ?????? ?? ????

Brueghel and Rubens emerged from this historic tradition,

neither artist followed this approach. Their underdrawings
were much looser, and often the boundaries between the
drawing and painting stages were blurred, as preparatory
linear indications were executed directly in paint rather than
with traditional drawing materials such as chalk, ink, or
metal point.
Underdrawing in chalk and ink is occasionally visible to
the naked eye: in some cases, a paint layer may not entirely
cover the underdrawing; in other cases, oil paint layers
may have become somewhat transparent over time. Generally,
however, an infrared-sensitive camera is the standard tool
used to reveal and study underdrawings.
Both Brueghel and Rubens were master draftsmen in
their own right, and both left behind drawingsa large
body of drawings in Rubens's casewhich have been studied
in great detail. Brueghel also made drawings that he used as
references for his paintings. One example, Sheet with Animals
and Garlands (fig. 114), shows that he included color nota
tions that would serve him in the painting process. Brueghel
appears to have made many such drawings and painted
sketches. Often these were quickly executed studies made
from live animals.
In the collaborative works, preparatory drawings on the
painting supportwhen they existtend to be sketchy and
generalized indications of outlines and rough placements
of objects and figures, most of which were radically refined
and altered during the actual painting of the work of art.
Only occasionally is there an underdrawing that serves as a
general indication of the composition. This scant indication
of compositional designparticularly in their mature
collaborationsas no doubt due at least in part to the fact
that both artists were exceptionally adept at handling paint
and did not need to rely upon a detailed underdrawing.
It could also be argued that they used their first stages of
painting as a kind of fluid underdrawing. It should be noted
that the lack of an identifiable underdrawing is no guarantee
that none was employed, only that current analytical tech
nology is not able to make it readable.
Perhaps not surprisingly, the only Rubens/Brueghel col
laborative work where a fairly extensive use of underdrawing
has been found is their earliest coproduction, The Battle of
the Amazons (cat. no. 1). Infrared renectography has revealed
that all of the figures and horses in the foreground were
extensively underdrawn. The underdrawing appears to be
executed in a fluid medium either alone or over chalk. The
28

youngand comparatively inexperiencedRubens would

have used this underdrawing to establish the complicated
interaction and foreshortened perspective of the tight figural
group. In some instances it is possible to see the dark under
drawing with the naked eye, such as in the fallen soldier in
the foreground (fig. 115).
Underdrawings in the subsequent collaborative works
were found to be little more than occasional lines indicating
placement of a few forms or landscape elements. Most of
these indications appear to be from Brueghel's hand; Rubens
seems to have moved directly to the use of brown paint to
outline his figures.
A n interesting phenomenon that results from the relation
ship between the underdrawing and the imprimatura layer
can be found in The Garden of Eden, where Brueghel sketched
in rough outlines of the landscape composition in black chalk
over the imprimatura. Infrared reflectography studies reveal
that the underdrawn lines appear to skip over the ridges
of the streaky imprimatura, producing a series of small dots
(fig. 116). This observation has been confirmed in a cross
section taken from an area of the underdrawing where the
black chalk is seen to lay on top of the imprimatura layer.
29

30

31

P I G M E N T S

A N D

B I N D E R S

Paint, in its simplest form, is composed of two basic mate

rials: dry pigment and a binder (or medium). In Antwerp
in the early 1 6 0 0 s , these materials were supplied by apothe
caries and regulated, along with drugs and other medicinal
materials, by the Mercers (meerseniers) G u i l d . The actual
mixing of the pigments with the binder was most likely car
ried out by an assistant in the studio.
The pigments that were available to seventeenth-century
artists included natural minerals as well as manufactured
pigments. Within both categories of pigments there would
often be large differences in pigment color. Prices of pigments
varied widely and depended on purity, the scarcity of a par
ticular mineral and/or the cost of production. Both Rubens
and Brueghel characteristically used pigments of very high
purity, which ensured good tinting strength, thus imparting
saturated color to a paint film. Such a paint film had excel
lent hiding power and therefore an opaque layer could be
created with very little paint.
The earth pigments, including umbers, ochers, and sien
nas, were the most common and least expensive pigments
and came in a wide range of yellows, reds, and browns.
Cassel or Cologne earth and hematite were rich brown pig32

B R U E G H E L

A N D

RUBENS

AT

WORK

223

FIGURE

115 D e t a i l ( t o p left) f r o m The Battle of the Amazons

(cat. n o . 1).

T h e u n d e r d r a w i n g is v i s i b l e i n n o r m a l l i g h t ( b o t t o m ) as w e l l as i n the
infrared reflectogram (top right).

??? ???????? ??? ?????? ?? ????

F I G U R E 116 I n f r a r e d r e f l e c t o g r a m (left) f r o m The Garden

of Eden with the Tall of Man

(cat. n o . 4 ) . T h e d e t a i l ( r i g h t ) s h o w s the lines o f the u n d e r d r a w i n g

" s k i p p i n g o v e r " the streaky i m p r i m a t u r a .

merits that were particularly favored by Rubens for out

great intensity but are very translucent i n nature, are often

l i n i n g and for g l a z i n g i n shadows, creating a sense o f depth

found i n glazes. T o make a pigment suitable for p a i n t i n g

and heightening the strength o f his figural f o r m s .

33

C o m m o n synthetic pigments made by simple chemical

from an organic dyestuff, the colored dye has to be deposited

o n t o a solid substrate and then m i x e d w i t h a binder such

reactions i n c l u d e d lead w h i t e , lead-tin yellow, and the blue-

as linseed o i l . T h e resulting pigments are c o m m o n l y called

green verditers, synthesized from copper carbonate. L e a d

"lakes" and range i n c o l o r f r o m deep purple, to brilliant

w h i t e was the p r e d o m i n a n t white pigment because o f its

red, to intense yellow. A m o n g the red lakes used by Rubens

significant t i n t i n g strength. L e a d - t i n y e l l o w was available

are cochineal, derived from insect droppings, and madder,

i n a n u m b e r o f different shades. W h e n m i x e d w i t h o i l , b o t h

derived from the roots o f the madder plant.

o f these lead-based pigments formed a textured impasto,

often used to create highlights.
The more expensive pigments i n c l u d e d v e r m i l i o n , a
bright red pigment f o u n d i n b o t h natural and synthetic

B y the b e g i n n i n g o f the seventeenth century, the most

c o m m o n l y used binders were d r y i n g oils, such as linseed o i l
and walnut o i l , w h i c h have the unique ability to f o r m a s o l i d
film u p o n p r o l o n g e d exposure to air. These oils imparted

forms, and the naturally o c c u r r i n g blue pigments ultramarine

a rich, l u m i n o u s character to the pigment that made them

and azurite. U l t r a m a r i n e , the rarer o f the t w o blues, was

very attractive as paint media.

significantly more expensive, but its superior optical proper

Scientific analysis o f various paint media used by Rubens

ties meant that it was preferred for use i n expanses o f blue

has identified b o t h linseed and walnut oils, either found

sky. Artists w o u l d often m i x these high-quality pigments

alone or i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h resinous materials.

w i t h less expensive colors or else w o u l d use them as t h i n ,

resinous materials may be residues f r o m the Venice turpen

34

The

final layers over underpaints made w i t h less costly materials,

tine that Rubens used to dilute the thick o i l paint. Rubens

such as smalt, a blue pigment made from cobalt-colored glass.

was k n o w n to have been very concerned w i t h the potential

A n o t h e r category o f pigmentsperhaps more appro

discoloration o f o i l paints, and Venice t u r p e n t i n e a pure,

priately called colorantswere those made f r o m natural dye-

clear f o r m o f turpentine distilled from sap o f the E u r o p e a n

stuffs d r a w n f r o m plant or animal sources, such as the deep

larch treewas said to guard against future y e l l o w i n g o f

blue p i g m e n t i n d i g o . N a t u r a l dyestuff colorants, w h i c h have

the p a i n t .

35

BRUEGHEL

AND RUBENS

AT

WORK

225

Rubens often chose to use walnut oil as a medium when

painting light-colored flesh tones, particularly those that
contained large amounts of lead white, because he was sen
sitive to the fact that this particular medium would yellow
less over time than linseed oil.
P A I N T I N G

T E C H N I Q U E S

The types of pigments and media used by Rubens and

Brueghel were entirely in keeping with established standards
and practices of the day, and the painting materials used
by each artist in their individual works were very similar.
What distinguished the two masters were the stylistic aspects
of how the paint was applied. In general, Brueghel's han
dling of paint could be characterized as more opaque, which
suited the graphic, straightforward, and detailed qualities
of his style, whereas Rubens tended to favor a more
translucent handling, relying upon multiple layers of glazes
and scumbles to create the illusion of form through more
smoothly blended effects of modeling.
Brueghel's painting method has been characterized as
deliberately slow in order to achieve the high degree of finish
and detail in his painting. H e was known to take many
months to finish some commissions, a time frame that is not
surprising given the meticulous quality and character of
his finished surfaces. It is also possible that he worked on
several paintings at once, allowing the works to dry at
various stages and then returning to them in order to main
tain a crisp appearance by avoiding the risk of applying
paint on top of a layer that was still wet and malleable. In his
letters, Brueghel describes the time limitations in painting
flower pieces from life since he often had to wait for flowers
to be in season or have access to them.
When painting a landscape Brueghel would first lay
down solid areas of color to differentiate space, such as light
green in the foreground and blue hues for the far distance
(as well as for the expanses of sky). H e would also take
advantage of the colored imprimatura whenever possible.
In The Vision of Saint Hubert (cat. no. 7), for example, the
illusion of a large tree trunk just to the left of center
was created by allowing the brown-colored imprimatura to
stand as middle ground in between the outlined high
lights and the shadows of the form. The foliage of the tree
was clearly painted over the imprimatura (at the central
portion) and overlaps the paint of the sky only at the edges.
Brueghel often painted animals in a similar way. In
The Return from War (cat no. 2), the guinea pigs in the fore
36

37

226

BRUEGHEL

A N D RUBENS

AT

WORK

ground were painted directly over the imprimatura in a

manner that made full use of the warm, brown preparatory
layer as the middle tone for the fur (fig. 117). Brueghel
often repeated animals in his paintings and therefore was
probably so adept at painting them that he didn't need to
create a preliminary drawing. Some of the dogs that appear
in the Studies of Hunting Dogs (cat. no. 27) also appear in
the Saint Hubert and the Diana at the Hunt paintings (cat.
nos. 10 and n).
Alternatively, Brueghel would sometimes paint his ani
mals directly over the first green layer of the foreground and
then carefully work additional details of foliage and grass
up to and around the completed animals. This laborious
way of painting, also seen in his crowded Garden of Eden
(cat. no. 4), resulted in a seamless insertion of even the
smallest details of leaves, grass, and flowers in between the
animals and other larger elements of the composition.
Brueghel occasionally used the end of his brush or
a similar tool to refine his details while painting. In order
to render the detailed wooden inlay on the crossbow in
the foreground of The Return from War, for example, he
scratched delicate patterns into the paint film, presumably
with a small stick or the end of a paint brush (fig. 118).
Rubens's working method was somewhat different. His
complicated figural compositions were commonly developed
through a series of preparatory drawings and were then
further refined and elaborated by the execution of painted
sketches, or bozetti. These oil sketches were used by Rubens
throughout his career. They reflect his technical facility for
working out his compositions directly on a prepared painting
surface, as they were painted without elaborate prepar
ationssuch as detailed underdrawingsand often contain
numerous changes and reworkings. For some commissions,
and for particularly large-scale works, he painted a second,
more finished painted sketch, or modello, that was suitable
for presentation to a patron and could also function as
a guide for the studio assistants during painting of the fullscale finished work.
In both the painted sketches and in his highly finished
works, Rubens used his brush to outline forms and to make
subsequent adjustments to contours. Most often this was done
with a warm, brown-colored paint. After the initial laying in
of the contours, the work would continue with the addition
of middle tones, highlights, and shadows; in many cases the
imprimatura was allowed to remain visible, most commonly
as a means of creating cool shadows in the flesh tones.
38

FIGURE

117 D e t a i l f r o m The Return from War: Mars Disarmed

by Venus

FIGURE

D e t a i l f r o m The Return from War: Mars Disarmed

by Venus

(cat. n o . 2)

Rubens would sometimes leave a small gap between dif

ferent areas of paintrather than having a slight overlap
thus emphasizing a shape and creating an enhanced sense of
depth in his paintings.
Rubens's masterful use of glazes (transparent layers of
darker paint applied over lighter, opaque underpaints) and
scumbles (semitransparent layers of lighter paint applied
over darker underlying layers) is most clearly seen in his
handling of flesh tones. The opalescent qualities of the flesh
of the figure of Venus in The Return from War, for example,
were created by subtle mixing of colors, ranging from
pinks to yellows to blues, in overlapping layers of smoothly
blended paint.
Rubens varied the degree of warmth in flesh tones within
a painting, most often preferring cool, pale tones for female
figures and more saturated, warmer hues for male figures.
In The Feast ofAcheious (cat. no. 3 ) , for example, the variety
of flesh tones in the multifigure scene encourages the viewer's
eye to move throughout the complicated composition. H e
also favored the use of a red lake paint to accentuate the
contours of shadowed flesh tones, thus heightening the sense
of form and imparting a warmth and vitality to the figures.
Oftentimes, he would use the contrast between the flesh tones
of the male and female figures as a subtle psychological
tool; such is the case in Fan and Syrinx (cat. no. 5 ) and The

Return from War, where the obvious differences in tonality

between the male and female figures underscore their com
plex relationships.
Rubens also used glazes to create the illusion of depth
and heighten the seductively vibrant appearance of shadowed
areas in his depiction of draperies and other materials. A
beautiful example of this is seen in the red drapery around
Mars in The Return from War. O n the left side of the fabric,
lead white was mixed into the red paint (a mixture of ver
milion and red earth) to create a strong, opaque appearance.
O n the right side of the painting, where the fabric is seen
in shadow between the two figures, red lake glazes were
applied on top of this red, opaque base color, creating the
illusion of deep, rich shadows in the folds of the fabric.
V A R N I S H

Varnish is a clear, resinous material that serves to provide

depth and luminosity to the paint layers, as well as providing
a protective surface. A varnish coating fills in the tiny gaps
and spaces in the upper layer of a paint film, providing a uni
form surface for the reflection of light, with the result that the
pigments become deeper, or more saturated, in appearance.
Traditional varnish materials used in the seventeenth century
included a variety of soft natural resins, often combined
with any number of harder drying oils and other materials.
39

B R U E G H E L

A N D

RUBENS

AT

WORK

227

It is often difficult to determine whether or not particular

artists varnished their finished paintings. O i l paintings
require an extended period of time to dry properly, and in
many cases the work would have already left the studio
before this process was complete, precluding the application
of varnish by the artist himself or a member of his workshop.
Although there have been numerous studies of earlyseventeenth-century varnishes, and some discussion in par
ticular about Rubens's use of varnish, nothing is known
about the use of varnish in the collaborative works. In light
of the fact that all of these paintings have been subsequently
varnished, cleaned, restored, and revarnishedoften many
timesthroughout the centuries, there is very little evidence
remaining of what may or may not have been used. In the
absence of any documentary evidence, any theories as to
what might have been appliedand, perhaps more interest
ingly, which of the two artists might have applied the
varnishwould be pure speculation.
40

The W o r k i n g Process

One clue leading to the assumption that Brueghel and

Rubens must have worked together very closely during the
planning process for their collaborative works is the exis
tence in these paintings of surprisingly few major pentimenti
(with several notable exceptions, such as those found in
The Return from War: Mars Disarmed by Venus [cat. no. 2]
and the large Madonna in a Flower Garland in Munich
[fig. 1]). The fact that very few changes were made during
the painting process suggests that the artists had a clear pre
liminary understanding of the compositions of their collab
orative paintings. This is quite remarkable considering that
neither preparatory drawings nor painted sketches are known
for these works. Furthermore, surprisingly little underdraw
ing has been detected in these paintings.
In order to understand the process of collaboration
between these two artists it has been helpful to try to estab
lish a chronology of the painting process in each of the
works. For some of the paintings, doing this proved to be
quite straightforward, but in others, despite the stylistic
differences between Rubens and Brueghel, their methods of
applying paint were so well integrated on a single plane
that it was a challenge to decipher who began painting first.
In some cases, signs of process, such as overlapping layers of
paint, are clearly visible. In other instances, it was necessary

228

B R U E G H E L

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AT

WORK

to use infrared reflectography or near-infrared imaging to

reveal underdrawing or differentiate where paint layers over
lap. X-radiographs and stereomicroscopic studies of the
paint surfaces also helped to determine the order of painting
by revealing overlapping areas of paint.
THE BATTLE OF THE AMAZONS

The first known collaborative painting by Brueghel and

Rubens is The Battle of the Amazons (cat. no. 1). It dates to
about 1598 and stands apart from the other collaborative
works because it is the only one executed before Rubens
left Antwerp for an eight-year sojourn in Italy.
In 1598 Rubens emerged from his apprenticeships and
became a "free master" of painting. But it is important to
note that at this point Brueghel was the seniorand
more famousartist. H e was renowned as a specialist in
painting flowers, still life, and, most importantly, landscape.
Brueghel's invitation to Rubens to collaborate with him
in executing such a painting as The Battle of the Amazons
would have given the younger artist an opportunity to
demonstrate his virtuosity in the creation of a large, compli
cated figural composition.
The division of labor is clear in this early collaborative
work. The picture appears to have been simply divided into
two horizontal sections, with Brueghel painting the upper
background landscape and Rubens painting the muitifigure
group in the lower portion of the composition. Although
the result is a powerfully atmospheric and emotionally
charged scene, the contributions from the two individual
artists are arguably not yet quite as successfully integrated
as they would be in their future collaborations.
Unlike his practice in later figural contributions, Rubens
made use of an extensive underdrawing (in what appears
to be black chalk or a similar material) for this composition,
which was no doubt of prime importance in the planning
and execution of the highly complex arrangement. The
underdrawing is readily visible with the aid of infrared
reflectography (fig. 119). The numerous, tightly packed
and often dramatically foreshortened figures and horses in
The Battle of the Amazons were carefully positioned with
a detailed series of contours and outlines during execution
of the underdrawing.
A n interesting detail in The Battle of the Amazons is found
in the use of gilding on some areas of the surface. G o l d
details were applied to heighten the illusion of some of
the metallic surfacesnotably the armor, shields, and horse
41

42

43

44

bridles. This use of gilt details stems from an earlier Flemish

tradition and can be linked to the practices of Rubens's
teacher, Otto van Veen (ca. 1 5 5 6 - 1 6 2 9 ) .
4 5

0 0 0 0

Following Rubens's return to Antwerp from Italy in 1608,

Brueghel and Rubens produced a number of complex and
highly finished works of exceptional quality. These include:
The Return from War: Mars Disarmed by Venus (ca. 1 6 1 0 - 1 2 ) ,
The Garden of Eden with the Fall ofMan (ca. 1617), and
The Feast ofAcheious (ca. 1 6 1 4 - 1 5 ) (cat. nos. 2 - 4 ) . Two of

these pictures, The Return from War and The Garden of Eden,
have been the subject of much study during their recent
conservation treatments, which provided an opportunity for
some closer examinations.
THE RETURN FROM WAR: MARS DISARMED

BY VENUS

One of Brueghel's and Rubens's larger collaborative works,

The Return From War: Mars Disarmed by Venus (cat. no. 2) is
also among the most interesting because of the extensive
changes it underwent during its creation. The complicated
genesis of the picture underscores the fact that the two
artists must have had a close working relationship and is a
masterful demonstration of the success of their collabor
ative efforts.
The painting's support, despite its generous size, is a
fairly thin oak panel, composed of five planks of wood,
joined horizontally. Grooves in the reverse of the panel at the
left and right edges, which correspond to two vertical areas
on the surface of the painting that are primed but unpainted,
suggest that the picture was held in a temporary frame
work while the two artists were at work on the composition.
The picture must have originated in Brueghel's studio.
One unusual piece of evidence for this is the existence of
a number of small "doodles" applied to the surface after the
white ground was applied. These are visible with the aid of
infrared reflectographyand can only be read properly when
the painting is turned upside down (fig. 120). Just to the
left of Mars's tunic is a rocky landscape, a shepherd (holding
a staff), a few sheep, and a small cart. These sketchy nota
tions are clearly in Brueghel's hand and may represent some
preliminary thoughts for a different composition or a bit
of illustration corresponding to a discussion in the studio.
Further infrared study suggested that the original plan
for the entire compositionincluding the architectural

FIGURE

119 D e t a i l f r o m The Battle of the Amazons

(cat. n o . 1) s h o w n i n

n o r m a l l i g h t ( t o p ) a n d i n an i n f r a r e d r e f l e c t o g r a m ( b o t t o m )

B R U E G H E L

A N D

RUBENS

AT

WORK

229

FIGURE

120 D e t a i l s ( u p s i d e d o w n ) f r o m The Return from War: Mars Disarmed

setting, extensive still life, and initial placement of the

figure groupwas designed by Brueghel. Brueghel's under
drawingsparse, roughly sketched outlines in black chalk
indicated a different preliminary plan for the position of
the two main figures: a male figure, facing to the left, with
his proper left arm positioned in a vertical, curved embracing
gesture, was planned for the area where Venus's torso is now
found (fig. 121). It is not possible to see a preparatory sketch
for the female figure (assuming that the subject was the same
at this early stage) because the dark pigments in the painted
figure of Mars prevent transmission of the infrared image.
It should be noted that the scale of this first figure was
considerably smaller than those which Rubens eventually
painted. Interestingly, Brueghel executed a number of
collaborative works, with Rubens and others, centered on
the theme of the forge. In some of these collaborative works
(for example, in the Allegory of Touch from the Five Senses
series [fig. 5 6 ] painted with Rubens and in the Allegory
of Tire, painted with Hendrick van Balen [cat. no. 17]), the

