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    Konstantina Oikonomou
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    Bulent Gokay

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    The turkish independence war and bolshevik Russia

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    Bulent Gokay

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    132 views30 pages

    The Turkish Independence War and Bolshevik Russia

    Uploaded by

    Konstantina Oikonomou
    Bulent Gokay

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    of 30
    Teun paresie ih the Md Amie tl he Arise le ove the ne ofthe Emp wa len laced in ‘he od ofthe Beth and hae ‘AllsLecoslledenclaes Weald rlae the defeated Emp edit ‘eed nly da thre wuld Bran rizanceo ieee ln ems le ower wth enc vlvement be forania and woe imgorane of al, la, eal no allow Tih Miro be seed without ive pact, Kwa nly trl or Bi oad he engl ad he ees eaenene nth gon among fe Allied powes rsa eoetged fom the Wat wh ts imperial domala mc evista aI addon new eto in che Mile ‘New Ea ame Geman sonia Ais ondin ce Paticame Medianeat Mes © ppdnensatetemensatten terse a oss de Bh cot! The fone cartes of vor and foe We eben cented aoe opie lew of bliss ta ‘loa ne ui ese ere une the dete {elof toe Bets Engle: The eon wat xml the Wat (pos nd so mainain sang Bah ance the expen the ‘Teed pares The Ta nd Grmanasppetceotenoconende: ‘Serandtc bidet sod Rann dar toporrlstona pla hac eel inno poten to campeon ea ers ith the ‘i Tedd oe ager i pimp todinpes: Ons Mew owe gay ac sought of he eae pie Beh vis be eng noi powth of Teh htonal reaance movencos in Analy and song oleic ‘hits or die acknoradgmet In the Caan eed with par ‘auc algnment ene thst fre Ban ws fod ‘le the fc tha could not afd the angoveral ane ‘uucs ees Thecoia fhe epan messing to expesive "Fk Soret ooperton ceded couvelancegthe Bt liven inthe repo: Bt prs ofthe re vain SF Aewcin de Aled ugar of te acl Ramin ‘alr ts Rosl ove the Tus raat andthe Bees choke ame “Al te cele ofthe peer pe Tub Sve ‘operon uy nef te me demain Tero mn {he evve for ect one f the dere te eof Thre orbs fh oe Wa Th element, ‘Soviet ooenenin They pens the mot ieeing and abe ‘Bers inenlae ae pctv ee oh peo oem aks hito-rting ha ong ben omit lot ein by th ovoton ote Tuk nena wavenest {herr Mah Kemal Acs? Mae of he pecou web ‘iter en Marla Renal om scot, whch va ined» (So nthe neue to ine hi pial eampetito on ‘The Tah ndepedene War e ah poston! The eratonal nese eevee ‘dsedton ber ltr sete prethe Tah at ‘movers th loners oe Sve ealement ‘Sti np ae ro pect on pote ep ie “The hucovl wig af the pet apps ree ee mee coved pall ond sopl Comeau rel ttent ean ey Be eed me ain fe ‘Stow tele ater than cand ly withe wd of {he Te poor rally of pry ore a ng Poi 0 ‘ee ach elfcngency atl ue een ce ‘ia ofl wchivs cm the ped were eli of ent 12 ‘eh in bos Tay and he Sov Un Teche ope teaver reve en romiag se 4 Ra ih recto the admin sd sas tthe srciver Arp oh pnt balunton psc, oe nthe Potcevelsorary aches in Mowom an ai ceo Siglo> ‘tc nd pltia ecard hy sn myn we om Soviet Tah ‘elas the pose 18 ped. rer oe cee i dee he he res fhe at seenty yen, perf eT Independence Wat Spry Sovet inseam il emai he le Eo url Turksh hina Tae cpering a the raw sive, ope ‘ends reevaacon the enna ncn othe peat “ua serdenent, wih epesena velo wey areal ea chew the lowing ence lc Tllevegvesene Hen stout the conc ef Sov lg an wich pect othe Tush ‘eslenct a el he le of Sv ppt Ta nde ‘pendence ne My es ee py ory, The eting we Anan, cpt of atonal