COMPONENTS USED

1.
LM358(Bi Operational Amplifier).
2.
LM324(Quad Operational
Amplifier).
3.
LM35( Thermistor).
4.
DC Motor(Preferably Brushless DC).
5.
Transistor 8550.
6.
Light Emitting Diode(LED).
7.
General Purpose Diode(1N4007).

LM358 (Bi Operational

Amplifier)

Description
The LM358 series consists of two independent, high gain, internally
frequency compensated operational amplifiers which were designed
specifically to operate from a single power supply over a wide range of
voltages. Operation from split power supplies is also independent of the
magnitude of the power supply.

Application areas include transducer amplifiers, dc gain blocks and all

the conventional op-amp circuits which now can be more easily
implemented in single power supply systems.

Pin Configuration

Functional Block Diagram

Feature Description
The amplifier's differential inputs consist of a non-inverting input (+IN) and
an inverting input (IN). The amplifer amplifies only the difference in voltage
between the two inpus, which is called the differential input voltage. The
output voltage of the op-amp Vout is given by Equation 1:
VOUT = AOL (IN+ - IN-)

(1)

where AOL is the open-loop gain of the amplifier, typically around 100dB
(100,000x, or 10uV per Volt).
For ac applications, where the load is capacitively coupled to the output of
the amplifier, a resistor should be used, from the output of the amplifier to
ground to increase the class A bias current and prevent crossover
distortion. Where the load is directly coupled, as in dc applications, there is
no crossover distortion.
Capacitive loads which are applied directly to the output of the amplifier
reduce the loop stability margin. Values of 50 pF can be accommodated
using the worst-case non-inverting unity gain connection.

Power Supply Recommendations

For proper operation, the power supplies must be properly decoupled.

For decoupling the supply pins it is suggested that 10 nF capacitors be
placed as close as possible to the op-amp power supply pins. For single
supply, place a capacitor between V+ and Vsupply leads. For dual
supplies, place one capacitor between V+ and ground, and one capacitor
between V- and ground.
Precautions should be taken to insure that the power supply for the
integrated circuit never becomes reversed in polarity or that the unit is not
inadvertently installed backwards in a test socket as an unlimited
current surge through the resulting forward diode within the IC could cause
fusing of the internal conductors and result in a destroyed unit.

LM324 (Quad Operational

Amplifier)

Description
The LM124-N series consists of four independent, high-gain, internally
frequency compensated operational amplifiers designed to operate from a
single power supply over a wide range of voltages. Operation from split
power supplies is also possible and the low-power supply current drain is
independent of the magnitude of the power supply voltage.
Application areas include transducer amplifiers, DC gain blocks and all
the conventional op amp circuits which now can be more easily
implemented in single power supply systems.

Pin Configuration

Feature Description

The LM124 provides a compelling balance of performance versus

current consumption. The 700 A of supply current draw over the wide
operating conditions with a 1-MHz gain-bandwidth and temperature
compensated
bias currents makes the LM124 an effective solution for large variety of
applications. The input offset voltage of 2mV and offset current of 5 nA,
along with the 45n-A bias current across a wide supply voltage means a
single design can be used in a large number of different implementations.

Power Supply Recommendations

The pinouts of the package have been designed to simplify PC board
layouts. Inverting inputs are adjacent to outputs for all of the amplifiers and
the outputs have also been placed at the corners of the package (pins 1, 7,
8, and 14).
Precautions should be taken to insure that the power supply for the
integrated circuit never becomes reversed in polarity or that the unit is not
inadvertently installed backwards in a test socket as an unlimited current
surge through the resulting forward diode within the IC could cause fusing
of the internal conductors and result in a destroyed unit.

LM35(PRECISION GRADE
CENTIGRADE TEMPERATURE
SENSOR)
Description
The LM35 series are precision integrated-circuit temperature devices
with an output voltage linearly proportional to the Centigrade temperature.
The LM35 device does not require any external calibration or trimming to
provide typical accuracies of C at room temperature and C over a
full 55C to 150C temperature range.
The low-output impedance, linear output, and precise inherent calibration
of the LM35 device makes interfacing to readout or control circuitry
especially easy.

Pin Description

Possible Connections

The above shown connections (that of full range centigrade

temperature sensor) are employed in this project.

LM35 TRANSFER FUNCTION

The accuracy specifications of the LM35 are given with respect to a simple
linear transfer function:
V OUT = 10 mv/F T
Where

V OUT is the LM35 output voltage

T is the temperature in C

FUNCTIONAL MODES
The only functional mode of the LM35 is that it has an analog output
directly proportional to temperature.

POWER SUPPLY RECOMMENDATIONS

The LM35 device has a very wide 4-V to 5.5-V power supply voltage range,
which makes it ideal for many applications. In noisy environments, TI
recommends adding a 0.1 F from V+ to GND to bypass the power
supply voltage. Larger capacitances maybe required and are dependent on
the power-supply noise.

DIRECT CURRENT MOTOR

A DC motor is any of a class of electrical machines that converts direct

current electrical power into mechanical power. The most common types
rely on the forces produced by magnetic fields. Nearly all types of DC
motors have some internal mechanism, either electromechanical or
electronic, to periodically change the direction of current flow in part of the
motor. Most types produce rotary motion; a linear motor directly produces
force and motion in a straight line.

CONSTRUCTION

The very basic construction of a dc motor contains a current carrying

armature which is connected to the supply end through commutator
segments and brushes and placed within the north south poles of a
permanent or an electro-magnet as shown in the diagram above.

ADVANTAGES OF DC MOTOR

1. Speed control over a wide range both above and below the rated
speed.
2. High starting torque.
3. Accurate steep less speed with constant torque.
4. Quick starting, stopping, reversing and acceleration
5. Free from harmonics, reactive power consumption etc.

DISADVANTAGES OF DC MOTOR
1. High initial cost.
2. Increased operation and maintenance cost due to presence of
commutator and brush gear.
3. Cannot operate in explosive and hazard conditions due to sparking
occur at brush ( risk in commutation failure).

LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED)

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a two lead semiconductor light source. It

is a pn junction diode, which emits light when activated. When a
suitable voltage is applied to the leads, electrons are able to recombine
with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the form
of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence, and the color of the
light (corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the
energy band gap of the semiconductor.

WORKING PRINCIPLE
A P-N junction can connect the absorbed light energy into its proportional
electric current. The same process is reversed here. i.e. the P-N junction
emits light when energy is applied on it. This phenomenon is generally
called electroluminescence, which can be defined as the emission of light
from a semi-conductor under the influence of an electric field. The charge
carriers recombine in a forward P-N junction as the electrons cross from
the N-region and recombine with the holes existing in the P-region. Free
electrons are in the conduction band of energy levels, while holes are in the
valence energy band. Thus the energy level of the holes will be lesser than
the energy levels of the electrons. This energy is emitted in the form of heat

and light.
shows working of an LED.

Fig