230

B R U E G H E L

A N D

RUBENS

AT

WORK

by Venus (cat. n o . 2) as s h o w n i n i n f r a r e d r e f l e c t o g r a m s

figures of Mars and Venus were included in a similar posi

tion yet comparatively smaller scale. The posture of the
underdrawn figure is also reminiscent of a similar male figure
presenting a shield to Venus found in one of Brueghel's
later collaborations with Van Balen, Venus in the Forge of
Vulcan (fig. 122).
After applying the sketchy underdrawing, Brueghel
painted in the architectural setting and all of the still-life ele
ments, leaving the original area of the figure plan "in reserve,"
meaning that the selected area was left unpainted, although
everything surrounding it was brought to a nearly finished
state by Brueghel. This use of a reserve for the figures recurs
in some of the other collaborative works as well.
Brueghel completed a detailed and complex array of
objects in the lower right corner (underneath the area where
Venus's legs and the putti holding Mars's shield now appear),
including a three-legged stool, a variety of items laid on top
of a table or shelf, and a long bench at the far right. A l l of
these items are revealed by infrared reflectography as well as

F I G U R E 12 1 D e t a i l f r o m The Return from War: Mars Disarmed by

Venus, a s

s h o w n i n a n infrare d reflectogra m

F I G U R E 12 2 J a n B r u e g h e l th e E l d e r a n d H e n d r i c k v a n B a l e n , Venus in
Forge of Vulcan, 1623 . O i l on c o p p e r , 39. 4 x 34- 3 c m (1 5 V2 x 131/ 2 i n . ) .
Private collectio n

w i t h X - r a d i o g r a p h y (fig . 123) . T h e X-ra y image s revea l

Rubens als o departe d f r o m Brueghel' s practic e b y paint -

additionally tha t thes e still-lif e element s ha d bee n brough t

ing th e figur e o f Venus i n walnu t o i l , rather tha n th e mor e

to a h i g h degre e o f finish , a s the y no t o n l y appea r full y

c o m m o n linsee d o i l , w h i ch B r u e g h e l ha d use d fo r hi s c o n t r i -

realized bu t als o includ e th e small , lea d whit e highlight s tha t

butions t o th e picture . T h i s wa s n o d o u b t a consciou s choic e

Brueghel w o u l d hav e applie d o n l y d u r i n g th e fina l stage s

on Rubens' s part , a s walnu t o i l was les s pron e t o discol -

of p a i n t i n g .

o r a t i o n , thu s ensurin g th e futur e o f th e figure' s pale , pearl y

After c o m p l e t i o n o f th e firs t r o u n d o f p a i n t i n g , th e pane l

flesh tone s an d g u a r d i n g agains t th e threa t o f y e l l o w i n g

was mos t likel y sen t t o Rubens' s studio , wher e th e c o m p o -

that w o u l d hav e c o m p r o m i s e d th e subtl e variation s o f c o l o r

s i t i o n wa s radicall y revised. I n a somewha t shockin g m o v e

he use d t o creat e suc h a stron g sens e o f f o r m .

that m i g h t hav e deepl y d i v i d e d t wo artist s w i t h a les s i n t i m a t e a n d t r u s t i n g w o r k i n g relationship , Ruben s painte d

4 6

Less surprisin g wer e th e type s o f pigment s use d b y b o t h

artists. P i g m e n t identification s wer e carrie d ou t o n a n u m b e r

out mos t o f th e l o w e r right-han d corne r an d portion s o f

of section s o f th e p i c t u r e a n d al l of th e identification s wer e

the l o w e r cente r w i t h a gra y overpaint , t o a l l o w for th e

consistent w i t h pigment s c o m m o n l y f o u n d i n work s f r o m th e

enlargement an d r e p o s i t i o n i n g o f th e figure s int o thei r cur -

period, i n c l u d i n g lead white , v e r m i l i o n , i r o n earths , azurite ,

rent configuration .

copper greens , an d lead-ti n y e l l o w .

R u b e n s the n wen t abou t p a i n t i n g th e figura l group , mak ing cleve r us e o f th e gra y "overpaint " a s a n "underpaint "

47

After Ruben s complete d hi s w o r k o n th e figures , th e pane l

was p r o b a b l y returne d t o Brueghel' s studio , wher e man y o f

for hi s o w n w o r k : i t serve d a s a f o u n d a t i o n fo r th e creatio n

the still-lif e element s tha t ha d bee n painte d ove r wer e place d

o f th e c o o l shadow s i n th e flesh tone s o f Venus.

in thei r curren t positions . F o r example , th e leg s o f Venus n o w

BRUEGHEL AN D RUBEN S A T WOR K

231

FIGURE

123 D e t a i l f r o m The Return from War: Mars Disarmed

X-radiograph (bottom right)

??? ???????? ??? ?????? ?? ????

by Venus s h o w n i n n o r m a l l i g h t ( t o p ) , a n i n f r a r e d r e f l e c t o g r a m ( b o t t o m left), a n d a n

F I G U R E 124 D e t a i l f r o m The Return from War: Mars Disarmed

and

by Venus s h o w n i n n o r m a l l i g h t (left)

i n an infrared reflectogram (right)

F I G U R E 125 D e t a i l f r o m The Return

Mars Disarmed

from

War:

by Venus

cover a b o w l o f grapes originally painted just above the

g r o u p , such as the large covered pot just to the right o f

three-legged stool. T h e new fruit b o w l was reinserted at the

Mars's proper right hand, were painted i n a somewhat

far right side o f the c o m p o s i t i o n . A n u m b e r o f other still-life

different, looser style, w i t h a more l i m i t e d palette o f gray

elements were rescattered o n the g r o u n d a r o u n d the figural

and green (fig. 125). It is possible that one o f Brueghel's

g r o u p or r e w o r k e d slightly i n order to visually integrate

studio assistants c o u l d have c o n t r i b u t e d these final details.

the t w o p o r t i o n s o f the p a i n t i n g a n d to mask the border

o f gray overpaint.
T h e stone w a l l at the right side o f the p a i n t i n g was also

??? ?????? ?? ???? ???? ??? ???? ?? ???

The Garden of Eden with the Fall ofMan

(cat. no. 4) demon

r e w o r k e d . B r u e g h e l had initially painted i n a large, r o u n d

strates that Rubens and B r u e g h e l had a clear appreciation o f

shape (possibly a shield, or perhaps a platter) o n the wall at

each other's skills and specialties. Painted i n the most labor-

the right-hand side o f the p a i n t i n g , along w i t h a n u m b e r

intensive manner possible, w i t h w o r k proceeding m e t h o d i

o f b o w l s and other r o u n d objects just b e l o w it. I n response,

cally f r o m the foreground to the b a c k g r o u n d , this w o r k

perhaps, to the r o u n d e d figure o f V e n u s , the w a l l just to

was most likely a c o m m i s s i o n for a client seeking exactly this

her right was r e w o r k e d , c o v e r i n g over the r o u n d objects and

k i n d o f exquisite tour de force.

replacing t h e m w i t h such strong vertical accents as horses'

bridles and a pair o f stirrups (fig. 124).
A l t h o u g h all o f these reworkings were executed w i t h the

The Garden of Eden with the Fall ofMan

is signed i n t w o

places: at the l o w e r left is the i n s c r i p t i o n P E T R I P A V L I

R V B E N S F I G R . and at the l o w e r right, i n somewhat smaller

same quality and attention to detail as Brueghel's o r i g i n a l

letters, I B R V E G H E L F E C . (see fig. 107). Despite the signa

w o r k , a n u m b e r o f elements at the left side o f the figural

tures' difference i n scale, they are b o t h thought to have been

BRUEGHEL

AND RUBENS

AT

WORK

233

FIGURE

126 F r o n t e d g e (left) a n d reverse e d g e ( r i g h t ) o f p a n e l , The Garden of Eden with the Fall ofMan

made by Brueghel. This is remarkable, because in all of

the other paintings that Brueghel executed jointly with other
artists nothing is found other than his own name.
The painting was executed on a single horizontal oak
panel of western European origin. The narrow remains of
a beveling may be observed at top and bottom. As was the
case with the much larger The Return from War: Mars
Disarmed by Venus (cat. no. 2), a groove was planed into the
reverse at both vertical ends to facilitate the mounting of
a temporary working frame (fig. 126). The auxiliary battens
distinguish this panel from those produced in standard
sizes and suggest that it was ordered in a format specifically
tailored to the composition.
O n the reverse of the panel is the house mark of the pan
elmaker Guilliam Gabron (active 1 6 0 9 - 1 6 6 2 + )the letters
GG interlinked with a floral motive (fig. 127). This mark
was made using Gabron's early punch, in use between 1614
and 1626. There is no branding mark, probably due to the
panel's early dating, about 1616, just prior to the regulation
of standardized branding in 1 6 1 7 . Another explanation
for the lack of a branding mark might be that because it was
ordered to size the panel fell outside the so-called dozensizes that had to be assessed by the dean.
The present panel is also an exception to the rule that
standard-size panels were usually prepared with a ground
layer before a painter acquired them. The supplementary side
frames were mounted before the panel was grounded with
48

49

234

B R U E G H E L

A N D

RUBENS

AT

WORK

(cat. n o . 4 )

chalk and glue. Their later removal left 3 - 4 mm (about

Vs inch) of the panel along the vertical edges ungrounded.
A thin grayish, streaky, and translucent imprimatura
was applied primarily in horizontal strokes but also in criss
cross and vertical directions. The cool tonality of the impri
matura is the result of the use of lead white and ivory black
pigments, and its presence plays a visual role in the thinly
painted figures of Adam and Eve.
Over the imprimatura, an underdrawing in a dry medium,
possibly either charcoal or graphite, can be detected with
infrared imaging. Sketchy lines, similar to those found
in other paintings by Brueghel, and thus confirming that
he laid out this underdrawing, suggest the various planes
in the landscape, the trees, and the little stream in the fore
ground. Slightly more detailed underdrawing is found
for the two dogs (fig. 128). Although there is an even thinner,
more detailed drawing indicating the legs and contours of
the peacock and the purple gallinules, these lines were not
always followed in the painting process. A reason for the
sketch iness of the underdrawing may be found in the fact
that the landscape is similar to his earlier Garden of Eden
50

51

????? ??????

A close study of the X-radiograph of The Garden of Eden

confirms that Rubens was the first to start the actual painting
process (fig. 129). H e may have started out directly on the pre
pared panel or used drawn lines in a medium that cannot be
detected. As in other of Rubens's paintings thin, light brown

F I G U R E 127 M a r k o f p a n e l m a k e r G u i l l i a m G a b r o n o n reverse o f p a n e l ,
The Garden

of Eden with the Tall of

F I G U R E 128 D e t a i l f r o m The Garden

Man

of Eden with the Tall of Man

s h o w n i n n o r m a l l i g h t (left) a n d i n a n i n f r a r e d r e f l e c t o g r a m

BRUEGHEL

(right)

AND RUBENS

AT W O R K

235

FIGURE

129 D e t a i l f r o m The Garden

of Eden with the Fall ofMan

s h o w n i n n o r m a l l i g h t (left) a n d i n a n X - r a d i o g r a p h ( r i g h t )

lines indicate various contours, some of which were probably

applied later in order to strengthen or correct contours.
A n examination of the figures and the horse behind them
shows that the buildup and brush handling is comparable:
a quick, thin, quite sketchy paint application. The modulation
of the musculature in the figures and the horse was, in large
part, carried out using hatching, something characteristic of
Rubens's technique. Analogous hatching can be found on
the thigh of Adam and on his cheek, although it was applied
with a finer brush (fig. 130). When Rubens painted the figure
of Adam, he took into account the shadow that would be
cast by the horse. The subdued tonality of the figure's upper
torso was created by the so-called turbid medium effect
(meaning that a thin layer of flesh color was applied over the
local dark grayish undermodeling).
The Tree of Wisdom, in the immediate background
behind Adam and Eve, reveals a technique comparable to

236

B R U E G H E L

A N D

RUBENS

AT

W O R K

that of the figures, yet one entirely different from the rest of
the landscape. Thinly applied, the tree stands out in sketchy
brown hues reminiscent of an undermodeling. Rubens
painted the patchy brown branches of the tree as wxll as
the Serpent, seen on a small twig, passing down an apple to
Eve, although it could also be argued on stylistic grounds
that the head of the Serpent was painted by Brueghel.
Brueghel, in a second stage and in his characteristic
meticulous and often more opaque technique, applied addi
tional branches to the tree and added easily recognizable
small dabs of color to the trunk and stems to indicate light
reflections in the bark, thus integrating Rubens's tree into
his own landscape. The painted reflections must have been
applied after the return of the panel to Brueghel's studio,
since they relate to the completed figural group, including
the mound on which Adam is seated, the large tree trunk
with the Serpent, and the brown horse at the left.

FIGURE

Fall of

130 D e t a i l , The Garden of Eden with the

Man

When Brueghel took over the painting, the first step

was to apply semitransparent layers of paint describing the
different planes of the landscape. In the area of the sky,
he applied a light ultramarine blue mixed with lead white,
incorporating reserves for the trees and other landscape
elements still to come. A light green wash formed the midtone and basis for the landscape. The loose underdrawing
of the composition was not followed closely in the paint
layers, and the solid drawing below the two dogs in the
middle ground was not used in the final version. N o t only
did Brueghel displace the dogs toward the left, he also used
a different pose for one of them.

It is not clear, however, why it is not possible to detect

any underdrawing in those animals that Brueghel borrowed
from Rubens. Most prominent of the quotes from his friend
is the lion in the middle foreground. The two leopards
to the right also derive from Rubens's oeuvre and are known
from a copy after Rubens's The Leopards (fig. 131). Does
this indicate that Brueghel worked directly from an inter
mediate drawing made after Rubens's sketches? O r did
Brueghel use a transfer technique that cannot be detected?
The large animals were applied over the green wash
of the mid-tone of the landscape and finished in all details;
execution of the picture continued from the foreground
53

B R U E G H E L

A N D

RUBENS

AT

WORK

237

FIGURE

131 A t t r i b u t e d t o t h e w o r k s h o p o f P e t e r

P a u l R u b e n s , The Leopards,

late

seventeenth-

e a r l y e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y . O i l o n canvas,
3

205 x 317 c m ( 8 0 / 4 x 1231/4 i n . ) . M o n t r e a l ,

M u s e u m o f Fine Arts, Special Replacement
F u n d , i n v . 1975.15
FIGURE

132 D e t a i l f r o m The Garden

the Fall of
FIGURE

of Eden

with

of Eden

with

Man

133 D e t a i l f r o m The Garden

the Fall of Man

s h o w i n g Eve's hair

toward the background. Working in this way, Brueghel

avoided the situation where variations in the hues below
them would influence the color of the animals. One example
where Brueghel contradicted this procedure can be seen
in the ostrich. The only large animal painted over the land
scape, perhaps as an afterthought, the color of the bird's neck
changes where the horizon of the landscape passes beneath
it (fig. 132).
After the large animals in the foreground were complete,
Brueghel finished the landscape around them. Individual
leaves and reeds were painted between the legs of the large

??? ???????? ??? ?????? ?? ????

animals in a laborious and time-consuming process that took

care to maintain their form and three-dimensionality. The
sky was added in a subsequent layer. The tree trunks were
created by spreading green-brown paint with a broad bristle
brush, wet into wet, into the thin, dark green layer that was
later to become the background for the leaves. After this,
the delicate foliage, which is seen to overlap tree trunks and
sky alike, was added. Finally, the small animals and birds
were painted over the already dry landscape, which indicates
that some time elapsed between these stages.
54

Overlapping paint layers can be seen along the contours

of the forms, clearly indicating where Rubens's paint appli
cation finishes and that of Brueghel begins. Bright greenish
paint follows the contour of the small white rabbit in the
foreground, separating it from the more subdued green
paint first applied by Rubens for the mound on which Adam
is seated. The convincing integration of Rubens's small com
position of figures, horse, tree trunk, and serpent into the
larger composition was accomplished courtesy of Brueghel.
A n exquisite example of this integration is visible where
Eve's hair blows over the wings of the passing duck (fig. 133).
That this effect was added by Brueghel is confirmed by
the fact that the paint did not adhere well and formed
small droplets that are indicative of their secondary nature.
THE FEAST OF

FIGURE

134 D e t a i l f r o m The Feast ofAchelous (cat. n o . 3)

ACHELOUS

One of the most complex examples of the collaborative

works is The Feast ofAchelous (cat. no. 3), dating to about
1 6 1 4 - 1 5 . By this point in time, Rubens and Brueghel had
become exceptionally adept at integrating their individual
contributions. Although it seems likely, given the extreme
complexity of the narrative (which is taken from Ovid's
Metamorphoses) and the prominence of the large figural
group, that Rubens played the leading role in the develop
ment of the work's overall composition, even a close study
of the picture does not reveal with incontestable certainty
which artist painted first. It is equally unclear whether or
not the conceptor commission, if there was onefor the
picture originated in Brueghel's or in Rubens's studio.
It is probable that the complicated figural group would
have been laid in by Rubens at a very early stage in the
development of the composition. Whether or not the figures
were then left in reserve, to be filled in later after Brueghel
had taken his contributions to the background grotto and
table to a certain level of finish, remains unclear. There are
some areas where reserves may exist. For example, a close
look at the plate at the far right side of the table reveals
that it was painted, by Brueghel, in two sections, around the
figure's arm. This could be for one of two reasons: an out
lined reserve existed for the arm or the majority of the arm
was painted first. It is clear that the final application of paint
on the surface of the panel was a dark flesh color, which
emphasizes the contours of the arm, and that these strokes
overlap the painted plate (fig. 134).
However, at the left side of the picture, in the group of
women holding the cornucopia, the hands grasping the
cornucopia were in place before the cornucopia itself was
5 5

56

painted, suggesting that Rubens painted these figures before

Brueghel's contribution of this particular still-life detail
(fig. 135). To complicate matters further, the index finger of
the proper left hand of the figure at the far left was a final
correction, as it rests on top of the completed cornucopia.
This part of the composition is iconographically significant,
so it is not surprising that it was treated with so much care
and attention.
A l l of this suggests that this picture did not follow a
simple two-step path to completion but underwent a lot of
back-and-forth between the artistsand perhaps between
their studios. Some of the draperies appear to be by Rubens
(such as the smooth, gray drapery of the male figure at
the right forefront of the figure group), as do some of the
other elements, such as the rocks supporting the main figures
of the central group. Other areas of drapery have a more
"crinkly" appearance (such as the draperies on the two
women with the cornucopia) and may have been painted
either by Brueghel or a member of one of the artists' studios.
Brueghel also seems to have added some final details to the
figures, such as the long tendrils of hair on the kneeling
female figure in the lower left corner.
A further complication to sorting out the various hands
at work on this picture is found in the figures at the far
right, which, although Rubensian in appearance, do not have
the strength of the rest of the group, suggesting that they
may have been added by one of Rubens's studio assistants.
The skillful interweaving of each artist's contributions
makes this one of the most successful and intricate of the
collaborative works.
57

B R U E G H E L

A N D

RUBENS

AT

WORK

239

? ? ? ? ? ?

240

? ? ?

? ? ? ? ? ?

B R U E G H E L A N D

? ? ? ?

? ? ?

RUBENS

AT

? ? ? ? ?

WORK

? ? ? ? ?

? ? ? ?

? ? ?

? ? ? ? ? ?

? ?

? ? ? ? ?

? ? ? ? ? ?

? ? ? ? ?

? ? ?