Tuy, tn ay 152 An edn Beh ese, “ clay aed Marae Sgh, saved by Kemal toes Ma Seid pone oreo Anke ra dle ofthe Ps Kat [Chie xe nan Mn pg ree Tih a ‘eral nse Hes le och very vu chars of epi arog the proceeding of that ea. af Sap cadens He lesen ethene of pe Bis rpaa binge ‘uy Beth aes in Contant’ Artal. The ses Eee ete a fone poner Engh cen who wee ‘hecho pees nat heme Fea meotaned spect can ‘ec hard wth ating esi the ston of ara Kena ‘FreKenale abort epred tht mp doer ateter (viene areal eablaig the pula th cue adeome {i ta poo cing thon teaver she Bei py He ‘este ln oie any rs eal aig yh ne Incenrlon nd each the aly Ath end of tet ats ‘Shira ound guy sdimedacly eased “en Maye Ragan om the Beth High Common In CComraningl eto concn tem to the Ban Foci. (heen he Mi Sagrada, nding ‘Sct hfe be repealing menus ate" Se ‘herr gute low Howeves te the dooments nde Maro ong acter iment he ce The doses date thet wee Sit Ilene wih ped of the Ania goverment be aye the Bh oun he svi f Mets Sght They ther {Ren tht te Jeumenay erence ou Ms Shit ae {Drea csteTah ven be heaved iv Aaa ety ‘Sou inane 19 oth Howe of Commons, one Mambo Braman, Mex Conti. ex sd th een Oe wha fete war a Sot cone i the whale ae of Meals ‘Sar The Faep Ofc mpreeranie deine! eo ane andthe tl eet poe car hte Beh ere pout thet Tash hve be eed Sole lige “he Tush Indepndenee Wer 6 Nowy ithitcaeimerany, ace bey nat doe el ‘ans nthe en! Re aly geese of ow el teenie ele tener “hors te, ven ote ‘femme ies ra odode ‘Stes hig Fea an ine cet Mire cou The sector ley tlggen en Be eeed 0 e tn of th Cpt Depron is Os fhe Site ay Bassa way 191) The Gps Dep ens ectm abe al Ceri lary Ns ‘Rina Mah 58a layedanpepane lo the cls Ions tenet shoe fot ‘fetes reve Te ne ch of Sone lier fqn at in Tastee Ail ed ben Tagence nf epi ee a “fom il ones Ao was poly reponse free 4 ; “6 ey see opens in They, pci ug the Luanne Cone ‘Shere isoged Mow sou he enn, ne daca thecomarl tbe Keli, Due o Alo isc nd clove sae ‘toe and bile! enact ning mint nthe Ae over he Eee air wat eto a ele [RSrreing the tenet on he Tsk SFr nares, ‘rom ne the Caneence fica are to daca the Ses Soetion the Bev Kew ha he ee wold Bel tbe ia fae” lowing the Lausanne Ten, the Tuksh eto sce ‘Aw af heling the lel aces of Tn commana. Al ‘hough hey dns pt hw ny even Art (Sle ack o Meso son lar, Howerer he enti fw ‘rei in Tsay cll wt 1935, wen be war ed Gol "The asin he Sov epretnnie in Tice ho bets onsaoesue of Sapte beeen Mca and Ariane the ‘fanny of ena Toe Bt sg of an acl wept Isis elt eee Trak tacit od the Boibevla an, traced bck ony 9, Daring he at hal of 1913, bet ‘legune sd por whch werent Coles fo oth Rasa Sh Trent deed he statin Otantngieand {Shin in pene all Tere ina Neko ep dated 20 Ape {919 abouethe eee eau hen he Aller Coneaacle sour Tutt cons so dg teal. The epee aes ‘Faccol a Conantnple the Aled pole ete 300 Tush “aout The ps comin with be ober tal ich fepenoe cen ttWarem ao pS eine ane the Tatas poplin” "yen oven the Tchad Sot esd been abe led the Chen neat 118 As part the Bobi etn SESS ecereesan “The Th ndepeedence Whe a ‘angie a ou of Tuk commnit anne a he Cine en Monn en 22 Jus 1819. Tht cami, ed Mtl Si.” were th lg mene of he Genero AIPRasian Vi lin wh iad bee sled in Mancow fete Blnevi Reve Seton, Sahl and his comme alan bef ulin cam ‘i inthe Cres, nd ated eal ina with Ana ‘When the anBshevk Wht Ramla ares acne ‘penon23 Ap 12 the rw ft the ees or Om The ae {yea ft he lel opotton mavens na the ‘Alien Tiky the Begining fee fe Soir revi ‘Asal Another gosp of Tesh soni aed in Oem ‘aly May and fo he according