THE

FIGURE

137 M a r k o f p a n e l m a k e r G u i l l i a m A e r t s s e n o n reverse o f p a n e l ,

Flora and Zephyr

(cat. n o . 6 ) , seen i n n a t u r a l l i g h t (left) a n d i n a n e n h a n c e d

v i e w w i t h the mark reinforced (right)

VISION OF SAINT

The Vision of Saint Hubert (cat. no. 7) is one of the more

highly finished collaborative works. Brueghel appears to
have been first to draw on the panel, indicating the general
placement of trees in the landscape. H e then began paint
ing the landscape, leaving an area of reserve for the figure
of Saint Hubert. In this case, the reserve seems not to have
been initially outlined by Rubens; the reserved area was
somewhat larger than the finished figure, as shown by the
exposed areas of streaky imprimatura that remain around
the completed figure.
In the foreground, Brueghel laid in a thin, light green
underpaint for the grass, painting up to the edges of the deer.
The sky was apparently painted in after completion of the
deer, as the light blue brushstrokes were applied around
the animal's head. The horse was painted by Brueghel and
seems to have been completed before the addition of the
figure of the saint.
After Rubens finished the figure of Saint Hubert,
the picture was returned to Brueghel, who painted the dogs
around the figure and added the saint's hat, which hangs
around his neck and bridges the negative space between
Saint Hubert and the horse (fig. 136). Saint Hubert's sword
and horn are probably also final additions by Brueghel.
FLORA

FIGURE

138 D e t a i l f r o m Flora and Zephyr

HUBERT

AND

ZEPHYR

The panel support for Flora and Zephyr (cat. no. 6 ) is

composed of five thin planks of wood joined vertically. O n
the back of the panel, in the middle of the second plank
from the right (as seen from the reverse), the written
monogram of the panelmaker Guilliam Aertssen can still be
seen (fig. 137). This is quite exceptional, as the mark, a
stylized monogram showing the letter G over the letter y l ,
was written in red chalk, and it is rare for this type of
monogram to survive.
Guilliam Aertssen became a master of the Guild of
Saint Luke in 1612. By 1616/17 he had his atelier in Breestraat,
where colleagues and painters also lived. From 1627 on
ward, he worked steadily for the Antwerp art dealer Gaspar
Antheunis and may have continued to be active up to 1638.
The variety of Aertssen's monogram written in red
chalk is found mostly on panels dating prior to 1617 (which
confirms the stylistic dating of Flora and Zephyr to about
1617)5 the year the Antwerp guild decided on a regulation
that required all panelmakers to identify standard-size
panels with their respective monogram or house mark.
58

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241

FIGURE

139 D e t a i l f r o m Flora and

Zephyr

FIGURE

140 D e t a i l of Allegory

of Sight (fig. 54) s h o w n i n a n i n f r a r e d

reflectogram

The back-and-forth nature of Rubens and Brueghel's col

laborative efforts continued during the execution of Flora
and Zephyr. It is quite clear that once the panel had been
prepared with a white ground and the typical streaky impri
matura layer (which can be clearly seen in infrared images),
Rubens used a brown paint to outline the placement of the
figures of Zephyr, Flora, and the putti. This outline indi
cated areas for Brueghel to leave in reserve while he laid in
the surrounding landscape. Such reserves seem to have
played an increasingly important role in the collaborative
process throughout the remainder of the time that the two
artists worked together.
When Rubens returned to the painting, he departed from
the reserve in several places, extending parts of the figures
over Brueghel's landscape. This can be seen as the paint
layers are very thin and have become more transparent over
time (fig. 138). After completion of the figures, Brueghel
returned to the painting to add such final details as the
flowers that overlap the red cloth held by Flora and those
in the hand of the putto kneeling by her feet (fig. 139).
T H E

F I V E

S E N S E S

Perhaps the most well known of the collaborative works is

the popular series known as the Five Senses (cat. no. 8
and figs. 5 4 - 5 7 ) , painted about 1 6 1 7 - 1 8 . These paintings,
rendered to a high degree of finish, are the result of a tight

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collaboration between Rubens and Brueghel. Their scale is

smaller than most of the works discussed thus far, but
the working methods used by the two artists appear to have
remained consistent.
It is interesting that all five of the panel supports for
paintings in the series were poorly chosen. Several of the
paintings were executed on panels made from planks
with curving grains; this has led to uneven expansion and
shrinkage over time, which caused dramatic warping and
structural damage. This uncharacteristic choice of poorquality wood supports suggests that the pictures were
produced without the benefit of a commission (and thus
the artists were reluctant to invest in a more expensive and
better-made set of panels).
The process of collaboration in the Five Senses followed
the artists' earlier models. After the panels were prepared
for painting, a few lines of underdrawing were applied, most
likely by Brueghel, as indications of compositional place
ments, such as for architectural settings. Rubens then laid in
preliminary outlines for the main figures. Brueghel next
began painting, leaving a reserve for the figures based on
Rubens's contours. Finally, Rubens painted the figures,
occasionally overlapping Brueghel's work. In some pictures
from this series, Brueghel returned to the painting to add
final details.

FIGURE

141 D e t a i l f r o m Allegory

of Sight s h o w n i n n o r m a l l i g h t (left) a n d i n an i n f r a r e d r e f l e c t o g r a m ( r i g h t )

In some of the works, Brueghel executed the smaller,

secondary figures. For example, in the Allegory of Taste the
background figure in the kitchen was executed by Brueghel;
in the Allegory of Touch the figures in the forge are either by
Brueghel or his studio.
There is some evidence of underdrawing in the Allegory
of Sight, where Brueghel indicated contours for the group
of paintings that is seen in the right foreground (fig. 1 4 0 ) .
The underdrawing, executed in a carbon-containing medium,
was detected with the use of infrared reflectography.
In this same work, Brueghel made subtle shifts during
the process of laying in the complicated setting and myriad
objectsnotably in the background vista at the left center,
where what had originally been a multitiered tall fountain
was reduced to a simpler, lower form, perhaps to avoid
interfering with the cityscape beyond and to open the land
scape space as much as possible.
In the Allegory of Sight, a reserved area was left for the
female figure and the putto. Brueghel then painted around
59

and up to the contours of the reserve. Brueghel appears to

have painted the telescope in the foreground before Rubens
painted the figure: the texture of the flesh-colored paint of
the leg shows that Rubens's brushwork had to move around
the black telescope handle (fig. 141 [left]).
When Rubens painted the allegorical figure of Sight, he
made a number of small changes. H e reduced the size of the
figure (infrared images reveal that the reserve for the head
was initially placed higher), painted beyond the reserve for
the figure's left leg, and overlapped Brueghel's elaborate
table covering (fig. 141 [right]). This is particularly evident
in the hand of the figure. The original reserve did not allow
for the long fingers which overlap the frame of the picture
that is the focus of Sight's gesture.
In the Allegory of Smell, the female figure and putto are
clearly painted over the imprimatura on reserved areas.
Again, Rubens painted outside the reserve in some areas,
covering Brueghel's already existing landscape. Rubens
apparently anticipated that Brueghel would return to the

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243

FIGURE

142 D e t a i l f r o m Allegory

of Smell (fig. 5 7 )

FIGURE

143 D e t a i l f r o m Allegory

of Taste (cat. n o . 8)

picture to paint the flowers held by the putto. Painted

directly over the imprimatura, the flowers overlap the arm
of the putto. Similar flowers are held by the figure of Smell
and adorn her hair (fig. 142).
Rubens again followed Brueghel in the painting process
for the Allegory of Taste. Studying the picture with infrared
reflectography has revealed that Brueghel used loosely sketched
contours to indicate the placement of architectural elements
such as the column. That Rubens made a point of being
sensitive to Brueghel's details and use of color is evident in
the shadow of the satyr's torso. To give a sense of depth to

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the satyr's flesh tones, Rubens chose shades of green and

bluecolors which also echo and reflect the still-life elements
Brueghel had executed on the table near the figure (fig. 143).
The existence of a pentimento where the white tablecloth
follows the contour of the female figure's leg suggests the
artists' order of paintingBrueghel painting the tablecloth
first, around a planned reserve for the figure. Late in the
process, the tablecloth was adjusted to compensate for the
final placement of the figure's leg, which was painted on
a smaller scale than the rest of the reserve. The handling of
paint in this change is not consistent with the lower layers of
the original tablecloth, suggesting that someone other than
Brueghel made the adjustment (fig. 1 4 4 ) .
In the Allegory of Hearing, the transparency of the paint
films as well as the slightly worn surface of the picture makes
it possible to confirm Rubens's use of a brown, painted
contour for the figure. Executed in thin paint, this contour is
visible in the left hand of the female figure and in the lute
she is playing (fig. 145).
Whether the Allegory of Touch departed from the collabo
rative method described for the other Five Senses pictures
cannot be determined since the figure is painted so opaquely
that it is difficult to see what lies beneath it. However, it
appears that the figure's feet, where they rest on the carpet,
were painted directly over the imprimatura.
What is particularly noteworthy about the Allegory of
Touch is the reuse of numerous details and devices from other
works. For example, the crossbow and shoulder armor found
at the lower center and the bowl of fruit found just below
the two figures are nearly identical in appearancealthough
completely different in scaleto the same details in The
Return from War: Mars Disarmed by Venus (cat. no. 2). This
reuse of detailsalmost as i f they were theatrical propsis
common throughout Brueghel's own work as well as his
collaborative work with Rubens and others. Some of the
same details continued to be used in works by Jan Brueghel
the Younger, suggesting that the studio models were handed
down to the next generation.
There is no technical evidence that shows how the repeti
tions were done, but it is most likely that the artist's studio
housed painted models, drawings, or prints that were used
as points of reference so that such details would not have
to be constantly reinvented. Brueghel's captivating Studies
of Hunting Dogs (cat. no. 27) may represent just such a group
of models; the large dog in the upper left-hand corner of the
study, for example, appears in an identical pose in Brueghel

F I G U R E 144 D e t a i l f r o m Allegory

of Taste

s h o w n i n n o r m a l l i g h t ( t o p left) a n d i n a n
infrared reflectogram (top right)
F I G U R E 145 D e t a i l f r o m Allegory

of

Hearing

(% 55)

and Rubens's Diana's Sleeping Nymphs Observed by Satyrs

(cat. no.

and his studioare those p i c t u r i n g either a M a d o n n a and

C h i l d or a m y t h o l o g i c a l figure g r o u p framed w i t h i n an

11).

elaborate garland. T h i s m o t i f s h o u l d p r o b a b l y be credited to

G A R L A N D

P I C T U R E S

A m o n g Rubens and Brueghel's most successful collabora

t i o n s a n d apparently a m o n g the most appealing, as they
inspired many later copies by Jan B r u e g h e l the Younger

Jan Brueghel the E l d e r : it first appears i n his oeuvre i n

a collaborative w o r k w i t h H e n d r i c k van Balen i n 1 6 0 8 .

60

The Madonna in a Flower Garland (fig. 1 ) is Rubens and

Brueghel's largest collaborative w o r k (measuring nearly six

BRUEGHEL

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AT

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245

61

feet by seven feet [185 by 210 cm]). The painting was exe
cuted on a large panel support made up of seven vertically
joined planks, which was enlarged during the painting
process by the addition of another plank on each vertical
edge, making a total of nine planks. (The original seven planks
were prepared in the typical fashion with a ground layer, fol
lowed by a streaky imprimatura layer.)
The seven planks that make up the panel on which
Rubens started painting are reinforced with four internal
pegs along each panel j o i n . Where the two additional pieces
of wood were joined to the original support there are no
such pegs. The back of this seven-plank central portion of
the support has one-centimeter-wide ( /s-inch) grooves along
the top and bottom horizontal edges; these probably indi
cate the use of a working frame.
Such a dramatic change in the size of a work was not
unusual for Rubens, who routinely enlarged his panel
paintings during the painting process, which suggests that
Rubens may have taken the lead role in the execution of
this particular painting. The fact that the composition is pri
marily a tour de force of large figures interacting on a grand
scale also tends to indicate that the conception originated
with Rubens.
Rubens's process appears to have been as follows: first,
he applied a gray paint layer over the prepared panel as
a background color, outlining the form of the garland, the
image of the Madonna and Child, and the putti. In so doing,
he created reserves where the warm color of the imprimatura
would be left clear for the painting of the figure's flesh tones.
Both the X-radiograph and infrared image of the paint
ing suggest that initially Rubens planned for four putti
around the garland. It appears that Rubens created reserves
for these four figures and then, before painting the putti,
decided to change the composition to include a total of
eleven putti, thus necessitating the enlargement of the panel.
The paint layer buildup on the added panels imitates
that of the original panel: the panels are grounded and there
is an imprimatura layer. A gray paint was also used in the
background around the edges of the putti. In the corners of
the painting the warm brown imprimatura remains visible.
Rubens may have completed his work on the panel before
passing it to Brueghel. Brueghel was certainly the artist
who finished the painting, as evidenced by the fact that the
branches of flowers extending into the bottom left and
right corners are painted directly over the putti (fig. 146).
62

63

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In executing the garland, Brueghel applied a green underpaint layer to selected areas. This green layer covered the
light-colored imprimatura, creating a sense of depth in the
leaves. Areas where Brueghel anticipated painting lightcolored flowers were left bare, allowing the imprimatura to
stand alone.
The garland itself is a pastiche of flowers and floral
groupings used in other garland paintings, such as the
Madonna and Child in a Garland of Flowers in the Musee du
Louvre (fig. 6 9 ) .
The Munich Madonna in a Flower Garland is distin
guished by the fact that the technical examination points to
Rubens playing the lead role in determining the composi
tion of the work.
Another collaborative garland picture, Madonna and
Child in a Garland of Fruit and Flowers (cat. no. 12), dates to
about 1620 and is a clear example of how collaborative works
were passed back and forth between the artists during the
painting process. Infrared examination of the painting makes
clear that Brueghel initially sketched an oval form for the
medallion in the painting but later changed the outlines to
indicate an octagonal shape.
What seems probable is that Brueghel painted the major
ity of his portion of the workthe landscape background
and floral garlandsafter indicating the octagonal shape of
the panel (which he left in reserve for Rubens). Rubens
then painted the Madonna and Child and left another small
reserve just above the Virgin's head for a floral wreath to be
added by Brueghel. Brueghel then returned to the painting
to add his flowers directly over the imprimatura. A t this final
stage, Brueghel painted the gold border of the medallion
and also made small adjustments to the leaves that overlap
the upper edge of the Madonna and Child.
It is also possible that Rubens painted his figural group
first, and Brueghel then finished the painting, completing
the landscape, adding the floral garland in the reserve left by
Rubens, and accomplishing the transition between the land
scape and Rubens's figural group by adding a gold border to
the medallion.
Another collaborative painting, the Fruit Garland with
Nature Adorned by the Graces in Glasgow (fig. 83), follows the
classic form of garland paintings, with Brueghel's elaborate
assembly of fruits and vegetables framing a trompe l'oeil
image painted by Rubens. The composition of this painting
relates very closely to that of Garland of Fruit around a
Depiction of Ceres Receiving Gifts from the Four Seasons, a col64

FIGURE

146 D e t a i l f r o m Madonna

in a Flower Garland

(fig. 1)

FIGURE

( %

laboration between Brueghel and Hendrick van Balen that

exists in two versions, one in the collection of the
Mauritshuis, the other held by Dexia Bank in Antwerp
(cat. nos. 2 0 and 21).
What makes the Fruit Garland with Nature Adorned by
the Graces interesting is the evidence that initially the artist
planned for an oval shape within the garland. When the
painting is viewed at an angle, three incised lines in the
shape of an oval can be seen in the center of the painting.
This pattern of three parallel lines corresponds to the oval
shape commonly seen in BrueghePs collaborative garland
paintings. Typically, this oval shape is accented by a painted
border, or an imitation frame, as in the Munich Madonna
in a Flower Garland. The size of the oval created by the

147 D e t a i l f r o m Fruit

Garland

with Nature

Adorned

by the Graces

83)

incised lines found on the Fruit Garland relates it most

closely to the oval in the Brueghel/Van Balen painting.
Rubens appears to have been the first artist to paint on
the panel for the Fruit Garland. H e used a rather painterly,
opaque technique as opposed to allowing the imprimatura
layer to show through in the shadow areas. There are no
brown painted contour lines for the figures nor any reserves.
Infrared reflectography reveals that the dark passages that
surround the figures come up just to their edges, indicating
that the garland was painted after they were finished.
Another indication of the order of painting can be found
in the lower register, where the cabbage is painted around
the satyr's fingers (fig. 147). The tiger and the wolf in the
foreground appear to have been painted by Rubens.
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247

It is interesting that when Brueghel painted his garlands,

he painted the vegetables or flowers directly over the impri
matura. Sometimes the imprimatura is allowed to show
through, such as in bunches of wheat. This approach is made
very clear in the infrared reflectograms of the paintings,
where the passages of dark, opaque paint that surround the
garlands mask the underlying details, whereas the area of
the garland appears transparent, indicating a reserved area of
imprimatura over which the garland was painted.

The collaboration between Brueghel and Rubens started

just before Rubens went to Rome and resumed upon
Rubens's return to Antwerp. The collaboration continued
until Brueghel's death, after which, his son, Jan Brueghel
the Younger, assumed control of the studio and continued
to collaborate with Rubens and his assistants. These later
works imitate the style and repeat many of the still-life
elements and compositional designs initially developed by
Jan Brueghel the Elder and Rubens. That numerous versions
of these collaborative works still appear frequently on the
art market testifies to their enduring appeal.

Conclusion

The collaboration between Brueghel and Rubens was distin

guished not only by the prestige of these two court painters
but also by their distinctly individual styles. The two masters
were good friends, and it is clear from the technical examina
tion of their works that they had an intimate working rela
tionship. The collaborative works were painted when both
artists were living in the city of Antwerp, making it entirely
plausible that they could walk to one another's studios.
However, given the evidence of traveling frames, and the
likelihood that artists would prefer to work within their own
studios, it may be more likely that the paintings were trans
ported back and forth.
The fact that there is very little overlap of the artists'
paint films in these works, and very few pentimenti, indicates
that the artists must have begun with a joint understanding
of the compositional plan. Technical examinations make clear
that the placement of the figures in the compositions was
established before any painting began.
N o known preparatory drawings or painted sketches
have been identified for the collaborative works. We do
know, however, that both artists were keenly adept at start
ing the painting process directly on their chosen support
without a detailed underdrawing, beyond the occasional use
of a few, loose lines. Often they began painting after having
made sketches of the subject matter elsewhere, and they
most certainly relied on studio models for many of the
repeated motifs.
What little sketchy underdrawing has been found on the
works themselves appears to have been done by Brueghel.
This, as well as the fact that the few inscriptions on the sur
faces of the pictures are also in Brueghel's hand, suggests
that many of the collaborative works originated in his studio.

??? ???????? ??? ?????? ?? ????

N O T E S

1. K l a u s E r t z , " S o m e T h o u g h t s o n t h e P a i n t i n g s o f J a n B r u e g h e l t h e
E l d e r , " i n L o n d o n 1979, p . n .
2. R e s o u r c e s t h a t d o e xist i n c l u d e t h e p u b l i s h e d r e c o r d b o o k s o f J a n
B r u e g h e l the Y o u n g e r , w h o operated a large s t u d i o , a n d Jan B r u e g h e l
the E l d e r ' s correspondence w i t h C a r d i n a l B o r r o m e o , specifically
h i s letters o f F e b r u a r y 11, 1622, A p r i l 1, 1622, a n d J u l y 8, 1622: C r i v e l l i
1868, p p . 223, 2 8 7 - 8 8 , 2 9 6 - 9 7 . F o r o n e p a i n t i n g , C a r d i n a l B o r r o m e o
c o m m i s s i o n e d B r u e g h e l t o h a v e a n o t h e r artist c o n t r i b u t e a l a n d s c a p e
(see also cat. n o . 19).
3. I n a letter o f A p r i l 28, 1618, t o t h e d i s c e r n i n g c o l l e c t o r S i r D u d l e y
C a r l e t o n , R u b e n s was o b l i g e d to indicate the level o f his i n v o l v e m e n t .
I n a l i s t o f p a i n t i n g s t h a t are f o r sale, h e specifies t h o s e t h a t are
" d o n e entirely by m y h a n d " ; " . . . d o n e b y the h a n d o f a master skillful
i n t h a t d e p a r t m e n t " ; " . . . b u t t h i s o n e n o t b e i n g f i n i s h e d , w o u l d be
e n t i r e l y r e t o u c h e d b y m y o w n h a n d , a n d b y t h i s m e a n s w o u l d pass as
o r i g i n a l " ; "done b y one o f m y pupils, but the w h o l e retouched by
m y h a n d " ( t r a n s l a t e d f r o m t h e I t a l i a n ) : M a g u r n 1955, p p . 6 0 - 6 1 .
I n a l e t t e r t o W i l l i a m T r u m b e l l , d a t e d S e p t e m b e r 13, 1621, R u b e n s
states, " S i r : I a m q u i t e w i l l i n g t h a t t h e p i c t u r e s d o n e f o r m y L o r d
A m b a s s a d o r C a r l e t o n be r e t u r n e d t o m e a n d t h a t I p a i n t a n o t h e r
H u n t less t e r r i b l e t h a n t h a t o f the l i o n s , w i t h a rebate o n t h e p r i c e , as
is r e a s o n a b l e , f o r t h e a m o u n t a l r e a d y p a i d ; a n d a l l t o b e d o n e b y
m y o w n h a n d , w i t h o u t a s i n g l e a d m i x t u r e o f a n y o n e else's w o r k . T h i s
I w i l l m a i n t a i n o n m y w o r d as a g e n t l e m a n . " ( t r a n s l a t e d f r o m the
F r e n c h ) : M a g u r n 1955, p . 77.
4 . D a n i e l S e g h e r s is d o c u m e n t e d as t h e p u p i l o f J a n B r u e g h e l i n 1611. See
R o m b o u t s a n d v a n L e r i u s 1 8 6 4 - 7 6 , p . 4775. I n a letter t o t h e artist J a c o b d e B i e , d a t e d M a y 11, 1611, R u b e n s m a k e s
i t v e r y clear t h a t h e receives m a n y requests f r o m artists t o w o r k i n
his s t u d i o . " I c a n t e l l y o u t r u l y , w i t h o u t e x a g g e r a t i o n , t h a t I h a v e h a v e
[had] t o refuse o v e r o n e h u n d r e d , e v e n s o m e o f m y o w n r e l a t i v e s
o r m y w i f e ' s , a n d n o t w i t h o u t c a u s i n g great d i s p l e a s u r e a m o n g m a n y
o f m y best f r i e n d s . " ( t r a n s l a t e d f r o m t h e D u t c h ) : M a g u r n 1955, p . 55.

6. W e k n o w t h a t p a i n t i n g s d i d t r a v e l g r e a t distances b e t w e e n artists w h o
w e r e w o r k i n g i n c o l l a b o r a t i o n . O n e o f B r u e g h e l ' s earliest c o l l a b o r a t o r s

1958. W a d u m (1993, n . 134) e x p a n d s o n t h i s treatise: "de M a y e r n e i n

fact says, t h a t the g r o u n d i n g o f w o o d d o e s n o t have t o be d o n e w i t h

w a s H a n s R o t t e n h a m m e r , w i t h w h o m he w o r k e d w h e n l i v i n g i n Italy.

chalk and glue-water but o n l y w i t h a weak glue and then a strong o i l

" J a n p a i n t e d the l a n d s c a p e i n A n t w e r p , H a n s R o t t e n h a m m e r

g r o u n d o n t o p . H o w e v e r , earlier i n h i s m a n u s c r i p t the c o n t r a r y is

added

the p u t t i i n M i l a n ; the s m a l l p a n e l w a s t h e n sent b a c k t o A n t w e r p so

s t a t e d . H e r e he first advises t o a p p l y a g r o u n d o f c h a l k w i t h g l u e ,

t h a t J a n c o u l d a d d the

u s i n g 1/4 g l u e i n t w o p o t s o f water. ' W h e n i t a l l is d i l u t e d a d d e n o u g h

flowers.":

E r t z ( n o t e i a b o v e ) , p . 2 4 . See also

c h a l k t o g i v e a g o o d c o n s i s t e n c y b e f o r e a p p l y i n g it s m o o t h l y a n d

cat. n o s . 14 a n d 15.

e v e n l y w i t h a k n i f e . A f t e r t h i s a p p l y ceruse a n d u m b e r g r o u n d e d i n o i l .
7. T h e panels f o u n d t o have n o t c h e s d e s i g n e d t o a c c o m m o d a t e t r a v e l i n g
frames i n c l u d e the p a i n t i n g s f r o m the G e t t y M u s e u m (cat. n o . 2), the
M a u r i t s h u i s (cat. n o . 4 ) , M u n i c h (fig. 1), a n d m o s t l i k e l y G l a s g o w

ditions and not under a microscope).

of Infanta

of priming

[Imprimer]

before

painting).

F u r t h e r o n i n h i s m a n u a l , he tells us first t o p r i m e the p a n e l w i t h

c a l f o r g o a t s k i n g l u e m i x e d w i t h c h a l k . W h e n it is d r y o n e s h o u l d

8. O n l y t w o o f the c o l l a b o r a t i v e w o r k s , the Portrait

a n d the Portrait

de G r a a f 1958, p . 138, n o 4 : The manner to prepare wood on which one

wants to paint and the preparation

(fig. 83) (the last was v i e w e d i n the g a l l e r y u n d e r n o r m a l v i e w i n g c o n

Austria

L e t i t dry.' ( M S . S l o a n e 2052, p . 9 9 ; B e r g e r 1901, p. 277, n o 214; V a n

Isabella

of Archduke

Clara

Eugenia

Albert

of

(cat. n o s .

scrape a n d p l a n e i t w i t h the k n i f e , a n d t h e n finally g i v e i t a t h i n

layer c o n s i s t i n g o f l e a d w h i t e a n d u m b e r . H e a d d s t h a t terre d'ombre

9a a n d 9 b ) are p a i n t e d o n canvas. B r u e g h e l ' s c o l l a b o r a t i o n s w i t h o t h e r

s p o i l s the c o l o u r s so o n e s h o u l d use the B r a u n r o t [?] y e l l o w o r r e d

artists w e r e m o s t o f t e n p a i n t e d o n p a n e l o r c o p p e r

o c h r e , l e a d w h i t e a n d c a r b o n b l a c k ( M S . S l o a n e 2052, p . 9 0 V ;

supports.

B e r g e r 1 8 9 7 - 1 9 0 9 , p . 261, n o . 194c; V a n de G r a a f 1958, p . 135, n o . 2:

9. K i r b y 1999 a n d W a d u m 1998a. See also K l e i n 1998 a n d M a r e t t e 1961.
10. W a d u m 1998a.

Imprimeure

sur

Bois)T

21. A p r i m i n g k n i f e , m e a s u r i n g a b o u t t h i r t y c e n t i m e t e r s (12 i n c h e s ) , is

11. P u b l i s h e d details o f p a n e l c o n s t r u c t i o n i n R u b e n s ' s o e u v r e i n c l u d e :

P o l l - F r o m m e l , R e n g e r , a n d S c h m i d t 1993; G o e t g h e b e u r 1 9 9 0 ; B r o w n
1996; a n d M a d r i d 1998.

r e p r o d u c e d i n D e M a y e r n e ' s treatise ( V a n de G r a a f 1958, p . 138, n o . 6)

and i n V a n H o u t 2 0 0 0 , pp. 279-88.
22. T h i s t e r m was n o t u s e d i n s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y A n t w e r p b u t is i n

12. T h e i n t e r n a l d o w e l s o f t h i s p a i n t i n g are n o w v i s i b l e s i n c e a past

r e s t o r a t i o n t h i n n e d the p a n e l t o h a l f the o r i g i n a l t h i c k n e s s a n d t h e n
a d d e d w o o d e n battens for support.

c o m m o n usage t o d a y .
23. V a n M a n d e r d e s c r i b e s the p r a c t i c e o f J a n d e n H o l l a n d e r (ca. 1 5 0 0 ca. 1542) t h u s , " H e also h a d the h a b i t o f p a i n t i n g i n a z i g - z a g g i n g
m o v e m e n t a n d a l l o w i n g the p r e p a r a t i o n o n the panels o r canvases p l a y

13. W a d u m 1993.

a p a r t w h i c h Brueghel very idiosyncratically imitated." (Veel had hy

14. V a n D a m m e 1 9 9 0 .

o o c k de m a n i e r v a n a l s w a d d e r e n d e o p de p e n n e e l e n oft d o e c k e n de
g r o n d e n m e d e te l a t e n s p e l e n , het w e l c h B r u e g h e l seer e x g h c n t l y c k n a c

15. V a n D a m m e 1990 a n d W a d u m 1993.

v o l g h d e ) : V a n M a n d e r / M i e d e m a 1 9 9 4 - 9 9 , v o l . 1, p . 118; v o l . 3, p . 34.
16. T h e v e r s o o f the f o l l o w i n g p a n e l s have b e e n e x a m i n e d : The
from War: Mars Disarmed
Man;

by Venus; The Garden

Flora and Zephyr; Diana

Observed by Satyrs; Madonna

Flowers; Madonna
Garland

at the Hunt;

Diana's

Sleeping

Nymphs

and Child in a Garland

of Fruit

and

in a Flower Garland;

of Flowers; a n d Fruit

Return

of Eden with the Fall of

Garland

Madonna
with Nature

has b e e n i d e n t i f i e d as b e i n g i n an " a q u e o u s m e d i u m " ; see C o r e m a n s

a n d T h i s s e n 1962. N o details o f the analysis are g i v e n i n t h i s t e c h n i c a l

and Child in a
Adorned

2 4 . I n The Descent from the Cross, ca. 1611-15, the g r a y - c o l o r e d i m p r i m a t u r a

examination and conservation and restoration

report.

by the Graces
In An Autumn

(cat. n o s . 2, 4 , 6, 10, n , a n d 12; fig . n o s . 1, 6 9 , a n d 83).

Landscape

with a View of Het Steen ( L o n d o n , N a t i o n a l

G a l l e r y , i n v . 6 6 ) , the b r o w n - c o l o r e d i m p r i m a t u r a has b e e n i d e n t i f i e d
17. F o r e x a m p l e , the L o u v r e Madonna

and Child in a Garland

of Flowers

as b e i n g b o u n d i n l i n s e e d o i l a n d p i n e r e s i n , a n d a s a m p l e o f p a i n t

(fig. 6 9 ) was t r a n s f e r r e d f r o m p a n e l t o canvas. T h i s p r o c e s s i n v o l v e s

f r o m a b r o w n tree b r a n c h a n d a s a m p l e o f p a l e g r e e n grass as b e i n g

r e m o v i n g a l l traces o f the p a n e l s u p p o r t a n d a d h e r i n g a canvas b a c k i n g

b o u n d i n l i n s e e d o i l a n d p i n e r e s i n ; see B r o w n , R e e v e , a n d W y l d

t o the g r o u n d layer o f the p a i n t i n g .

1982, p . 28.

18. A later r e s t o r a t i o n a d d e d r e p a i n t s t o these u n p a i n t e d s t r i p s o n The

Return from War: Mars Disarmed

by Venus, i n o r d e r t o c o n t i n u e the

i m a g e t o the e d g e o f the p a n e l .

A n i m p r i m a t u r a o n a s k e t c h , Thetis Dipping

Achilles

in the Styx, has

b e e n i d e n t i f i e d as b e i n g an e m u l s i o n o f e g g w h i t e a n d o i l ; see
Lammertse and Vergara 2003.

19. M . W i t l o x , u n p u b l i s h e d P h . D . research ( U n i v e r s i t y o f A m s t e r d a m ,

25. See W a d u m 2 0 0 2 .

2005).
26. G e t t y C o n s e r v a t i o n I n s t i t u t e r e p o r t s o n The Return from War:
2 0 . A c o n t e m p o r a r y s o u r c e f o r i n f o r m a t i o n o n g r o u n d layers is
T h . T . D e M a y e r n e , Pictoria,

Sculptoria

& quae sub alternarum

X-ray

f l u o r e s c e n c e analysis c a r r i e d o u t b y S a t o k o T a n i m o t o a n d D a v i d S c o t t
atrium,

( M u s e u m Research L a b o r a t o r y R e p o r t #2O67-P-OI, N o v e m b e r 2001);

1620 ( M S . S l o a n e 2052, B r i t i s h M u s e u m ) . D e M a y e r n e ' s treatise has

cross s e c t i o n a n d p o l a r i z e d l i g h t m i c r o s c o p y c a r r i e d o u t b y A n n a

b e e n p u b l i s h e d i n at least t w o v e r s i o n s : B e r g e r 1901 a n d V a n de G r a a f

Schoenemann; Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy carried out by

B R U E G H E L

A N D

RUBENS

AT

WORK

249

A . S c h o e n e m a n n w i t h t h e assistance o f H e r a n t K h a n j i a n ; E S E M - E D S

q u a l i t a i n d e t t o q u a d r o . " (letter d a t e d J a n u a r y 27, 1 6 0 6 ) : C r i v e l l i 1868,

analysis carried o u t b y D a v i d C a r s o n ( C o n s e r v a t i o n F i l e R e p o r t ,

p. 62.

M a r c h 2004).

" . . . u n a M a s s a de v a r i o f i o r i g l i q u a l i r e u c e r a n i m o l t o b e l l o : t a n t a

27. A f e w references, a m o n g m a n y , i n t h i s r e g a r d i n c l u d e : B o m f o r d 2 0 0 2 ;
L a m m e r t s e a n d V e r g a r a 2 0 0 3 , p . 6 9 ; a n d G i f f o r d 1999, p . 181.

i n q u e s t a p a r t o a l c u n i i n c o n i t a et n o n p e i u u i s t o : p e r q u e l l a i o s o n
stata a B r u s s e l l a p e r r i t r a r e a l c u n i f i o r i d e l n a t u r a l , c h e n o n s i t r o v a

28. F o r a m o r e d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n o f i n f r a r e d r e f l e c t o g r a p h y u s e d t o

i n A n u e r s a . " (letter d a t e d A p r i l 14, 1 6 0 6 ) : C r i v e l l i 1868, p . 63.

i m a g e u n d e r d r a w i n g s see B o m f o r d 2 0 0 2 , p p . 2 6 - 3 7 .

" G l i f i o r i b e s o i g n i fare alle p r i m a , sensa d e s s e i g n i o b o i t s s a t u r o : t u t t i

2 9 . T h e u n d e r d r a w i n g f o r t h e f o l l o w i n g p a i n t i n g s was e x a m i n e d : The
Battle

of the Amazons,

The Garden

The Return

from War: Mars Disarmed

of Eden with the Fall of Man;

fiori

by Venus;

The Vision of Saint Hubert;

the

???? ?????????? ???? ??? ???? ?????? ??????? ????? ?? ??? ????? ???????
Sleeping Nymphs Observed by Satyrs; Madonna

p e r l a n a t u r a l l e z a c o m e a n c o d e l l e b e l l e z z a e r a r i t a de v a r i o f i o r i

and Child in a Garland

of

v e n g e n o i n q u a t r a m e s i , et sense i n u e n c i o n i b e s o i g n i g i u n g e r e

s e i m e c o n g r a n d i s c r e t c i o n . R e c e u t o s u a l e t r a fece t a i g l i a r e u n r a m a ,
p a r e t c i a t o u n a n o fa, et i l m e d e s m a g i o r n o c o m m i c o : p e r i l c a l d o
g l i f i o r i n a s c e n o f o i r e i l s t a g i o n o , p e r tale n o n se p o p e r d e r i l t e m p o d
A p r i l l i . " (letter d a t e d A p r i l 22, 1611): C r i v e l l i 1868, p . 168.

????? ??? ???????? ??????? ?? ? ?????? ???????? ??? ????? ???????

with Nature

Adorned

by the Graces (cat. n o s . 1, 2, 4 , 7, 8, 10, n , a n d 12;

38. I n Still Life with Flowers ( C a m b r i d g e , F i t z w i l l i a m M u s e u m ) , w h i c h is

e x e c u t e d i n o i l o n p a n e l , t h e r e is a t h i n , w h i t e g r o u n d l a y e r a n d a y e l

fig. n o s . 1, 54-57, a n d 83).

l o w , o c h e r - c o l o r e d i m p r i m a t u r a . B r u e g h e l is d e s c r i b e d as " w o r k i n g

30. W a d u m 2 0 0 2 .

alia p r i m a w i t h use o f e n d o f b r u s h t o i n s c r i b e p a t t e r n s i n f l o w e r s . " ;

31. T h e s e d o t s c o u l d be m i s i n t e r p r e t e d as h a v i n g b e e n t h e r e s u l t o f p o u n c
i n g a technique o f transferring a d r a w i n g f r o m a piece o f paper to

r e f l e c t o g r a p h y s h o w e d v a r y i n g states o f c o m p l e t i o n i n the u n d e r d r a w

t h e p a i n t i n g b y m e a n s o f d u s t i n g p o u n c e (a fine p o w d e r o f c h a r c o a l

i n g o f the flowers.

o r s i m i l a r dark substance) t h r o u g h holes p r i c k e d a l o n g the under

39. W i t l o x 2 0 0 1 . See also V a n de G r a a f 1958, n o s . 124, 130, 136, 137, 147,

d r a w i n g l i n e s . A s i m i l a r p h e n o m e n o n c a n be s e e n i n t h e e x t r e m e

151, 154, a n d 162, w h e r e t h e r e are references t o a m b e r , sandarac, m a s t i c ,

i n B r u e g h e l ' s A Road with a Ford in a Wood, o f 1608 ( N e w Y o r k ,

M e t r o p o l i t a n M u s e u m o f A r t , i n v . 2001.216.1); see B r o o s a n d W a d u m
1993, p p . 1 3 - 1 6 .

a n d d r i e r s ( m e t a l l i c ) ; s p i r i t v a r n i s h e s ; " v e r n i s delicats," w h i c h e x c l u d e
d r y i n g o i l s a n d are t h e r e f o r e l i g h t e r a n d m o r e b r i t t l e ; resins d i s s o l v e d
i n v o l a t i l e essential o i l s , e.g., sandarac i n t u r p e n t i n e , m a s t i c i n o i l o f
s p i k e , vernis dHtalia i n t u r p e n t i n e , a n d r e s i n a n d sandarac.

32. See L e v y - v a n H a l m 1998 a n d K i r b y 1999, p . 35.

33. K i r b y 1 9 9 9 , p . 38. A r e d - b r o w n e a r t h p i g m e n t u s e d b y R u b e n s t o p a i n t

4 0 . See P l e s t e r s 1983, p . 4 1 . " R u b e n s a v o i d e d p a i n t i n g i n s u c h a w a y t h a t

o u t l i n e s f o r f o r m s o n h i s A c h i l l e s series sketches has b e e n i d e n t i f i e d as

the c o l o r sank i n . T h e l u m i n o u s c l a r i t y o f h i s w o r k w a s p r o o f o f t h e

h e m a t i t e ; see L a m m e r t s e a n d V e r g a r a 2 0 0 3 , p . 1 0 0 .

excellence o f his technique. H e p a i n t e d w i t h resin varnish a n d thick

34. T h e b r o w n i m p r i m a t u r a i n An Autumn

Landscape

with a View

e n e d o i l a n d w i t h V e n i c e t u r p e n t i n e , so t h a t h i s c o l o r s h a d so m u c h

ofHet

brilliance and b i n d i n g m e d i u m w i t h i n themselves that, like V a n Eyck's

Steen ( L o n d o n , N a t i o n a l G a l l e r y , i n v . 6 6 ) w a s i d e n t i f i e d b y R a y m o n d

p i c t u r e s , t h e y h a d a g l o s s w i t h o u t n e e d i n g t o be v a r n i s h e d . " : D o e r n e r

W h i t e as c o n t a i n i n g l i n s e e d o i l a n d p i n e r e s i n ( N a t i o n a l G a l l e r y files,

1962, p . 186.

2 0 0 2 ) b y gas c h r o m a t o g r a p h y - m a s s s p e c t r o m e t r y a n d F o u r i e r trans
f o r m i n f r a r e d r e f l e c t o g r a p h y . T h e b r o w n tree b r a n c h a n d p a l e g r e e n

41. P r e v i o u s t o 1598 R u b e n s a p p r e n t i c e d i n A n t w e r p t o T o b i a s V e r h a e c h t

grass also s h o w l i n s e e d o i l a n d p i n e r e s i n .

(1561-1631) a n d t h e h i s t o r y p a i n t e r s A d a m v a n N o o r t (1562-1641)

H e a t - b o d i e d l i n s e e d o i l a n d p i n e r e s i n h a v e b e e n i d e n t i f i e d i n Family
Jan Brueghel

of

the Elder ( f r o n t i s p i e c e ) b y R a y m o n d W h i t e ( C o u r t a u l d

O i l a n d r e s i n also o c c u r i n t h e p a i n t layers o f Samson and

Delilah

(fig. 23); see P l e s t e r s 1983.

g r o u n d q u i c k l y w o r k i n g w i t h t u r p e n t i n e , w h i c h w a s b e t t e r a n d less
fierce t h a n o i l o f s p i k e l a v e n d e r ( t h i s w o u l d be t h e p r e l i m i n a r y g r i n d
i n g , b e f o r e g r i n d i n g w i t h t h e o i l m e d i u m ) . H e also r e c o m m e n d e d
d i p p i n g the b r u s h i n t u r p e n t i n e o c c a s i o n a l l y before b l e n d i n g the
c o l o u r s o n t h e p a l e t t e so t h a t t h e p a i n t w a s m o r e e a s i l y w o r k e d a n d
t h e c o l o u r s d i d n o t ' d i e ' o r s i n k . " : K i r b y 1999, p . 15.

37. " . . . m a n o n a v e n d o a n c o r a p o t u t o a d e m p i r e l a m i a b u o n a v o l u n t a p e r
f i n i r o l ' o p e r a g i a c o m i n c i a t a , fra t a n t o n a s c e n o i t e l l i f i o r i che s e r a n o i n

RUBENS

R u b e n s ' s p o r t r a i t s are s e p a r a t e d f r o m the s u r r o u n d i n g l a n d s c a p e b y

B r u e g h e l ( o r B r u e g h e l ' s s t u d i o ) . T h i s m a y p e r h a p s be a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e

clear d i v i s i o n o f l a b o r .
4 3 . A l t h o u g h t h e r e is s o m e c o n s e n s u s a m o n g s c h o l a r s a b o u t t h e p r e s e n c e
o f o v e r p a i n t e d fabrics o n s o m e o f t h e figures i n t h e p a i n t i n g , n o
t e c h n i c a l analysis has b e e n c a r r i e d o u t . See Jaffe i n L o n d o n 2 0 0 5 - 0 6 ,
P- 4 4 4 4 . T h e s o m e w h a t stiff e x e c u t i o n o f t h e u n d e r d r a w i n g has p r o m p t e d s o m e
s c h o l a r s t o a t t r i b u t e i t t o O t t o v a n V e e n . See cat. n o . 1.

36. E r t z ( n o t e 1 a b o v e ) , p . 8.

A N D

4 2 . A s i m i l a r clear d i v i s i o n o f l a b o r c a n be o b s e r v e d i n t h e p o r t r a i t s o f

fact t h a t t h e e x e c u t i o n o f a p o r t r a i t c o m m i s s i o n a l l o w e d f o r a v e r y

35. " R u b e n s , f o r e x a m p l e , t o l d de M a y e r n e t h a t p i g m e n t s s h o u l d be

B R U E G H E L

a n d O t t o v a n V e e n (1556-1629); see B o s t o n - T o l e d o 1 9 9 3 - 9 4 , p . 2 0 .

A l b e r t a n d I s a b e l l a o f c a . 1 6 1 8 - 2 0 (cat. n o s . 9 a a n d 9 b ) , w h e r e

I n s t i t u t e o f A r t c o n s e r v a t i o n file).