to he aco of uth 8 foe Tks cans wet Tce nce cad alc Nay, ene oup to Conan the her eo a Back Sex prt of Anat The dt clot sneer nh Mista Kea nous landing Smsun oo 19 May 1918. On 25 May, Kel west ote ehberg owe Hav and acre Th out thee ‘ea Bolbevie lpn” Since thee ro ohe Ger aout che ‘eng one can ey sect on the mente ofthe Blevik Aelpuon, But ate de ofthe mesg gute by dhe Tush occu clneer wh the pone dt fetal ofthe Tui “oui ened Sl oem aly ht Ble ‘deacon igh the oy of Tush omnis ec fo Cee bys To ramen beer Ana at Moxa cetiue ing tt fh ya edn 120 Th it Soviet Takey ‘fay speed by the Bole Plural 900 ‘The wate which tntonced Stare Hla ste fit Soviet eps Tsky i cided the dco treat i « (they tor Tak, kn, Alana Ii and se Fa Ba” win “the Been depute fh Ae fae Gen Sea “Te impr pote ping sei ef he Soviet ovens Aor we nthe ely ay of 1931 Tesh ii Nene ome war earerpenent of he el ne er You Dina flowing the cote the rer By Kenai ‘theca, weet he ove ent big Anka xg ‘Sco, he balling wu sarande y pled Tush = lee and Namen wa oa om he any tae The ‘Sove rpesettive st Anlrs Bus Maan fd elses laa fv daybed oie toch Tit pic. A ‘nema Noro wre abntelaene Chet acted ‘aot Tish communse ho Thats ae ‘Mion! ees tos Nidan espn reson ns Jerarto Neomindeloseyig at Sets apie plete ot psy eve ‘conto che alee pec thar eno ‘Sed ith he wr logy of my te atl ite to, wil never sl ea pale ‘pet hepa akosch apenon cn 5) “Te ineienebetwen Mav Asha and Natoma Maro olen ne tea hou che lal ong Bewen Mov and a eprentesin the epan Thine wn {hi prs, mre rtm tan we aed ot abe Mao ‘he boheme enlistment ale te ee moe nlped ne hel om nae athe han gt ‘laneing decison Maxam Tate whe he onan” ‘SE ebout de soir eternal ey and ede ‘sclera of eahonary el er ll the dist Secs of motbatn Grange aero Baer ei, The {Senate wea he epee ofthe Sov mae te evaninmcce | | : reins wee me ly be “penal ection” wich ‘Si lnipeners-nnded ha asa oma "Tom nich nee, Ronee, abi ose weno’ hat ‘Chichester opposed othe reve fy agenton a propgoda Tey ppt oa ilo Ee enor only Alston he fad fom an ator ck [feuded wether nest hen fh Bb it four we etal with te Sipe He wane ken ‘rir ftp ede Howee be blind tte Sole ere in aposion 0 xl tedence among he eapaltponts and anon he lade of (35 Scoyeo beaten mowemee tebe Ea Foe hil be fuel pal of tonal Tecpel eg les ow hi convene dl Felaesclacnar a “Tevet dosmests Chi ssc the poe pon Miso Age 2 Fame ‘ih whom tbe Biber Feat pegonl © yt rene gale mailed vo spt Casal Cai hse Tos pepe oe Me Sve Pu, nrg se 19, bd le och Steger cm one ethene. ch ther Bole Matin wed The Seen ede morn th ca athe Soviet athe ae end of Malen Feo anlage” "Freee ower een oe ade Agent of Mc 1, Soviet perenne one ‘Seana an propane the Bisa Ene” Caches ‘elaine pps t pb the pen More, Sle {he gl Sateen lta cing sou ped » prego ener 0 ey in bebodainfte Soe pied oe nia Cher chined hc rr ning nv i ino thepperonon Fini athe reenter Std the pea Tey lt oe cn iat Br ope es as osc ‘om tan hhh tie lo ‘ner Thre wide commie dea! Tet oe pace paenenor a ‘Ser mt oe Res "ie nr ites te Tah nn! mayne solute il alciieeherEmendapelioe se ‘ent me pena pen Fv ek ‘sheen np fom Sees pie Bon ‘er All Atos ie Dole ato ped in Picci ed Serpe hey Sy en moore ts eae Se te ge i Sovec ldog pe of poset nbne ntl ee Renae [Someone hy ned ore ep ops See tf dooner e Co ire eh wikis thls Kenta aly th Fol SENSES chy waldo ‘ny een eee Aaa eee Reccleleonent e's taco Bran Tey so ntl eh Ser gr cee ‘iT eone of h poh teecn ceed me setae Ss tb coy indeed oe ae “ed mer lc peso née Tb ee ee Ta pee ae ees ens lene he eee "sce