250

see M u r r a y a n d G r o e n 1994, p p . 7 - 2 0 . A n e x a m i n a t i o n u s i n g i n f r a r e d

AT

W O R K

45. A s i m i l a r use o f g i l t details is f o u n d i n O t t o v a n V e e n ' s Portrait

Alessandro

Farnese (1586; L o s A n g e l e s C o u n t y M u s e u m o f A r t ,

inv. M . 2003.69).

of

4-6. T h e analysis o f The Return from War was c a r r i e d o u t u s i n g gas

chromatography-mass

spectrometry by Joy M a z u r e k and M i c h a e l

Schilling (Getty Conservation Institute Report, Paintings

C o n s e r v a t i o n D e p a r t m e n t files, F e b r u a r y 2 0 0 2 ) .
47. X - r a y f l u o r e s c e n c e analysis was c a r r i e d o u t b y S a t o k o T a n i m o t o a n d
D a v i d S c o t t at the G e t t y C o n s e r v a t i o n I n s t i t u t e ( M u s e u m R e s e a r c h
L a b o r a t o r y R e p o r t #2O67-P-OI, N o v e m b e r 2001).
3

4 8 . T h e s i n g l e p l a n k is b e t w e e n 10 a n d 11 m m ( /8 a n d V2 i n . ) t h i c k a n d
???????? ???? ? ????? ?? ?????? ? ?? ????? ?????? ?????????????
l o g i c a l analysis o f the p a n e l b y D r . Peter K l e i n o f the U n i v e r s i t a t
H a m b u r g i n d i c a t e s a p o s s i b l e e x e c u t i o n date r a n g i n g f r o m as e a r l y as
1612 t o 1622 o r later. ( M a u r i t s h u i s files, r e p o r t d a t e d A p r i l 2 9 , 2 0 0 5 ) .

53. T h e l i o n s a p p e a r i n a l a r g e r scale i n R u b e n s ' s Daniel

Den (ca. 1613/15, o i l o n canvas, 224.3

in the

Lions'

330.4 c m [88 V4 x 130 i n . ] ;

W a s h i n g t o n , D . C , N a t i o n a l G a l l e r y o f A r t , i n v . 1965.13.1).
54. T h i s t e c h n i q u e is e x t e n s i v e l y d e s c r i b e d i n W a d u m 1987 a n d G i f T o r d
I99955. T h e w o o d e n s u p p o r t is c o m p o s e d o f six p l a n k s o f w o o d , w h i c h h a v e
b e e n j o i n e d h o r i z o n t a l l y . A t y p i c a l l i g h t g r a y i m p r i m a t u r a was a p p l i e d
a n d c a n be easily seen i n m a n y areas t h r o u g h o u t the c o m p o s i t i o n .
56. H e l d (1982, p p . 25-31) argues t h a t R u b e n s is the i n v e n t o r o f the c o m
p o s i t i o n f o r t h i s p a i n t i n g . L i e d t k e (1984, pp- 1 9 4 - 9 8 ) agrees w i t h h i m .
57. See H e l d 1982.
58. See W a d u m 1988; W a d u m 1993; W a d u m 1998a; W a d u m 1998b; a n d

4 9 . W a d u m 1993, p p . 9 6 - 1 0 0 .
50. T h e o r i g i n a l i n f r a r e d e x a m i n a t i o n o f the p a i n t i n g was c a r r i e d o u t i n
October 2000 by Margreet Wolters (Rijksbureau voor Kunsthis-

V a n D a m m e 1990, pp. 193-236.

59. T h e r e m a y be f u r t h e r u n d e r d r a w i n g f o r t h i s p a i n t i n g e x e c u t e d i n

t o r i s c h e D o c u m e n t a t i e ) a n d J o r g e n W a d u m , u s i n g infrared e q u i p m e n t

a m a t e r i a l t h a t c a n n o t be d e t e c t e d w i t h the eye n o r w i t h i n f r a r e d

b e l o n g i n g t o the R i j k s b u r e a u ( H a m a m a t s u c 2 4 0 0 w i t h a N 2 6 0 6 - 0 6

reflectography.

Select V i s i c o n , a N i k o n M a c r o - N i k k o r i:2.8/55-mm lens, K o d a k

W r a t t e n 8 7 c filter, w i t h a L u c i u s a n d B a e r V M 1710 m o n i t o r

60. B o s t o n - T o l e d o 1993-94, pp. 36-37.

61. T h e a u t h o r s o f t h i s essay are i n d e b t e d t o J a n S c h m i d t f o r the t e c h n i c a l

[625 l i n e s ] ) .
T h e i m a g e s p u b l i s h e d i n t h i s essay w e r e d o c u m e n t e d b y S a b r i n a
M e l o n i o f the M a u r i t h u i s i n M a r c h 2 0 0 5 , u s i n g an A r t i s t c a m e r a ( A r t
I n n o v a t i o n , H e n g e l o ) m o u n t e d w i t h a C C D p r o g r e s s i v e scan i m a g e
s e n s o r (1360 x 1036 p i x e l s ) a n d a S c h n e i d e r K r e u z n a c h X e n o p l a n

findings

o n the M u n i c h p i c t u r e : J a n S c h m i d t , C o n f e r e n c e M a n u s c r i p t ,

C o l l o q u i u m B r a u n s c h w e i g , F e b r u a r y 10, 2 0 0 4 .
62. T h e d o w e l s are m a d e v i s i b l e i n the X - r a d i o g r a p h o f the panels ( i n f o r
m a t i o n f r o m J. S c h m i d t , A l t e P i n a k o t h e k , M u n i c h ) .

1.4/23 m m C C T V - I e n s i n N12 w i t h a 1 0 0 0 n m l o n g - w a v e pass filter. T h e

i m a g e s w e r e c a p t u r e d w i t h A r t i s t S o f t w a r e (release 1.2) a n d s t i t c h e d
t o g e t h e r w i t h a c o m b i n a t i o n o f A d o b e P h o t o s h o p CS2 a n d P a n a V u e

63. I n f o r m a t i o n f r o m J. S c h m i d t .
64- I n f o r m a t i o n f r o m J. S c h m i d t .

ImageAssembler.
65. T h e i n c i s e d l i n e s o f the G l a s g o w p a i n t i n g m e a s u r e : i n n e r o v a l :
51. I n Nymphs Filling

the Cornucopia,

ca. 1615 (cat. n o . 13), a c o m p a r a b l e

4 0 x 30.2 c m (i5 /4 x 12 i n . ) ; m i d d l e o v a l : 41.2 x 31.4 c m (16V4 x 12V8

3

i m p r i m a t u r a a n d u n d e r d r a w i n g have b e e n d e t e c t e d . H e r e the l a n d

i n . ) ; a n d o u t e r o v a l : 41.5 x 31.9 c m ( i 6 / 8 x 12V2 i n . ) ; t h e r e arc t w o

scape is b y B r u e g h e l a n d the figures are b y o n e o f R u b e n s ' s s t u d i o

p i n h o l e s w i t h i n the o v a l area, l y i n g o n e a b o v e the o t h e r a l o n g a c e n

assistants; see W a d u m 1993, p p . 9 7 - 1 0 0 ; a n d B r o o s a n d W a d u m 1993,

t r a l v e r t i c a l axis, w h i c h suggests a c o m p a s s was u s e d t o d r a w the

p p . 1 3 - 1 6 . T h e figures i n t h i s p a i n t i n g a p p e a r t o have b e e n r e t o u c h e d

shapes, w h i c h w e r e m a d e i n the g r o u n d layer ( c o r r e s p o n d e n c e

b y R u b e n s ' s o w n h a n d . T h e r e t o u c h e s w e r e d o n e after the u n d e r d r a w

R o b e r t W e n l e y , c u r a t o r o f E u r o p e a n art, a n d P o l l y S m i t h , c o n s e r v a t o r ,

from

i n g f o r the f i g u r e was c a r r i e d o u t , c o r r e c t i n g the l i n e s o f the s k e t c h .

G l a s g o w M u s e u m s , 2 0 0 5 ) . T h e o v a l s o f the M a u r i t s h u i s p a i n t i n g

T h e r e t o u c h e s a r o u n d the f i g u r e are n o w c o v e r e d b y the p a i n t o f the

m e a s u r e : i n n e r o v a l : 4 2 . 7 x 31 c m ( i 6 / 4 x 12V4 i n . ) ; a n d o u t e r o v a l :

b a c k g r o u n d scenery.

43.6 x 32 c m (17Vs x i 2 / 8 i n . ) ; t h e r e is j u s t o n e p i n h o l e i n the m i d d l e

o f the m e d a l l i o n .
C o m p a r e a l s o v 4 Road with a Ford in a Wood (1608, o i l o n c o p p e r ,
3 4 . 4 x 4 9 . 4 c m [13V2 x 191/2 i n . ] ; L o n d o n , C o l l e c t i o n o f E . a n d
S. S p e e l m a n [ o n l o a n t o the N a t i o n a l G a l l e r y o f A r t , W a s h i n g t o n ,
D . C . ] ; p a n e l m a k e r ' s s t a m p , Peeter S t a s ) : W a d u m 1998b. T h e p a i n t i n g
was e x a m i n e d a n d d o c u m e n t e d b y M . W o l t e r s ; see n o t e 50 a b o v e
for e q u i p m e n t details.
A f e w o f B r u e g h e l ' s d r a w i n g s o n p a p e r a n d i n p a r t i c u l a r the freely
d r a w n River Landscape

with a Village

(1610-15, p e n i n b r o w n ,

18.5 x 17.8 c m [ 7 V 4 x 7 i n . ] . P a r i s , M u s e e d u L o u v r e , C a b i n e t des

D e s s i n s , i n v . R . F . 00.653) have n u m e r o u s e l e m e n t s c o m p a r a b l e t o
t h e u n d e r d r a w i n g i n the M a u r i t s h u i s p i c t u r e . See also the e n t r y
b y T. G e r s z i i n E s s e n - V i e n n a 1 9 9 7 - 9 8 , p . 4 6 2 , cat. n o . 165.
52. See W a d u m 2 0 0 2 .

B R U E G H E L

A N D

RUBENS

AT

WORK

251

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BROWN 199 6
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B R U S S E L S 198 5
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B R U S S E L S 199 4
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254

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C O L O G N E 197 7
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Corbeil, Marie-Claude , et al. "The 'Leopards ' in

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C R I V E L L I 186 8
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C R U Z A D A V I L L A A M I L 187 4

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De March!, Neil, and Hans J. Van Miegroet.

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De Marchi, Neil , and Hans J. Van Miegroet.

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D I L I S 192 3

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LITERATURE

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F R E E D B E R G 1991

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E V E R S 194 2
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F I L I P C Z A K 198 7
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G I B S O N 1989
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H A M M - M A I N Z 2OO 1

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H R T I N G 198 9

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AntiqueThe Lure of Classical Sculpture 1500-1900
(New Have n an d London , 1981) .
H A V E R K A M P - B E G E M A N N 197 1

Haverkamp-Begemann, E. "Purpos e an d Style:

Oil Sketche s of Rubens, Jan Brueghel,
Rembrandt." Painterly Painting: An News
Annual 3 7 (1971), PP- 57~74 .
H E I K A M P 196 6

Heikamp, D. "La Medusa de l Caravaggi o e

l'armatura dello scia Abbs di Persia. " Paragonc
199 (1966) , pp. 62-76 .
H E I N Z 197 3

Heinz, G . "Geistliches Blumenbil d un d

dckoratives Stilleben i n de r Geschicht e de r
Kaiserlichen Gemldesammlungen. " Jahrbuch
der Kunsthistorischen Sammlungen in Wicn 6 9
(1973), PP - 1-30 .
H E L D 194 1

Held, J. S. "AchelouY Eznquct?" Art Quarterly 4

(1941), pp- 122-33 .
H E L D 195 9

Held, J. S. Rubens: Selected Drawings. 2 vols.

(London, 1959) .
HELD 196 3
Held. J. S. "Prometheus Bound. " Philadelphia
Museum o f An Bulletin 5 9 (1963), pp. 17-32 .
HELD 197 5
Held, J. S."Rubens's 'Leopards'A Milestone
in the Portraya l of Wild Animals: L a premiere
oeuvre d'envergur e d e Rubens a u Canada. "
Montreal Museum o f Fine Ans 7 , no. 3 (Winter
1975), PP - 5-14.

LITERATURE

257

H E L D 198 0

Held, J. S. The Oi l Sketches o f Peter Paul Rubens.

A Critical Catalogue. 2 vols. (Princeton , 1980) .
HELD 198 2
Held, J. S. Rubens and His Circle: Studies. Edite d
by Anne Lowenthal, Davi d Rosand, an d John
Walsh, Jr. (Princeton , 1982) .
HELD 198 3
Held, J. S. "Thoughts on Rubens ' Beginnings. "
In Papers Presented at the International Rubens
Symposium, April 14-16,1982, The John and Mabel
Ringling Museum of Art, State Art Museum of
Florida^ edite d by William H . Wilson , pp. 14-35
(Sarasota, Fla., 1983).
HELD 198 7
Held, J. S. Rubens-Studien (Leipzig, 1987 ) (1987) .
H E N D R I X 198 4

Hendrix, L. "Joris Hoefnagel an d the Tour

Elements.5" (Ph.D. diss. , Princeton, 1984) .
H E N D R I X 199 7
Hendrix, Lee, an d Thea Vignau-Wilberg. Nature
Illuminated: Flora and Fauna from the Court of
Rudolf I I (Lo s Angeles, 1997) .
HOET AN D T E R W E S T E N 1752-7 0

Hoet, G., an d P . Terwesten. Catalogus of

Naamlystvan Schilderyen, met derzelverpryzen.
3 vols. (Th e Hague, 1752-70).
HOFF 197 8
Hoff, Arne . Dutch Firearms. Edited b y Walter
Stryker (London , 1978) .
HOLLSTEIN 1949 ~

Hollstein, R W. H. Dutch and Flemish Etchings,

Engravings and Woodcuts, ca. 1450-1700
(Amsterdam, 1949-).

HONIG 2OO 5

Honig, Elizabeth. "Paradise Regained : Rubens ,

Jan Brueghel, and the Sociabilit y of Visual
Thought." Nederlands Kunsthistorisch Jaarboek 56
(in press).
V A N H O O G S T R A E T E N 167 8

Hoogstraeten, Samue l van. Inleyding to t de hooge

schoole der Schilderkonst (Rotterdam , 1678) .
H O U B R A K E N 1718-2 1

Houbraken, Arnold. De grote schouburgh der

Nederlantsche konstschilders e n schilderessen. 3 vols.
(Amsterdam, 1718-21).
VAN HOU T 199 8
Hout, N. van. "Meaning an d Development o f
the Ground-layer in Seventeenth Centur y
Painting." I n Looking through Paintings: The Study
of Painting Techniques and Materials in Support of
Art Historical Research, edited b y E. Hermens ,
pp. 204-5. Leids Kunsthistorisc h Jaarboe k n
(Baarn, 1998).
VAN HOU T 2OO O

Van Hout, N. "Rubens an d Dead Colouring :

Some Remarks on Two Unfinished Paintings "
In Vlieghe et al. 2000 (se e below), pp. 279-88 .
H B N E R 187 2

Hiibner, Julius. Verzeichniss de r Kniglichen

Gemalde-Gallerie zu Dresden (Dresden , 1872) .
H U Y G E N S / H E E S A K K E R S 198 7

Constantijn Huygens Mijnjeugd. Translate d

and with commentar y by C. L. Heesakkers
(Amsterdam, 1987).
H U Y G H E B A E R T 192 7

Huyghebaert, L . Saint Hubert, Patron des

Chasseurs (Antwerp , 1927).

HOLLSTEIN 1993 ~

I N C I S A D E L L A R O C C H E T T A 196 3

Hollstein, R W . H. Th e New Hollstein: Dutch

and Flemish Etchings, Engravings, and Woodcuts,
1450-1700. 1 5 vols, to dat e (Roosendaal , Th e
Netherlands, 1993) .

Incisa dlia Rocchetta, G . "Documenti inediti sui

quadri de l Rubens nella Chiesa Nouva."vlta dlia
Pontificia Accademia Romana di Archeologia III.
Rendiconti 3 5 (1963), pp. 161-83 .

HONIG 199 5
Honig, Elizabeth. "Th e Beholde r a s Work of
Art: A Study in the Location o f Value in
Seventeenth-Century Flemish Painting. "
Nederlands Kunsthistorisch Jaarboek 4 6 (1995) ,
pp. 253-97.

J A C K S O N 200 4
The Glory of Baroque Dresden: The State Art
Collections Dresden. Exh. cat. (Jackson, Miss.,
Mississippi Arts Pavilion, 2004).

H O N I G 199 8

Honig, Elizabeth. Painting and the Market in

Early Modern Antwerp (Ne w Haven an d London,
1998).

258

LITERATURE

J A F F 196 3
Jaff, M . "Peter Paul Rubens and the Oratoria n
Fathers." Proporzioni 4 (1963) , pp. 208-42.
J A F F 197 1
Jaff, M . "Ruben s an d Snyders : A Fruitful
Partnership." Apollo 93 (1971), pp. 184-96 .

J A F F 197 7
Jaff M . Rubens and Italy (Londo n an d Ithaca ,
N.Y., 1977) .
J A F F 198 9

Jaff, M . Rubens: catalogo complete. Translated by

Germano Mulazzani (Milan, 1989).
J O N C K H E E R E 2004-0 5

Jonckheere, K. '"When the Cabinet from He t

Loo was Sold': The Auction o f William Ill's
Collection of Paintings, 2 6 July 1713." Simiolus
(2004-05), pp . 156-215 .
J O N E S 198 8

Jones, Pamela M. "Federic o Borrome o as a

Patron o f Landscapes and Still-Lifes. Christia n
Optimism i n Italy ca. 1600? Art Bulletin 70
(1988), pp. 260-75 .
J O N E S 199 3
Jones, Pamela M. Federico Borromeo and the
Ambrosiana: Art Patronage and Reform in
Seventeenth-Century Milan (Cambridg e and
New York , 1993) .
JOST 196 3
Jost, L "Hendrick van Balen d.. Versuch einer
Chronologie der Werken aus den ersten zwe i
Jahrzehnten des siebzehnten Jahrhunderts unter
besonderer Berucksichtigung der Kabinettbilder."
Nederlands Kunsthistorisch Jaarboek 1 4 (1963) ,
pp. 83-128 .
J U S T I 188 6
Justi, Karl . "Altflandrische Bilder in Spanie n
und Portugal: i . Joachim Patinier und Quentin
Metsys." Zeitschrift fu r Bildende Kunst 2 1 (1886),
pp. 93-95 K A R C H E S K I 2OO 1

Karcheski, Walter J. "Rubens's Lost Negrol i

Helmet Painted b y Bartholomeus Breenbergh
and Others ?Apollo (Januar y 2001), pp. 28-33.
K A S S E L - F R A N K F U R T 2OO 4

Lange, Justus, e t al. Pan & Syrinx: Ei n Erotische

Jagd. Peter Paul Rubens, Jan Brueghel und ihre
Zeitgenossen. Exh. cat. (Kassel, Staatliche
Museen, an d Frankfurt, Stdelsche s
Kunstinstitut, 2004) .
KAVALER1999

Kavaler, Ethan Matt . Pieter Bruegel: Parables of

Order and Enterprise (Cambridge , 1999).
K E E R S M A E K E R S 195 7

Keersmaekers, A. "Drie rebus-blazoenen van de

Antwerpse cViolieren.'" Verslagen e n Mededelingen
van de Koninklijke Vlaamse Acadmie voor Taal- en
Letterkunde (1957) , pp. 343-50 .

K I M B A L L 195 2

Kimball, Fiske. "Rubens' Prometheus" The

Burlington Magazine 9 4 (1952) , pp. 67-70.
K I R B Y 1999
Kirby, J. "The Painter's Trade in the Seventeent h
Century: Theor y and Practice. " National Gallery
Technical Bulletin (London ) 2 0 (1999) , pp. 5-49 .
K I S L I N G 200 1

Kisling, Vernon N., Jr. , ed. Zoo and Aquarium

History: Ancient Animal Collections to Zoological
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K L E I N 199 8

Klein, P . "Some Aspects of the Utilizatio n o f

Different Woo d Specie s in Certain Europea n
Workshops." I n Painting Techniques: History,
Materials and Studio Practice. Contributions to the
IIC iTth International Congress, Dublin, 7-11
September 1998, pp. 112-1 4 (Dublin , 1998).
KOLB 1998
Kolb, A. Faber. "Varieties of Repetition: 'Trend '
versus 'Brand' in Landscape Paintings by
Joachim Patinir and His Wor k Shop" Journal
of Medieval an d Early Modern Studies 28, no. i
(Winter 1998) , pp. 167-200 .
KOLB 200 0
Kolb, A. Faber. "Cataloguing Natur e i n Art:
Jan Brueghe l th e Elder' s Paradis e Landscapes"
(Ph.D. diss. , Universit y of Southern California ,
2000).