andeiMocos sacs easton hat wit Sette typ at ere Sve Js oforpenceclompoens Betton ley ‘The Tr Independence War 5 eto ep ewe i he et won sd te ett anatase a ems eos Lb Seat pl om ge ley op Sinton te caine Tes pled tented pce he Sve slg reel ae oar ‘ey ted cig jr mca Se ok ‘prom Te ass pede wt ge Sealy pecan eee ca eg tere sonatas ese in etn el nae th pp oael ok Hover et ao ep enin the t asta! ben pla yee ee ‘pater Te Selene San hat ary ‘st fehfoun tary duane od ‘Slee ext Bh res lee ope eesti pep eye cee ceptor gener erage improve their bargaining position sgnificanciy. Serbs! Tete he a ss Sa eh aed va vs” Diet ens ti page voces i any ein to nui ey Te ‘Seva nena Sen Te aon at epee mete hehe adevsalen ene terse a Ser tine equ ow pol Sore fees sib he ce ced Seen Tey a mata etnrnes uy 21, deg he ne ap eile sere lanl eRe gic nar derdin te fet Back ee Da ee ne {Fa Fo wk set nn Som Ee Hi | eee 2 sey Sh apd tbe de fhe Meow sed Comma “key cele oo wan ae “Te ou ened Tey le Deeb sd nat need (uber han Teton on thee pemaned pte nar. On 28 Januar Sil ho weand geen tering en Seep stot yh Ta ath in To erase {Bans bane hey emt othe oe a "helborad oretok heaton lek rn one the fe bo ied “Aceting 2 Comite eign ep, cerain Oran ‘Agha om the Gin aren, apes erponter he rer fe Teh commis nw so the Black Sx ne ex rman Agta oe at Wg erin the Black Sea ‘thn andlonl toa Kenal Onan ghana aren ween Tehave conde yack aut the Arann od Gre lage: lng the earn Bc Son cnet econ othe Aaa “The Ania goverment eo ded ny nee a ‘etl pl ps Mal Sand ed a mt ma {eid Accord Tangy, eran edn te cies th neo the History te Tats Reaktor show it Shanes int lo berween hepa othe muri, hema eemor of rar Ham By, and Kann Kamei, comming fa ef the Ta tial open the ot on™ at sya efor 111, wt eos Kay abit Sentanunber el anton Bey on emanded ht OP Seieed eo Tain fr Separation Hor Bey, cI Jr, sed haf Kran dein Rema cfr saved a 8 Janey” “The dace ted by Tangy conf fed dvb hat he “rie geen stan lente "Bl Seance ‘instr an Hane By the one the soe poner elie ‘rand thetheranteputnloaegevenve the Ak “The Tt independence Wie 5 ovement congpedcn ¢Mutaf toAnaalla. Moe ‘riba cone thar hen arith alonp ee Ueto Foon af Bato” Hist Keats fly fv of the aman, Howereg th pete ke of Mal ‘op abla Hams ying bout al endo ce Sh comms poabed ‘yn Sovi rant es ot sno amma hon. Te luck In eaone The muss pee the fe etme of te beaten movemenee orcrmen creo eon a fil poe of soon ‘Brian seo of the feof the Toa corms bye = Nose “Fo neo he Baek eds Thay aime a sean For nmane wea th Kelis ree oe I t i Py Oiey iene pt, a ctr eyo he seria Catan snow The repore sates that the cea victdes ofthe Kelis fed qven an immense impetus to Moelem national. actvies in a oe cae tec 1 thre he Tin tm hte mpd a ea att mon Tey br te ssf Repti en pie cine sag ERE Eile aes tr Cavan el Ose Feat wih Germany cds cl ton i Mo's nono So ene Cert a eed ung te el ee dnmcrer DIG Hwee, th the eli {SpeGe pvemet Onc e t ce Sinn Sa sien Garany wars pce: sonata or eee snc ee cee an mle ner alg he hee Rae ‘eae Be Cran Nr ee id ae cman a en tv earn Sent he a, oes ne ‘ime we cn ied ca Sn Ine cru 119. Dating his pec, ere Moco te hl ier every a ere eT apne Ben Rae had rg tenet to Rel Wrens tne othe Set legen oe ae ee Wot! an Se Comal Hovere be bat Fe ane abe Geman mths and acued of eangs eo er wane de led» iy inthe a che ewo sides. He, with che het eng Us cs, (ead fon Tuk lately afte the conclusion ofthe armistice Ia dfn Ti eal cy af Tak pli 1 ed ee WIR ered fan ‘The Tl ndpenence Wr 5s eld umber unions with Geman aly expe Bei. ‘The sain