KOSLOW 1996
Koslow, Susan . "Law an d Orde r i n Rubens's
Wolf and Fox Hunt''Art Bulletin 78 , no. 4
(Dec. 1996) , pp. 680-706.
L A U R E Y S S E N S 196 7

Laureyssens, Willy. "De samenwerkin g van

Hendrick de Clerck en Denijs va n Alsloot,"
Bulletin des Muses Royaux des Beaux-Arts de
Belgique (Bulletin Koninklijke Musea van Schone
Kunsten van Belgi) 1 6 (1967) , pp. 163-78 .
L E V Y - V A N H A L M 1 9 98

Levy-van Halm , K . "Where Di d Vermee r Buy

His Paintin g Materials? Theory an d Practice." In
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M. Jonker (Washington , D.C., an d New Haven ,
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L I E D T K E 1 9 84

Liedtke, Walter . Flemish Paintings in the

Metropolitan Museum o f Art. 2 vols. (Ne w York,
1984).
L I E D T K E 1 9 89

Liedtke, Walte r A. Royal Horse an d Rider:

Painting, Sculpture and Horsemanship, 1500-1800
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L I L L E 200 4

Rubens. Exh. cat. (Lille , Palais des Beaux-Arts,

2004).

K O L B 200 5

L I N D 194 6

Kolb, A. Faber. Jan Brueghel th e ElderThe Entry

of th e Animals into Noah}s Ark (Los Angeles,
2005).

Lind, L . R. "Th e Lati n Lif e o f Peter Paul Ruben s

by his Nephew Philip : A Translation."Art
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K O M P A N J E 200 4

Kompanje, E . J . O. "Lepus cornutus: Een haa s me t

een gewei. Ee n mythologisch wezen, een grap
van d e taxidermist of realiteit?" Straatgras
berichten uit he t natuurmuseum Rotterdam 1 6
(2004), pp . 45-47KOSLOW 1995 3

Koslow, Susan. Frans Snyders: Th e Noble Estate:

Seventeenth-century Still-life and Animal Painting
in the Southern Netherlands (Antwerp , 1995) .
KOSLOW 1995 6
Koslow, Susan . '"How looked th e Gorgon
then... ': The Scienc e and Poetics o f The Head
of Medusa b y Ruben s an d Snyders. " In Shop Talk.
Studies in Honor of Seymour S live, Presented on
His Seventy-fifth Birthday. Edited b y Cynthia P.
Schneider e t al. , pp. 147-49, 349-5 0
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L O I S E L 191 2
Loisel, G . Histoire des mnageries de l'antiquit
nos jours (Paris, 1912).
LONDON 185 0
Catalogue of Pictures by Italian, Spanish, Flemish,
Dutch, French and English Masters. Exh . cat.
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L O N D O N 1 8 67

Catalogue of Pictures by Italian, Spanish, Flemish,

Dutch, French and English Masters. Exh. cat .
(London, Britis h Institution , 1867) .
LONDON 1979
Jan Brueghel the Elder: A Loan Exhibition of
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LONDON 200 3
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LONDON 2003 3
Jaff, D. , an d A. Bradley . Rubens: The Massacre of
the Innocents. Exh. cat. (London, Apollo magazine
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LONDON 2 0 0 5 - 0 6

Jaff, David , an d Elizabet h McGrath, et al.

Rubens: A Master in the Making. Exh . cat.
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L O N D O N - R O M E 2OO 1

Brown, Beverl y Louise, ed . Th e Genius of Rome

1592-1623. Exh. cat. (London , Roya l Academy of
Arts, an d Rome , Palazz o Venezia, 2001).
LOS A N G E L E S - L O N D O N 2OO3~O 4

Kren, Thomas, an d Scot McKcndrick , with

contributions b y Maryan W. Ainsworth e t al.
Illuminating the Renaissance: The Triumph of
Flemish Manuscript Painting i n Europe. Exh . cat.
(Los Angeles, J. Paul Getty Museum , and
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L O W E N T H A L 198 6

Lowenthal, A. W.Joachim Wtcwael an d Dutch

Mannerism (Doornspijk , 1986) .
LUGT 1949
Lugt, Frits . Muse d u Louvre. Inventaire gnral
des dessins des coles du nord. cole flamand e (Paris ,
1949).
M A A S T R I C H T - B R U S S E L S 2OO1-O 2

Van den Brink , Peter, d . Brueghel Enterprises.

Exh. cat . (Maastricht , Bonnefantenmuseum, an d
Brussels, Muses Royau x des Beaux-Arts de
Belgique, 2001-02).
MADRID 1992
Daz Padrn , M., and M. Royo-Villanova .
David Teniers, Jan Brueghel y los Gabinetes de
Pinturas. Exh. cat. (Madrid , Museo Naciona l
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M A D R I D 1 9 98

Las Tres Gracias de Rubens. Exh. cat. (Madrid,

Museo Naciona l del Prado, 1998) .
M A D R I D 1999-200 0

El arte en la corte de los Archiduques Alberto de

Austria e Isabel Clara Eugenia, 1598-1633: un reino
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LITERATURE

259

M A D R I D 2OO 1 - O 2

M A R I J N I S S E N E T AL . 198 8

Scroth, Sarah , Alejandro Vergara, and Thea

Vignau-Wilberg. Rubens. Dibujos para el retrato
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Museo Naciona l del Prado, 2001-02) .

Marijnissen, Roge r H. , et al. Bruegel: Tout

l}oeuvre peint et dessin. Translated by C. Krings ,
J. Rossbach, and M. Vincent (Antwer p and Paris ,
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M A D R I D 200 4

G . M A R T I N 1 9 7O

Vergara, Alejandro. Rubens: The Adoration of th e

Magi. Exh . cat. (Madrid , Museo Naciona l del
Prado, 2004) .

Martin, Gregory . Th e Flemish School, ca. 1600ca. IODO (London , 1970) .

D E M A E Y E R 1 9 55

De Maeyer , M. Albert en Isabella e n de

Schilderkunst. Bijdrage tt de geschiedenis van de
XVTIeeeuwse schilderkunst in de Zuidelijke
Nederlanden. Verhandelingen van de Koninklijke
Vlaamse Acadmie voor Wetenschappen, Letteren en
Schone Kunsten van Eelgie'. Klass e der Schon e
Kunsten, no. 9 (Brussels, 1955).
M A G U R N 195 5

Magurn, R . Saunders , trans , an d d. The Letters

of Peter Paul Rubens (Cambridge, Mass. , 1955) .
M A N C H E S T E R 1857

Art Treasures o f the United Kingdom. Exh. cat.

(City of Manchester Art Gallery , 1857).
V A N M A N D E R 160 4

Van Mander , Karel . Wtlegghingh o p den

Metamorphosis Pub. Ouidy Nasonis, Alls streckende
tot voordering des vromen en eerlijcken borgherlijcken
wandels seer dienstich den schilders, dichters en constbeminders, oock yeghelijck wt leering by eengebracht
engheraemt (1604. Reprint, Haarlem , 1969) .

M A R T I N 197 2
Martin, Joh n Rupert . Th e Decorations for the
Pompa Introitus Ferdinandi. Corpus Rubenianu m
Ludwig Burchard, pt. 1 6 (Brussels , 1972).

Meulen, Marjo n va n der . Rubens} Copies after th e

Antique. 3 vols. Corpus Rubenianu m Ludwi g
Burchard, pt. 2 3 (London, 1994) .

M A R T I N I 1 9 75

M I R A E U S 1021-2 2

Miraeus, Aubertus. De VitaAlberti Eelgarum

Principis commentarius (Antwerp, 1621-22) .

M A U R I T S H U I S 187 4

V O N Z U R M H L E N 199 0

Stuers, Victor de . Notice historique et descriptive des

tableaux et des sculptures exposs dans le Muse Royal
de l a Haye (Th e Hague, 1874) .

Mutilen, I . von zur. "Nachtridentinische

Bildaufassungen: Cesar e Baronio und Rubens '
Gemlde fur S . Maria in Vallicella in Rom."
Mnchner Jahrbuch der bildenden Kunst 41 (1990),
pp. 23-60.

M A U R I T S H U I S 1935

Martin, W . Muse Royal d e tableaux Mauritshuis

La Haye. Catalogue raisonn des tableaux et sculptures (Th e Hague, 1935) .
M A U R I T S H U I S 199 3

MauritshuisIllustrated General Catalogue

(The Hague, 1993) M A U R I T S H U I S 2OO 4

M A N T U A - M I L A N 197 7

M C G R A T H 199 7

McGrath, Elizabeth . Rubens: Subjects fro m

History. Corpu s Rubenianu m Ludwig Burchard,
pt. 1 3 (London , 1997) .
M E G A N C K 199 8

Meganck, Tine. De kerkelijke architectuur van

Wensel Cobergher 1577/61-1634 in het licht van zijn
verblijfte Rome. Koninklijke Acadmie voor
Wetenschappen, Letteren en Schone Kunsten van
Belgi. Klasse der Schone Kunsten 60, no. 4
(1998).

M A R E T T E 196 1

M E I J E R 197 5

Marette, J. Connaissance des primitifs l'tude du bois

(Paris, 1961).

Meijer, Ber t W. "Paolo Fiammingo Reconsidered." Mededelingen va n het Nederlands

Instituut t e Rome 37 (1975), pp. 117-30 .

260 L I T E R A T U R

V A N D E R M E U L E N 199 4

Martini, A. I tr e libri delle laudi divine di Federico

Borromeo: ricerca storico-stilistica (Padua , 1975).

Buvelot, Q. , d . Royal Picture Gallery

MauritshuisA Summary Catalogue (Th e Hague Zwolle, 2004).

Mulazzani, G., et. al . Rubens aMantova.

Exh. cat. (Mantua , Palazzo Ducale, 1977) .

M E R R I A M 199 4

Martin, John Rupert . Rubens: The Antwerp

Altarpieces (Ne w York, 1969) .

V A N M A N D E R / M I E D E M A 1 9 73

Mander, Karel van. The Lives of the Illustrious

Netherlandish and German Painters; Preceded by the
lineage circumstances and place of birth, life and
works of Karel van Mander, painter and poet, and
likewise his death and burial. Edited b y Hesse l
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M E L I O N 199 1

Melion, W . Shaping th e Netherlandish Canon.

Karel van Mander's Schilderboek (Chicago , 1991) .
Merriam, Susan. "Collaboration i n Antwerp an d
the Workin g Partnership of P. P. Rubens and Ja n
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M A R T I N 196 9

Mander, Karel van. Den Grondt der edel vrij

Schilder-const. Published, translated , an d with
commentary by Hessel Miedema . 2 vols.
(Utrecht, 1973) .
VAN MANDER/MIEDEM A 1994~9 9

M E I J E R 198 3
Meijer, Ber t W. "Paolo Fiammingo tr a indigen i
e 'foresti a Venezia." Prospettiva 3 2 (1983),
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V O N Z U R M H L E N 199 6

Miihlen, I. von zur. "S. Maria in Vallicella: Zur

Geschichte des Hauptaltars. " Romisch es Jahrbuch
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V O N Z U R M H L E N 199 8

Miihlen, I . vo n zur . Bild un d Vision: Peter Paul

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VAN M U L D E R S 2OO O

Mulders, Christin e van . "Peter Pau l Rubens en

Jan Brueghel I: d e drijfveren va n hun same n werking." In Vlieghe et al. 2000 (se e below),
pp. 111-26 .
VAN M U L D E R S 2OO 3

Mulders, Christin e van. "Een analyse van het

creatief procs in het uvr e van Peter Paul
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V A N M U L D E R S 2OO 4

Mulders, Christin e van . "Die Zusammenarbei t

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VAN MULDER S 2OO4 3

M U N I C H 198 0

N E W Y O R K 200 2

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reprsentations d u Paradi s Terrestre." In
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Um Glauben und Reich, Kurfurst Maximilian I.

Wittelsbach undBayern. Exh . cat. 2 vols. Edite d
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Campbell, Thomas P . Tapestry i n th e Renaissance:

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VAN MULDER S 2OO 5

Mulders, Christin e van. "De ontwapenin g van

Mars doo r Venus, ee n schilderi j va n J. Brueghel
de Oude in samenwerking met P.P . Rubens. "
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M U L L E R 198 9

Muller, J . Rubens: The Artist as Collector

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M U N I C H 199 3

Siefert, Helge , d. Zum Ruhme de s Helden.

Historien- und Genremalerei des 17. und 18.
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M U R R A Y A N D G R O E N 199 4

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M U L L E R H O F S T E D E 1 9 57

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Millier Hofstede, Justus . "Zum Werke des Otto

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Navio, J . Lpez. "L e gran coleccin d e pinturas

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M U L L E R H O F S T E D E 196 2

N E U M A Y R 102 0

Mller Hofstede , Justus . "Nordische Meiste r

des Manierismus und Friihbaro k in der Alten
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Neumayr von Ramssla , J. W. Wilhelm. Des durchlauchtigsten Herrn. Joh. Ernst d. jng. Hertzogen
zu Sachsen, Reise in Frankreich, Engelland und
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M U L L E R H O F S T E D E 1962 8

Miiller Hofstede , Justus . "Zur Antwerpener

Friihzeit von P . P. Rubens." Mnchner Jahrbuch
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M U L L E R H O F S T E D E 196 6

Millier Hofstede, "Z u Rubens ' zweite m

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L I T E R A T U R E 20

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VON UFFENBAC H 1753~5 4

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264

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V A N D E V E L D E 1975

Van d e Velde, Carl. Frans F loris (1519/20-1570).

Leven en Werken. 2 vols. Verhandelingen va n de
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en Schone Kunsten van Belgi. Klasse der Schon e
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V E R G A R A 199 9

Vergara, Alexander [Alejandro] . Rubens and His

Spanish Patrons (Cambridge , 1999) .

V E R M E Y L E N 2OO 3

V L I E G H E 199 2

W A D U M 1 9 9O

Vermeylen, Filip . Painting for th e Market:

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Vlieghe, Hans, d. De Vlaamse schilderkunst i n

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V I E N N A 193 0
Dreijahrhunderte Flamische Kunst 1400-1700.
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V I E N N A 193 5
Die jngeren Brueghel und ih r kreis. Exh . cat.
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V I E N N A 197 7

Prohaska, Wolfgang , an d K . Schutz , et. al.

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V I E N N A 198 7
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V I E N N A 2OO O

Exotica: Portugais Entdeckungen im Spiegel

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V I E N N A 200 4
Rubens in Wien. DieMeisterwerke. Exh . cat.
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V I E N N A 2004 3
Schroder, Klau s Albrecht, an d Heinz Widauer.
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V I E N N A - E S S E N 2OO 2

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D E V I L L E R M O N T 1 9 12

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V L I E G H E 198 0

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V L I E G H E 198 7

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V L I E G H E 199 3
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V L I E G H E 200 0

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V L I E G H E AN D VA N DE R S T I G H E L E N 2OO5

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W A D U M 198 7
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W A D U M 199 3

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W A D U M 1 9 96

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W A D U M 199 8

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W A D U M 1998 6
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W A D U M 2OO I

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LITERATURE

265

W A P E N S 199 2

W E L Z E L 2OO 1

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W A R N K E 196 8

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W A S H I N G T O N , D.C . - C I N C IN N ATI 1 9 8 8 - 8 9

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W E B B E R 197 2
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W E H L E 1946
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W E I R 197 4

Weir, Barbara J. "Notes on the Origin o f the

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W E L Z E L 2OO 2

Welzel, B . "Wettstreit zwischen Kuns t un d

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W E L Z E L 2002 3

Welzel, B. "Garten a s hfische Sammlungen .

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W E L Z E L 2OO 4

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In Vortrage un d Refer ate, geh alten anlasslich des 10.
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W I N N E R 1972

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W O O L L E T T 200 1

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Werche, B. Hendrick va n Balen 1575-1632. Ei n
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Z E U N E R 196 3
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W E L Z E L 199 7

W E R N E R 2OO 4

Z O E G E V O N M A N T E U F F E L 192 3

Welzel, B. Der Hofals Kosmos sinnlicher

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W E L U 198 3

W E L Z E L 2OO O

W E T H E Y 1969-7 5

Welzel, B. "Kunstvolle Inszenierung vo n

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266

LITERATURE

ZURICH E T AL. i947~5 3

Kunstschatze au s Wien. Exh. cat. ( Zurich-ParisStockholm-Copenhagen-London-U.S. A.Oslo-Innsbruck-Vienna, 1947-53).
ZWOLLO 2000
Zwollo, An. "Jan Brueghe l a Tervureri " Uarte
nella Storia. Contributi di critica e storia deWarte
per Gianni Carlo Sciolla. Edited by Valerio
Terraroli et al., pp. 449-54 (Milan , 2000).

Index
Note: Italic page numbers indicat e illustrations . Parenthetical reference s
to Brueghe l refe r to Ja n Brueghel th e Elde r unles s otherwis e noted .

Adam and Eve (Rubens), 4 6

Adam Gives Names t o the Animals (Va n Tieghem an d D e Kempeneer) , 194
The Adoration o f the Magi (Rubens) , 23 , 56-57
Adoration o f the Mystic Lamb (Huber t an d Ja n va n Eyck) . See The Ghent
Altarpiece (Adoration of the Mystic Lamb) ( Hubert an d Ja n va n Eyck )
Aertssen, Guilliam , 81 , 241
Albert, Archduke o f Austria (Mulle r afte r Rubens) , ios, 105
Albert (archduk e of Austria), 2 , 4, 5 , $, 9, 15 , 17-19, 29 , 46-47, 56, 70,
80, 82 , 85, 88, 94, 96-98 , 100-107, 102, 104, 105, I25 I39 5 54 , 161 ,
197-98, 206
Allegory o f Air (Brueghel) , 144 , 198
Allegory o f Fire (Brueghel) , 12 , 140 , 142, 149
Allegory o f Fire (Brueghe l an d Va n Balen) , 55, 140-45, 141, 149 , 195 , 23 0
Allegory o f the Four Elements (Brueghe l an d D e Clerck) , 13 9
Allegory o f Hearing, Taste, an d Touch (afte r Brueghel) , 94-96 , 95, 105
Allegory o f Hearing (Brueghe l an d Rubens) , 90 , 92, 96-97, 105 , 112 , 244, 24 5
Allegory o f Sight (Brueghe l an d Rubens) , 90 , 92, 94, 96 , 101 , 106, 119 , 124 ,
197, 217 , 218, 242, 243, 243
Allegory o f Sight an d Smell (afte r Brueghel) , 94-96 , 95
Allegory o f Smell (Brueghe l an d Rubens) , 80 , 03, 94, 97-98 , 109, 243-44,
244
Allegory o f Spring (Brueghe l an d Va n Balen) , 8o, 80, 81, 10 5
Allegory o f Taste (Brueghe l an d Rubens) , viii, 90-99, pi, 104, 156 , 161 , 217 ,
218, 243-45, 244
Allegory o f Touch (Brueghe l and Rubens) , 55 , 57, 90-94, 93, 97, 219 , 2.rp,
230, 243-4 4
Alsloot, Denis van , 136 , 13 9
Amorum Emblemata (Va n Veen), 56 , 56
Anna o f Saxony (princes s of Orange), 17-1 8
Antverpia (Hoefnagel) , u
Apelles Painting Campaspe (Va n Haecht), 18
The Archduke Albert and the Archduchess Isabella in a Collector's Cabinet
(Francken an d workshop with Jan Brueghel th e Younger), 4 , 5
The Archdukes Albert and Isabella before Castle Mariemont (Brueghel) , 10 4
The Archdukes Albert and Isabella Hunting before Castle Mariemont
(Brueghel), 104 , 104
The Archdukes at th e Chase (Brueghel) , 88

The Archdukes in th e Garden of Their Palace in Brussels (Ja n Brueghel

the Younger) , 88
The Art of Wa r (Gall e after Floris) , 56 , 57
Avont, Piete r van , The Holy Family in a Garland o f Fruit an d Flowers
(with Brueghel) , 163, 164, 206
Avril, Jean-Jacques, Mars a u Retour de la Guerre (engraving after Rubens) ,
57-58,^

Balen, Hendrick van, 3 , 10-13, 17 , 60 , 62-63 , 75 , 124, 133 , 13 9

Saint John th e Baptist Preaching ,' 149
works wit h other artist s
Allegory o f Fire, 55, 140-45, 141 > 149 , 195 , 23 0
Allegory o f Spring, 80-81 , 80., 10 5
Blazon for th e Rhetorician's Guild C( De Violieren" 31 , 31
Ceres and th e Four Elements ,' 16 0
Concert o f the Muses, 9 7
The Feast ofAchelos, 62 , 63
Feast o f th e Gods, 149 , 150
Fruit Garland with Angels, 80 , 152-55 , 153
Garland of Fruit around a Depiction of Ceres Receiving Gifts from
the Four Seasons (1617) , 90 , 126 , 156-65 , 158, 246-47
Garland of Fruit around a Depiction of Ceres Receiving Gifts from
the Four Seasons (1621-22) , 90 , 126 , 156-65 , 159, 246-47
The Holy Family i n a Garland o f Fruit an d Flowers, 161 , 162
Madonna an d Child i n a Flower Garland, 12 , 152 , 154Pan an d Syrinx, 75 , 76
The Prophesy o f Isaiah, 55 , 146-51, 147, 148
Venus an d Cupid, 19 8
Venus i n th e Forge o f Vulcan, 55 , 230 , 231
Venus Preparing Mars for War, 149 , i$o
View of Antwerp, 12
The Wedding ofPeleus an d Thetis, 60 , 62 , 62
Basket o f Fruit (Caravaggio) , 17 7
Bassano, Jacopo , 14 3
The Baths o f Diocletian or the Cluvius Scauri (Brueghel) , 7, 8, 52
Battle ofAnghiari (Leonard o d a Vinci), 47
The Battle o f Constantine against Maxentius (Raphael) , 4 8

267

Battle o f Eighteen Nude Men (Beham) , 4 6

The Battle o f Issus (Brueghel) , 48, so
Battle of Nude Men (Rubens) , 4 6
The Battle o f the Amazons (Rubens) , 48-50 , 50
The Battle o f the Amazons (Ruben s an d Brueghel) , 2 , 3 , 9, 19 , 30 , 44-51,
45", 4P, 169 , 218 , 223, 224, 229-30, 229
Battle of the Greeks and Amazons (Rubens) , 4 8
Battle o f Titus Gracchus (Beham) , 4 6
The Battle ofZama (Penn i afte r Romano) , 48 , 48
Battle Scene between the Greeks and Amazons and Studies for Samson
(Rubens), 4 8
Baudius, Dominicus , 168-69
Beert, Osias , 2 9
Beham, Barthe l
Battle o f Eighteen Nude Men, 4 6
Battle o f Titus Gracchus, 4 6
The Beheading o f Saint John th e Baptist (Rubens) , 16 8
Beuckelaer, Joachim , Th e Miraculous Draft o f Fishes, 189
Bianchi, Ercole , 12 , 17 , 30 , 119-20, 143-44, 15 2
binding media, 223 , 225-26, 23 1
Blazon for th e Rhetorician's Guild "De Violieren" (Va n Balen, Brueghel ,
Francken, an d Vrancx) , 31 , 31
The Blinding o f Samson (Rembrandt) , 17 2
Borromeo, Federico, 4, 6 , 8 , 12-13, i?, 30 , 34~35 , 69 , 97 , 119-20, 129 ,
133-34, 140, 144, 152 , 162 , 168 , 177 , 19 5
Boy with a Basket of Fruit (Caravaggio) , 17 7
Brant, Isabella , 23 , 30
Brant, Jan , n
Bril, Paul , 6 , 19 , 29 , 129 , 18 9
Landscape with Psyche an d Jupiter', 27 , 29
The Rest on the Flight into Egypt (wit h Rottenhammer) , 132,13 3
Bruegel, Pieter , the Elder , 5, 6, 30 , 96 , 98 , 133,133 , 186 , 195 , 22 1
Sermon of Saint John th e Baptist, 188-89, 188, 191
Brueghel, Jan , the Elde r
collaboration o f Ruben s (Pete r Paul ) and , 32-34 , 217-51 . See also specific
paintingert
friendship o f Rubens (Pete r Paul ) and , 29-3 1
life of , 5-1 7
painting techniqu e of , 226 , 227
studio of
Venus i n th e Smithy o f Vulcan, 144, 144
underdrawings by , 55 , 67, 71 , 85 , 86, 87, 116-17, 223, 224, 225, 229,
230-31, 234, 23J-, 240, 242 , 245> 24 6
works b y
Allegory o f Air, 144 , 19 8
Allegory o f Fire, 12, 140, 142, 149
The Archdukes Albert an d Isabella before Castle Mariemont, 10 4
The Archdukes Albert an d Isabella Hunting before Castle Mariemont, 104 ,
104
The Archdukes at th e Chase, 88
The Baths of Diocletian or the Cluvius Scauri, 7, 8, 52
The Battle o f Issus, 48 , s o
Calvary, 189 , 190
The Continence ofScipio, 10 , 10, 48
Daniel i n the Lions' Den, 195-9 6

268 I N D E

The Entry o f the Animals into Noah's Ark, 70 , 80 , 87 , 125, 192-201,

193
The Flood with Noah's Ark , 195, 196
Flower Still Life, 80 , 81
The Garden o f Eden with the Fall o f Man, 67-68 , 68, 195-96, 19 9
Harbor Scene with Christ Preaching , 47, 189 , 190
Jonah Emerging from th e Whale, 15 1
Landscape with Ruins and a Hermit, 8 , 9
Landscape with Toung Tobias, 18 9
Orpheus Charming th e Animals with His Music, 9 7
Orpheus Singing before Pluto and Proserpina, 7
Ostrich, 197, 198, 206
The Palace o f Isabella Clara Eugenia at Tervuren, 104, 104
Paradise Landscape with the Creation of Adam, 136, 138 , 138, 194-95, 19 8
Part of a Garland of Fruit an d Flowers, 163 , 164
Port Scene in Venice, 18 9
The Sermon on the Mount, 186-91 , 187
Sheet with Animals an d Garlands, 222, 22 3
Sketches o f Ducks and Birds, 68-69 , d p
Studies o f Asses, Cats, and Monkeys, 202-7 , 205
Studies of Deer in Various Positions, 68, 6c
Studies o f Hunting Dogs , 88, 202-7, 204, 226, 24 4
Study o f Hunting Requisites, 109-12, 112, 144
Study o f Monkeys, a Deer, and Other Animals, 206, 206
Vase o f Flowers with Jewel, Coins and Shells, 13 , 14
View o f th e Interior o f th e Colosseum, 7, 8, 52, 142
Village Landscape with Self-Portrait, 15 , 16
Wedding Banquet Presided over by the Archdukes, 15, is
Wooded Landscape with Nymphs, Dogs, and Hunting Spoils, 114 , 114, 20 6
works with other artist s
Allegory o f Fire, 55, 140-45, 141 > 149 , 195 , 23 0
Allegory o f Hearing, 90 , 92 , 96-97, 105, 112 , 244, 245 "
Allegory o f Hearing, Taste, and Touch, 94-96, 95, 105
Allegory o f Sight, 90 , 92 , 94, 96 , 101 , 106, 119 , 124, 197, 217 , 218, 242,

243, 24 3
Allegory o f Sight and Smell, 94-96, 95
Allegory o f Smell, 80, 93, 94, 97-98 , 109, 243-44, 244
Allegory o f Spring, 80 , 80, 81, 10 5
Allegory o f Taste, viii, 90-99, 91, 104, 156 , 161, 217 , 218, 243, 244, 244 , 245
Allegory o f the Four Elements, 139
Allegory o f Touch, 55, 57, 90-94, 93, 97, 219, 219, 230, 243, 24 4
The Battle o f the Amazons, 2 , 3 , 9, 19 , 30 , 44-51, 4J, 49, 169, 218 , 223,
224, 229-30 , 22p
Blazon for th e Rhetorician's Guild (( De Violieren" 31 , 31
Ceres and th e Four Elements, 160
The Descent into Limbo, 128-35 , 131
Diana a t the Hunt, 87-88 , 108-15 , no, 124, 203, 226
Diana's Sleeping Nymphs Observed b y Satyrs, 75 , 87-88, 108-15 , in, 177,
203, 24 5
The Feast o f Achetons, xiv, 60-63, 61, 80, 122 , 124, 126, 218 , 227, 229,
239-40, 239, 240
Feast of th e Gods, 149 , 150
Flora and Zephyr, 42 , 78-81, 79, 219, 241-42, 241, 242
Fruit Garland with Angels, 80 , 152-55 , 153
Fruit Garland with Nature Adorned b y the Graces, 119, 124, 126 , 157 ,
160, 162, 219, 246-47, 247

The Garden of Eden with th e FM o f Man (wit h D e Clerck) , 136-39 ,

737, 194 , 19 8
The Garden of Eden with th e Fall of Man (wit h Rubens) , iv-v, 2 , 30 ,
64-71, 6$, 72, 80 , 87 , 122, 124 , 192 , 198-99, 203 , 216, 217 , 219-21 ,
223, 225, 226, 229, 233-39, 234, 235, 236, 237, 23 8
Garland of Fruit around a Depiction of Ceres Receiving Gifts from
the Four Seasons (1617) , 90 , 126 , 156-65 , 158, 246-47
Garland of Fruit around a Depiction of Ceres Receiving Gifts from
the Four Seasons (1621-22) , 90 , 126 , 156-65 , 159, 246-47
The Holy Family i n a Garland o f Fruit and Flowers (wit h Van Avont),
163, 164, 20 6
The Holy Family i n a Garland o f Fruit an d Flowers (wit h Va n Balen),
loi, 162
Madonna an d Child i n a Flower Garland, 12 , 152 , 154
Madonna an d Child i n a Garland o f Flowers, 96 , 116 , 119 , 120, 24 6
Madonna an d Child i n a Garland o f Fruit and Flowers, 4, 116-21 , 117,
775, 154-55 , 163 , 24 6
Madonna i n a Flower Garland, 2 , 3, 155 , 163 , 213 , 228 , 245-47, 247
Music-making Angels with Flowers, 13 3
Nymphs Filling th e Cornucopia, 122-27, 123
Pan an d Syrinx (wit h Va n Balen) , 75, 7 6
Pan an d Syrinx (wit h Rubens) , 72-77 , 73, 74, 227
Portrait o f Archduke Albert o f Austria, 100-107, 702
Portrait o f Infanta Isabella Clara Eugenia, 100-107, 103
The Prophesy o f Isaiah, 55 , 146-51, 747, 148
The Rest on the Flight into Egypt, 128-35 , 130, 132
The Return fro m War: Mars Disarmed b y Venus, 3, 4, 29 , 30 , 35 , 50,
52-59, S3, 54, 80, 87 , 119, 144, 149 , 195 , 197-99 , 2/4, 218-21 , 219,
226-34, 227, 230, 231, 232, 233, 24 4
Venus an d Cupid, 19 8
Venus i n th e Forge o f Vulcan, 55 , 230 , 237
Venus Preparing Mars for War, 149 , 150
The Vision o f Saint Hubert, 82-89 , #3, 84, 86, 109, 120 , 226 , 240, 241
The Wedding ofPeleus an d Thetis (wit h Va n Balen) , 6o , 62 , 62
The Wedding ofPeleus an d Thetis (wit h D e Clerck) , 13 9
Winter Landscape with Angels Scattering Flowers, 13 3
Brueghel, Jan , th e Younger , 10 , 15 , 17 , 30 , 32-33 , 75 , 108, 124 , 157 , 160 , 163,
206, 245
The Archdukes i n th e Garden of Their Palace in Brussels, 88
The Archduke Albert and the Archduchess Isabella in a Collector's Cabinet
(with Francken) , s
The Feast ofAchelos (wit h Van Balen) , 62, 63
Brueghel, Pieter , th e Younger, 5- 6

Calvary (Brueghel) , 189 , 190

Campo Weyerman, Jacob, 6 4
Caravaggio, 1 9
Basket of Fruit, 17 7
Boy with a Basket of Fruit, 17 7
The Medusa Head o n Minerva's Shield, 182 , 7^ 3
Carleton, Dudley, 29 , 34-35 , 166 , 171-72 , 177 , 184 , 196-9 7
Centaur Tormented by Cupid (Rubens) , 16 9
Ceres and th e Four Elements (Brueghe l an d Va n Balen) , 160
Ceres Garlanded b y Angels (Rubens) , 16 2
Clerck, Hendric k de , 3 , 15, 60 , 6 6

Concert o f the Muses (wit h Va n Balen) , 97

works wit h Brueghe l
Allegory o f th e Four Elements, 13 9
The Garden of Eden with th e Fall o f Man, 136-39 , 737 , 194 , 19 8
The Wedding ofPeleus an d Thetis, 13 9
Cobergher, Wenceslas , 9 , 85 , 104-5
collaboration, practic e of, 3-4 , 32-35 , 217-1 8
colorants, 225
Concert o f the Muses (Va n Balen and D C Clerck), 9 7
The Continence ofScipio (Brueghel) , 10,10, 48
Cort, Cornelius , Tityus, 169, 169
Croes, J . van, 23
The Crowning o f Virtue (Rubens) , 56 , 57
Cupid Supplicating Jupiter (Rubens) , 17 0

Daniel i n the Lions' Den (Brueghel) , 195-96

Daniel i n th e Lions' Den (Rubens) , 96 , 19 6
The Death ofHippolytus (Rubens) , 16 8
The Delivery of the Keys t o Saint Peter (Rubens), 3 0
Departure for th e Hunt (Va n Orley), 10 6
The Descent into Limbo (engravin g afte r Piete r Bruege l th e Elder) , 133 , 73 3
The Descent into Limbo (Brueghe l and Rottenhammer) , 128-35 , 131
Diana and He r Nymphs Attacked b y Satyrs (Ruben s an d Snyders) , 17 8
Diana and He r Nymphs Hunting Fallow Deer (Ruben s an d Snyders) , 17 8
Diana at th e Hunt (Brueghe l and Rubens) , 87-88 , 108-15 , 770 , 124 , 203 , 226
Diana Returning from the Hunt (Ruben s an d Snyders) , 26, 174-79 , 17$, 17 7
Diana's Sleeping Nymphs Observed b y Satyrs (Brueghe l an d Rubens) , 75 , 87,
88, 108-15 , ni) 177 , 203 , 245
Drunken Silenus (Rubens) , 9 6
Durer, Albrecht, 66 , 203
Saint Eustace, 87, 87
Dyck, Anthony van, 58
Portrait ofFrans Snyders, 26, 26
Portrait of Jan Brueghel the Elder, 6

earth pigments , 223-25

Elsheimer, Adam, 19 , 67
The Stoning o f Saint Stephen, 19 1
The Entry o f the Animals into NoaWs Ark (Brueghel) , 70 , 80 , 87 , 125 ,
192-201, 103, 19 5
Equestrian Portrait o f the Duke ofLerma (Rubens) , 20 , 22 , 87, 19 7
Expulsion ofHeliodorus (Raphael) , 16 9
Eyck, Hubert van, 32 , 34
The Ghent Altarpiece (Adoration o f th e Mystic Lamb), 32 , 33, 34
Eyck, Jan van , 32 , 34
The Ghent Altarpiece (Adoration o f th e Mystic Lamb), 32 , 33, 34

Faber, Johann , 21 , 56
The Facade an d Arch ofRubens's House (Harrewy n afte r Va n Croes) , 23
The Fall of the Rebel Angels (Floris) , 184
The Family o f Jan Brueghel th e Elder ( Rubens }, frontispiece , 3 0
The Feast ofAchelos (Va n Bale n and Ja n Brueghe l th e Younger) , 62 , 63

INDEX

269

The Feast o f Acheks (Ruben s an d Brueghel) , xiv, 60-63 , 61, 80, 122 , 124,
126, 218, 227, 229, 239, 239-40, 240
The Feast of the Gods (Brueghe l an d Va n Balen) , 149, i/o
Ferdinand (cardinal - infante o f Spain), 9 4
Five Sense s series , 2, 17 , 90-99, 161, 242-45. See also specific paintings
The Flood with Noah's Ark (Brueghel) , 195 , 196
Flora and Zephyr (Brueghe l an d Rubens) , 42, 78-81, 79, 219, 241-42,
241, 242

Floris, Frans , 57, 6 0

Fall o f the Rebel Angels, 184
Flower Still Life (Brueghel) , 80 , 81
The Forge o f Vulcan (Paol o Fiammingo) , 8 , 142, 143, 149
Four Female Figures (Rubens) , 75 , 75
Francken, Frans , th e Younger , 4 , 5, 17, 31 , 31, 96, 98 , 10 8
The Archduke Albert and the Archduchess Isabella in a Collector's Cabinet
(with worksho p o f Jan Brueghel the Younger), 4, s
Frederik Hendri k (princ e of Orange) , 77 , 81, 18 2
Fruit Garland with Angels (Brueghe l an d Va n Balen), 8o, 152-55 , 153
Fruit Garland with Nature Adorned by the Graces (Ruben s an d Brueghel) ,
119, 124, 126, 157 , 160, 162, 219, 246-47, 247

Gabron, Guilliam , 66 , 234 , 235

Galle, Cornelis , Th e Virgin in a Niche Adorned by Angels with a Garland,
162, 163
Galle, Filips , Th e Art o f War (engravin g afte r Fran s Floris) , 56 , s?
Ganymede (Rubens) , 17 0
The Garden o f Eden with the Fall o f Man (Brueghel) , 67-68 , 68., 195-96, 19 9
The Garden of Eden with the Fall o f Man (Brueghe l an d D e Clerck) , 136-39 ,
137) 194 , 198
The Garden of Eden with the Fall o f Man (Brueghe l an d Rubens) , iv~v, 2, 30 ,
64-71, 65, 72, 80 , 87 , 122, 124, 192 , 198-99, 203, 216, 217, 219-21,
223, 22S, 226, 229 , 233-39 , 234, 235, 236, 237, 23 8

Harrewyn, Jacob, Th e Facade an d Arch ofRubens }s House (engravin g

after J . van Croes) , 23
The Head o f Medusa (Ruben s an d Snyders) , 26 , 35 , 180-85, 181, 183
Herodotus, 13 8
Hoefnagel, Joris , 116 , 198
Antverpia, n
Hollar, Wenceslas, 203
Study o f Hunting Dogs, 112, 113
The Holy Family i n a Garland of Fruit an d Flowers (Brueghe l an d
Van Avont), 163 , 164, 20 6
The Holy Family i n a Garland of Fruit an d Flowers (Brueghe l an d
Van Balen) , 161 , 162
The Horrors o f Wa r (Rubens) , 2 9
Houbraken, Arnold , 6 4
Huygens, Constantijn, 77 , 126, 172 , 182-8 3
imprimatura, 221 , 226, 234, 242, 244, 24 6
infrared reflectograms , 55 , 86, 224-25, 229-33, 235, 242-43, 245
The Interior of the Colosseum (Toeput) , 8 , 9
Isabella, Infanta o f Spain (Mulle r afte r Rubens) , 105 , 105
Isabella Clara Eugenia (archduches s of Austria), 2 , 4, 5 , s, 9 , 15 , 1718 , 29 ,
46, 56 , 70, 80-82 , 85 , 88, 94, 96-98 , 100-107, 103, 104, ios, 109, 114,
120, 154 , 161 , 197-98, 20 6

Janssens, Abraham, 33
Peace and Plenty Binding the Arrows of War, 57
The Union of the Scheldt River and th e City o f Antwerp, 5 6
Jode, Isabell a de , 1 0
Johann Erns t (duk e o f Saxony), 2, 198
Jonah Emerging from the Whale (Brueghel), 15 1
Judith Killing Holofernes (Rubens) , 16 8
Juno and Argus (Rubens) , 168-6 9

Garland of Fruit around a Depiction of Ceres Receiving Gifts from the Four
Seasons (Brueghe l an d Va n Balen ) (1617) , 90, 126 , 156-65, 158,
246-47
Garland of Fruit around a Depiction of Ceres Receiving Gifts from the Four
Seasons (Brueghe l an d Va n Balen) (1621-22) , 90 , 126 , 156-65, 159,

Kempeneer, Jan de , 194

246-47
Gesner, Conrad , 68, 19 8
The Ghent Altarpiece (Adoration o f the Mystic Lamb) (Huber t an d Ja n
van Eyck) , 32, 33, 34
gilding, 228-2 9
Giulio Romano, 19 , 48
Goltzius, Hendrick, 62 , 75
The Wedding o f Cupid an d Psyche., 6 0
Govaerts, Abraham , Wooded Landscape with Gypsy Women^ 12 4
Great Last Judgment (Rubens) , 18 3
Grimmer, Abel , View o f Antwerp (wit h Va n Balen) , 12 , 12
ground layers, 220-21
Guild of Sain t Luke , 9 , 15 , 19 , 31 , 218 , 241

Landscape with Psyche an d Jupiter (Bri l and Rubens) , 27, 29

Landscape with Ruins an d a Hermit (Brueghel) , 8 , 9
Landscape with Young Tobias (Brueghel) , 18 9
Laocon, 19 , 47, 16 8
Leonardo d a Vinci, 18 2
Battle ofAnghiari, 4 7
The Leopards (afte r Rubens) , 171 , 196 , 237, 238
Limbourg brothers , Tres Riches Heures, 106
Lioness, Seen fro m th e Rear, Turning Left (Rubens) , 196 , 197
Lucan, 18 3

Madonna an d Child i n a Flower Garland (Brueghel and Va n Balen), 12 ,

Haecht, Willem van , 10 8

Apelles Painting Campaspe, 18
Harbor Scene with Christ Preaching (Brueghel) , 47 , 189 , 190

Madonna an d Child i n a Garland of Flowers (Brueghe l and Rubens) , 96 ,

116, 119 , 120, 24 6
Madonna an d Child i n a Garland of Fruit an d Flowers (Brueghe l an d
Rubens), 4 , 116-21 , 117, 118, 154-55, 163, 24 6

152, IS 4

270

INDEX

Madonna della Vallicella, Adored b y Angels (Rubens) , 208-13 , 2 09-> 2I -> 211, 212
Madonna della Vallicella, Borne Aloft b y Putti (Rubens) , 212 , 21 3
Madonna i n a Flower Garland (Ruben s an d Brueghel) , 2 , 3, 155 , 163 , 213 ,
228, 245-47 , 247
Mander, Karel van, 6 , 9 , 33-34 , 69, 129 , 18 2
Marienberghe, Catharin a van , 10 , 30
Marino, Giambattista , 18 2
A Market an d Bleaching Fields (D e Momper) , 16, 1 7
Mars a u Retour de la Guerre (Avril after Rubens) , 57-58 , 58
The Martyrdom o f Saint Andrew (Va n Veen), 18 , 19
Maximilian I (electo r o f Bavaria), 149-5 1
The Medusa Head on Minerva's Shield (Caravaggio) , 182 , 183
Meeting of King Ferdinand of Hungary and the Cardinal-Infante Ferdinand
of Spain atNbrdlingen (Rubens) , 221 , 222
Metsys, Quinten , 20 , 32 , 34-35
The Temptation of Saint Anthony (wit h Patinir) , 20 , 21 , 34-3 5
Miracles o f Saint Ignatius (Rubens) , 18 3
Miraculous Draft o f Fishes (Beuckelaer) , 189
Moniper, Jos de , th e Younger , 15 , 1 7
A Market an d Bleaching Fields^ 16, 1 7
Muller, Jan
Albert) Archduke o f Austria (engravin g afte r Rubens) , 105 , 105
Isabella, Infanta o f Spain (engravin g afte r Rubens) , 105 , 105
Music-making Angels with Flowers (Brueghe l an d Rottenhammer) , 133 ;

Noort, Adam van , 18 , 4 6

Nymphs Filling th e Cornucopia (Brueghe l an d worksho p o f Rubens) ,
122-27, 123

Orley, Bernard van , Departure for th e Hunt,, 10 6

Orpheus Charming th e Animals with His Music (Brueghel) , 9 7
Orpheus Singing before Pluto and Proserpina (Brueghel) , 7
Ostrich (Brueghel) , 107, 198 , 20 6
Ovid, 29 , 60-62, 78 , 169, 174 , 180 , 182-8 3

paint media , 223-2 6

The Painter i n His Studio (Rembrandt) , 220 , 220
The Palace o f Isabella Eugenia a t Tervuren (Brueghel) , 104 , 104
Pan an d Syrinx (Brueghe l an d Va n Balen) , 75 , 7 6
Pan an d Syrinx (Ruben s an d Brueghel) , 72-77, 73, 74, 227
Pan Resting (Rubens) , 75 , 76
Paneels, Willem , Studies of Horses after Jost Amman (drawin g afte r Rubens) ,
46,47
panels, oak , 218-2 0
Paolo Fiammingo, 55, 142-43
The Forge o f Vulcan^ 8 , 142 , 143, 149
Paradise Landscape with th e Creation of Adam (Brueghel) , 136 , 138 , 138^

194-95, 19 8

Part o f a Garland o f Fruit an d Flowers (Brueghel) , 163 , 164

Patinir, Joachim , 6 , 20 , 32 , 34-35
The Temptation of Saint Anthony (wit h Metsys) , 20 , 21 , 34 , 35
Peace and Plenty Binding th e Arrows of Wa r (Janssens) , 57

Penni, Giovann i Francesco , Th e Battle ofZama (engravin g afte r Giuli o

Romano), 48 , 48
Philip I I (kin g of Spain) , 5, 20, 97 , 101
Philip III (kin g of Spain), 19 , 70
pigments, 223-25
Piles, Roge r de, 108-9
Pliny th e Elder , 68 , 18 4
Plutarch, 4 4
Port Scene in Venice (Brueghel) , 18 9
Portrait of a Man (Rubens) , 19 , 19
Portrait o f Albert and Isabella Clara Eugenia (Va n Veen), 4 , s
Portrait o f Archduke Albert o f Austria (Ruben s an d Brueghel) , 100-107, 102
Portrait ofFrans Snyders (Va n Dyck), 26 , 26
Portrait o f Infanta Isabella Clara Eugenia (Ruben s an d Brueghel) , 100-107 ,

103
Portrait o f Jan Brueghel th e Elder (Va n Dyck), 6
preparatory layers , 220-221
Procession in th e Place du Grand Sabln at Brussels (Sallaert) , 10 6
Prometheus Bound (Ruben s an d Snyders) , 26 , 35 , 166-73, 167, 184, 19 6
The Prophesy o f Isaiah (Brueghe l an d Va n Balen) , 55 , 146-51, 147, 148
Putti with a Garland o f Fruit (Rubens , Snyders , an d Wildcns) , 124 , 125

The Raising o f th e Cross (Rubens) , 24, 25

Raphael
The Battle o f Constantine against Maxentius, 4 8
Expulsion ofHeliodorus, 16 9
Saint Cecilia , 96
Reclining Male (Rubens) , 170 , 770
The Recognition of Philopoemen (Rubens) , 25 , 26, 168 , 171 , 17 7
The Recognition o f Philopoemen (Ruben s an d Snyders) , 25-26, 25 , 168, 18 4
Rembrandt va n Rij n
Blinding o f Samson, 172
The Painter in His Studio, 220, 220
The Rest on the Flight into Egypt (Bn l an d Rottenhammer) , 132 , 133
The Rest on the Flight into Egypt (Brueghe l an d Rottenhammer) , 128-35 ,
130, 132
The Return fro m Wa r Mars Disarmed b y Venus (Ruben s an d Brueghel) , 3,
4, 29 , 30 , 35 , 50, 52-59, S3, S4, 80, 87 , 119, 144 , 149 , 195 , 197 , 198-99 ,
274, 218-21 , 210, 226-34, 227, 230, 231, 232, 233, 24 4
The Riding School (Rubens) , 19 7
Romanists, Confraternit y of , 9 , 29
Rottenhammer, Hans , 3 , 6, 19 , 46, 6 0
The Rest on the Flight into Egypt (wit h Bnl) , 132 , 133
works wit h Brueghe l
The Descent into Limbo, 128-35 , 137
Music-making Angels with Flowers, 13 3
The Rest on the Flight into Egypt, 128-35 , 30, 132
Winter Landscape with Angels Scattering Flowers, 1 33
Rubens, Jan , 17-18
Rubens, Pete r Pau l
collaboration o f Brueghel (Jan , the Elder ) and , 32-34 , 217-5 1
See also specific paintings
friendship o f Brueghel (Jan , the Elder ) and , 29-3 1
life of , 17-2 9
painting techniqu e of , 226-2 7

INDEX

271

paint medi a use d by, 225-26

underdrawings by , 47 , 223 , 224, 225, 228, 229
works afte r
The Leopards , 171 , 196 , 237, 238
works b y
Adam and Eve, 46
The Adoration o f the Magi, 23 , 56-57
Battle o f Nude Men, 4 6
The Battle of the Amazons, 48-50, .so
Battle o f the Greeks .andAmazons, 48
Battle Scene between the Greeks and Amazons an d Studies for Samson, 48
The Beheading of Saint John th e Baptist, 16 8
'Centaur Tormented b y Cupid, 16 9
Ceres Garlanded by Angels, 16 2
The Crowning o f Virtue, 56 , $7
Cupid Supplicating Jupiter, 17 0
Daniel i n the Lions' Den, 96 , 19 6
The Death o f Hippo ly 'tus,168
The Delivery o f th e Keys t o Saint Peter, 30
Drunken Silenus, 96
Equestrian Portrait o f the Duke ofLerma, 20,22, 87-, 197
The Family o f Jan Brueghel th e Elder, frontispiece, 3 0
Four Female Figures, 75, T
Ganymede, 17 0
Great Last judgment, 18 3
The Horrors of 'War, 2 9
Judith Killing Holofernes, 16 8
Juno an d Argus, 168, 16 9
Lioness j Seen from the Rear, Turning Left, 196,197
Madonna della Vallicella, Adored by Angels, 208-13 , 209, 210, 211, 212
Madonna della Vallicella, Borne Aloft b y Putti, 212, 213
Meeting of King Ferdinand of Hungary and the Cardinal-Infante
Ferdinand o f Spain atNordlingen, 221 , 222
Miracles o f Saint Ignatius, 18 3
Pan Resting, 75 , 76
Portrait of a Man, 19,19
The Raising o f th e Cross, 24, 25
Reclining Male, 170 , 170
The Recognition ofPhilopoemen, 25 , 26, 168 , 171 , 17 7
The Riding School, 19 7
Saint George, 1 6 8, 17 1
The Saint Ildefonso Altarpiece, 28, 29
Samson and Delilah, 23 , 23
Self-Portrait with Friends, 20
Studies o f a Female Nude, 124 , 124
Two Satyrs, 176 , 176
Two Views o f an Eagle, 170
workshop of Rubens
Nymphs Filling th e Cornucopia (wit h Brueghel) , 122-27 , 123
works wit h other artist s
Allegory o f Hearing, 90 , 92 , 96-97, 105 , 112 , 244, 245
Allegory o f Sight, 90 , 92 , 94, 96 , 101 , 106, 119 , 124 , 197 , 217 , 218, 242, 243,
243

Allegory o f Smell, 80 , 93, 94, 97-98 , 109, 243-44, 244

Allegory o f Taste, viii, 90-99, 91, 104, 156 , 161 , 217 , 218, 243-44, 244, 245

272 I N D E

Allegory o f Touch, 55, 57, 90-94, 93, 97, 219 , 219, 230, 243-44
The Battle o f the Amazons, 2, 3 , 9, 19 , 30 , 44-51, 45, 49, 169 , 218 , 223,
224, 229, 229-30
Diana and He r Nymphs Attacked b y Satyrs, 17 8
Diana and Her Nymphs Hunting Fallow Deer, 17 8
Diana at the Hunt, 87-88 , ,108-15, no, 124 , 203, 226
Diana Returning fro m th e Hunt, 26 , 174-79 , 175, 177
Diana's Sleeping Nymphs Observed b y Satyrs, 75 , 87-88, 108-15, in, 177,
203, 245
The Feast ofAchelous,xiv, 60-6.3 , <fr , 80 , 122 , 124 , 126 , 218 , 227, 229, 239,
239-40, 240
Flora and Zephyr, 42^ .78-8.1^ 7^*219, 241-42, 241, 242
Fruit Garland with Nature Adorned b y the Graces, 119, 124, 126 , 157 , 160,
162, 219 , 246-47, 247
The Garden of Eden with the Fall o f Man, iv-v, 2 , 30, 64-71 , 65, 72, 80 ,
87, 122 , 124, 192 , 198-99, 203, 216, 217, 219-21, 223 , 225, 226, 229,
233-39,234, 23J-,23,237,. 23S

The Head o f Medusa, 26 , 35 , 180-85 , i8i>> 183

Landscape with Psyche an d Jupiter, 27 , 29 i
Madonna an d Child in a Garland o f Flowers, 96, 116 , 119 , 120, 24 6
Madonna an d Child in a Garland o f Fruit an d Flowers, 4, 116-21 , 117, 118,
154-55, 163 , 246
Madonna i n a Flower Garland, 2 , 3, 155 , 163 , 213 , 228 , 245-47, 247
Pan and Syrinx, 72-77 , 73, 74, 227
Portrait of Archduke Albert 'of Austria (an d workshop) , 100-107 , 102
Portrait o f Infanta Isabella Clara Eugenia (an d workshop), 100-107, 103
Prometheus Bound, 26 , 35 , 166-73, ^7, 184, 196
Putti with a Garland o f Fruit, 124, 125
The Recognition ofPhilopoemen, 25-26 , 25, 1 6 8, 184
The Return from War: Mars Disarmed by Venus, 3, 4, 29-30 , 35 , 50,
52-59, 53, 54, 80, 87 , 119, 144, 149, 195 , 197-99, 2/4, 218-21, 219,
226-34, 227, 230, 231, -232, 233, 24 4
The Vision o f Saint Hubert, 82-89 , #3, 84, 86, 109, 120 , 226, 240, 241
Rudolf II (Hol y Roman- emperor), 13 , 69 , 116 , 139 , 19 8

Saint Cecilia (Raphael) , 9 6

Saint Eustace (Durer), 87 , 87
Saint George (Rubens) , 168 , 17 1
The Saint Ildefonso Altarpiece (Rubens) , 28 , 29
Saint John th e Baptist Preaching (Van Balen), 14 9
Sallaert, Antoine, Procession in th e Place du Grand Sabln at Brussels, 106
Samson and Delilah (Rubens) , 23 , 23
Savery, Roelandt, 13 , 20 3
Seghers, Daniel , 15 , 21 7
Self-Portrait with Friends (Rubens) , 20
Sermon o f Saint John th e Baptist (Piete r Bruege l th e Elder) , 188 , 188, 189, 19 1
The Sermon on the Mount (Brueghel) , 186-91 , 187
Sheet with Animals and Garlands (Brueghel), 222 , 223
signatures, 64 , 66 , 70 , 94 , 134 , 192 , 199 , 233-3 4
Sketches o f Ducks and Birds (Brueghel) , 68-69 , 69
Snyders, Frans , 3 , 17, 25-26 , 29-30 , 35 , 198
Studies o f Four Heads o f Dogs, 178, 178
Study for a n Eagle, 170, 171

works wit h Ruben s

Diana and He r Nymphs Attacked b y Satyrs, 17 8
Diana and He r Nymphs Hunting Fallow Deer, 17 8
Diana Returning from the Hunt, 26 , 174-79 , 17^, 777
The Head o f Medusa, 26 , 35 , 180-85, 181, 183
Prometheus Bound, 26 , 35 , 166-73, 1( ^7-> 184 , 19 6
Putti with a Garland o f Fruit (an d Wildens), 124 , 125
The Recognition ofPhilopoemen, 25-26 , 25, 168, 18 4
Sohier, Nicolaas , 182-8 3
Spranger, Bartholomeus, 12 9
Stoning o f Saint Stephen (Elsheimer) , 19 1
Studies of a Female Nude (Rubens) , 124 , 124
Studies o f Asses, Cats, and Monkeys (Brueghel) , 202-7, 205
Studies o f Deer in Various Positions (Brueghel) , 68, 69
Studies o f Four Heads of Dogs (Snyders) , 178 , 178
Studies o f Horses after Jost Amman (Paneel s after Rubens) , 46 , 4 7
Studies of Hunting Dogs (Brueghel) , 88, 202-7, 204, 226, 24 4
Study for a n Eagle (Snyders) , 170 , 171
Study o f Hunting Dogs (Hollar), 112 , 113
Study o f Hunting Requisites (Brueghel), 109-12, 112, 14 4
Study o f Monkeys, a Deer, and Other Animals (Brueghel) , 206 , 206
Suerius, Samuel , 12 6
supports, 218-20

The Temptation of Saint Anthony (Patini r and Metsys) , 20 , 21, 34-35

Tieghem, Jan van , 194.
Titian, 19 , 20, 96-97
Tityus, 16 9
Tityus (Cort) , 169, 169
Tityus (Titian) , 16 9
Toeput, Lodewijk, 8
The Interior o f the Colosseum, 8, 9
Torso Belvedere, 19 , 62 , 67 , 75 , 168
Tres Riches Heures (Limbour g brothers) , 10 6
The Trves (Va n d e Venne) , 57
Two Satyrs (Rubens) , 176 , 176
Two Views o f an Eagle (Rubens), 17 0

varnish, 227-2 8
Vase o f Flowers with Jewel, Coins and Shells (Brueghel) , 13 , 14
Veen, Ott o van , 9, 18-19, 46-47, 105 , 229
Amorum Emblemata, 56 , $6
The Martyrdom o f Saint Andrew, 18 , 19
Portrait o f Albert and Isabella Clara Eugenia, 4 , s
Venne, Adriae n van de , Th e Trves, 57
Venus an d Cupid (Brueghe l an d Va n Balen) , 19 8
Venus i n th e Forge o f Vulcan (Brueghel an d Va n Balen) , 55 , 230, 231
Venus i n th e Smithy o f Vulcan (studio of Brueghel) , 144, 74 4
Venus Preparing Mars for Wa r (Brueghe l an d Va n Balen) , 149 , iso
Verhaecht, Tobias , 18 , 4 6
View o f Antique Ruins, 142, 143
View o f Antwerp (Va n Balen an d Grimmer) , 12
View o f the Interior o f th e Colosseum (Brueghel) , 7, 8, 52, 14 2
Village Landscape with Self-Portrait (Brueghel) , 15, 16
Vincenzo I Gonzag a (duk e of Mantua), 19-2 0
Virgil, 140 , 17 4
The Virgin in a Niche Adorned b y Angels with a Garland (Galle) , 162 , 163
The Vision o f Saint Hubert (Brueghe l and Rubens) , 82-89 , 83 , 84, 86, 109,
I2O, 226 , 240 , 24 1

Vrancx, Sebastian , 31 , 31, 16 3

Wedding Banquet Presided over by the Archdukes (Brueghel) , 15, is

The Wedding o f Cupid an d Psyche (Goltzius) , 6 0
The Wedding ofPeleus an d Thetis (Brueghel an d Va n Balen) , 6o, 62 , 62
The Wedding ofPeleus an d Thetis (Brueghel an d D e Clerck) , 139
Wildens, Jan , 29 , 124 , 125
Willem V (prince o f Orange), 6 4
Winter Landscape with Angels Scattering flowers (Brueghe l and
Rottenhammer), 13 3
Wolfgang Wilhel m (duk e o f Pfalz-Ncuburg), 9 4
Wooded Landscape with Gypsy Women (Govaerts) , 124
Wooded Landscape with Nymphs., Dogs, and Hunting Spoils (Brueghel) , 114,
114, 20 6

X-radiographs, 55 , 183, 219, 231, 232, 234, 236, 23 6

underdrawing, 221-23 , 228-30 , 243 , 248. See also under Brueghel
and Rubens
The Union o f the Scheldt River and th e City o f Antwerp (Janssens) , 56

PHOTOGRAPHY CREDIT S

Alinari/Art Resource , Ne w York : figs. 5, 99; Artothek : cat . no . 16 , figs. 49, 68 ; Art Resource , Ne w York : figs. 7, 15, 23 , 27, 29, 30 , 34 , 35 , 69, 89 , 9 6
(photo: Jzsa Denes) , 104 ; Bildarchi v Preufiischer Kulturbesitz/Ar t Resource , New York : figs. 33 (photo: Christop h Irrgang) , 5 1 (photo : Jr g P . Anders) ,
64 (photo : Christoph Irrgang) , 9 3 (photo: Jrg P. Anders); Kunsthistorische s Museum , Vienna : fig . 95 ; Museo Naciona l de l Prado : figs . 52 , 140, 14 1
(right), 144 (to p right)infrare d image s courtes y of Ana Gonzlez Mozo , camera propert y of Laboratorio de Metrologia Ottica per l a Diagnostica de i
Beni Culturali, Universit a degle Studi, Milan, an d INOA; Pete r Mae s (photographer) : figs, n, 24, 87; Photo Collection s Rijksburea u voo r
Kunsthistorische Documentatie (RKD) , The Hague : figs. 45, 73, 101; Photographi c Survey , Courtauld Institut e o f Art, London : fig . 3 ; Sotheby's, London :
fig. 78; Wen Hwa Ts'a o (photographer) : fig. 84

273

Abouout the Authors

T I A R N A D O H E R T Y i s associate conservator of paintings a t

the J. Paul Getty Museum. Sh e joined the Gett y Museum
in 20 01, afte r postgraduat e internship s a t the Opifici o dell e
Pitre Dure, Florence; th e Hamilton Kerr Institute,
Cambridge; an d the scientifi c departmen t o f the Nationa l
Gallery, London. She has an M.S. in art conservation fro m
the Winterthur/University of Delaware Program in Art
Conservation. Sh e has lectured and published on Rubens and
on seventeenth-century collaboration s betwee n painter s
as well as between painters and cabinetmakers . She is an assistant coordinato r o f the ICOM Committee fo r Conservatio n
Paintings Specialt y Group.
M A R K L E O N A R D earne d his undergraduate degre e i n art
conservation a t Oberlin Colleg e an d continued hi s studies in
both ar t history and conservation a t the Institute o f Fine
Arts at New York University. He worke d i n the Painting s
Conservation Departmen t a t the Metropolitan Museu m of
Art i n New Yor k for five years before joining the staf f
of the J. Paul Getty Museum, where he is now hea d of the
Department o f Paintings Conservation . I n additio n t o his
study an d treatment of paintings a t the Getty Museum ,
he has worked on a number o f important picture s from a n
international arra y of other collections . H e ha s published
on a number of different topics , rangin g from studie s of
artists5 techniques to the introduction of new materials for
use in conservation .

274

A R I A N E VA N S U C H T E L EN ha s been curator a t th e Roya l

Picture Gallery Mauritshuis since 1995, after having been
assistant curator at the Rijksmuseu m i n Amsterdam fro m
1990 to 1995 . She has co-organized divers e exhibitions ,
including Dawn o f the Golden Age (Rijksmuseum) , Johannes
Vermeer^ an d Rembrandt by Himself. He r recen t publications
include Holland Frozen in TimeThe Dutch Winter Landscape
in the Golden Age; Portraits in the Mauritshuis (with Ben
Broos); and contributions to Hans Holbein 1497/98-1543 an d
Carel Fabritius 1622-1654.
J 0 R G E N W A D U M i s a paintings conservator an d a n ar t
historian and is currently chief conservator at the Staten s
Museum fo r Kunst , Copenhagen. Sinc e 1984 he has specialized in the painting techniques of sixteenth- and seventeenthcentury Dutch an d Flemish artists. He ha s published and
lectured internationally o n a multitude o f subjects related t o
this and other issue s of importance for the understandin g
and conservation of our cultura l heritage. He serve d as chair
of the ICOM Committee fo r Conservation from 200 2 to 2005 .
A N N E T . W O O L L E T T i s associate curator i n th e Departmen t
of Paintings at the J . Paul Getty Museum, specializin g in
Northern paintin g before 1700 . She received her Ph.D. fro m
Columbia University, with a dissertation on the altarpieces
of the Antwerp militia guilds, 1554-1615 . She has lectured an d
published on Rubens, late-sixteenth-century Flemish painting, and Rembrandt. Sh e co-organized th e Getty Museum
exhibition Making a Renaissance Painting and contributed t o
the exhibitio n catalogu e Rembrandt's Late Religious Portraits.