theme ofthat dacs wate eret ts ens silts song Tukey, Soviet Rani and Genny. Ener Pas Aecrmined won what he cald be co poe cede et x entting the cafe x Tah enuf ape ‘seatea pest on api he Alles Je eo iro the Tih outa hat Eger Pa went to Moscow a et itt 1920 td cennundtgrarte fe ambos Sri Genan- Tah allnce* Yeo ilo che Babi pach ch Aratalan ovens ee fee yea 9196 BE. A Neckomdel leer oe Coe Cenmite ofhe RCMB ates hat "Enver has sey thoes ssf the elon ay Soares ‘The mo igo vec we hive of his he o Tih Sole Oetman lac ous of at the Reston Bs, wate by Mace Ticbnke” Teun 16 192, seta nent daly Ben ced is Moe ‘od hat aly nd pla uber In Germs ha ea evil maa anioce othe sates othe ee Toeleseas Natonindel sow the pel concord okey by srng that the Germans were rey to perch te ate ‘hough th Tih Bk Se prof Tan abut hati eon Sim ani Bata, ordain Peep” "ei of come dfs oases the real eieance och an 5 oitey sewenen co the bit of Tichink' ere wold noc eee a bower, with be pr ua che referees eae (si tonmme tucich an ndetndng lia anand inthe malaton of ove Trkish copa i es offal mir pc he Arie sun ston oe nde of efeins ecu” emg che ce hat German ‘eet adware (ti ha cone hough i) had cra ‘pocin the Tusish raion se Soe Tah ase at ‘hata ea oe ofthe mleary mace a cae Ral ‘seven 1920and 1923 war Geman-ade™ “Tae i oe lnomation rpg te ele anc fost even Rostas tothe Kenai or sburhow mh hie soe) ‘nefom Germany. ngeltingdrumern, fears ae pen Fer ance na om thy areal to Sein Sac ‘econ "th Tish dma oe 150 lan ald ible a ue ‘aagenton fret pole” The sume lear tho ‘Sem milion had ben pith oo lone pad” Si ‘seth Iter snothes Nein sae ate kth eae ‘Smee th Ge mended on ex ly of fy aon $34 ‘aioe Then ft clei ated Ip Neck eta ie ‘one old beeen onthe ers ‘A hese a ct oI hope, provide an ea shot he vel swthoreda vere ofan fc Fe Wot War ch . Ege eee see ‘The Ti Independence We oot 2 ww an that me Neste too the peo 2 lnrined inp al agping Crvnunee of mediate poe ‘paethe ia cole, well ed sine led eves reat of ever ume reeds dee ty ao bins. To se lcs ine State and Class in Turkey 'A Study in Capitalist Development ——— CAGLAR KEYDER wit = LEER ET 16 ~i0- 1990 SLoropass® et pubted by Verso 1987 (G08 Cabae Render ‘Bhp reserved UR. 6 Meard Street, London WIV SHR. USA. SAREE SEE Sucee New Vor, NY 10001 2292 “Verso i the imprint of New Left Books Dri Library Cataloguing n Pubeaton Data QUE acd dln a Tukey: «sud ‘T7tumney — Economic conditions ine ois Hew US Library of Congress Cataloging in Puiaton Data Kepder, Caplan Be ss a Tse T'Turkey™Ecosemic conditions, 2. Captaism— Tater Hhry Sos Satan Caplio — HOR KT 1987 3889801 87-1480 ISBN o-se001-165-9 REN 00001-89729 obey “Typeset by Pentcor Limited, Hy Pied in’ Great Briain by Bias Le Contents Acknowledgements Introduction 1 Before Capitalist Incorporation TL The Process of Peripheralisation IM Tue Young Turk Restoration TV. Looking for the Missing Bourgeoisie V_ state and Cepitat VE Populism and Democracy [VI Tac Rolie Henomy of tapor-Substsing \ jestalsation| ‘Crisis Dynamics 1X The Impossible Rise of Bourgeois Tdeolosy X Conclusion as Epilogue Index 212776 4 ‘The Consequences of the Exchange of Populations for Turkey Caglar Keyder Introduction “Theexchang of opultons of 1973, together with the Armenian deaths and ‘poration dig the art Word War can he agued fo have coms {Aoroet ipo ator indtning the new Task ont ef the ‘ental fects on the Turkish natin state the two popaion expulsions ‘ere paral i thes impact, and outer res nthe formation ofa el heal cleansed Turkish cay. Asa result ofthese displacement, tbe “Twhih Republic was founded oo the basis of «slave homogencons | ‘population ov tes one nw uch alain of omnogeny at tak Each increduy Belore I acum the specie cae ofthe Tari nation state i mist be sate tat the demograpi and posal earulene af the period bremeen, Tote and 1024 in Turkey was by no means unig. Indeed, kas tine du {ng which many mation sate propounng ome el of enc homoge sree lhe brought into being bes lea aap to. They at of Cour, Ten imagined ding the previous entry when the sigan es po ‘ding mpraton to atone everywhere were wie, waa the wa, werent fered s unique opportunity foul to realise these goal, ‘Specialy when both the American prossent andthe loader othe Resa ‘Stilt revoldon prociaimed that self determination of uations would Tener beth politcal principle undryiog the oration of tater Tefoe tho war, the nol path appeared a oe of he various ler vn that might shape the future ofthe Complen eatonsip between © Gate ‘ontop potical ui, erative uch a the contusion of empitee ‘on perhaps the formation of other non auton sate ener under Use eps of {aba berlin. Indoed, had here bows a remrgence ut Hoerlai s [owble tha ompzes ands goal markt for goods and capil could have rived sto the went canary. The portrayal of pre sar empresa lp Iisa unwieldy ramonos craig de oir ne he att ‘Stcommodste modemiaton i inscarate, Tay ween fc at igoroan ‘Esuily wonkale ener njuning tothe tates and evolving toward 4 ‘odemacdsdminseraon, the ale of wand 2 menue of pita ep ‘escotton Nation sate of ome, encapeted a radial dllerent ind ‘of moderasoton, wha ew sat-socet rlatioship and de passionate ‘slogy of atinalm tht Hberaso died Tesmedtely after he wars Word opinion suggested that the formation of nation aies out af od empnes represented the way world torial progress would move [Matus 1083), several de facto o dee populaton Erchanges occured in order t collec varios peoples together teroriot that were soppore to bere af elie homogeneiy, ast bers wee tdsplcel inthe alsling Germaa, Aura Hagaian, and Ruoian [Empire The exchange boneen Greece ad Take then, wa ee ot {neriable comments ofthe domiz fhe old oder of pier Although [Evolving & ge and brval placement, was ought of art necemasy yong te coy fay on, oe indi coment he sm fhe Lausanne enchunge maybe seen apa of {he period ulin aid the negoated and legally acceptable ~ hence ‘ved = versions elie lansing ‘The Ottoman inheritance Among the empires the Oman had bee aacomer to modern: ste nly afer he Tarsmat in 1880 tat he poi ete took for sr (Guiy d sred forming an adminigtve order based on the dea of ‘Rekeraat By the ed ofthe cotary wi zea and egal aong ‘nbjects and oidrty among Se lth ee i sppeaed atthe od “pre the chance of reerting tif Dering 1098 se ao Salzman {iM Lam, not democracy, was conser tobe the oundaion of acl aad policed ths shat conten meant, and a longa capa [Rows and an expunding smart guranteed st ea some economic mprowe ‘Bont wi promin fret ome socal oder could be maataied “The ce Shred loyally toa bles Ottoman even i thor were di pratt content Inthe the fated ot eek to bomagene he Population inthe ame of» sgle ei, confensonal or Hnguate alle in’ The aja were ie to contract and deine thei eno, sly trihin the bounds of the relfou communien Unik the ation ste, he [nperal ated aot sek to prove iba with ange nara of nie ah fey | 4 belonging wa scent tha they showed ‘pts twa he empl ‘Otherwise they ere free to deca tremarver Ara, Kurd, Armen, ‘Groce: Th war the model under wich Ge Otomas government ope ‘stein the pero iading up tothe Faw Worl Wae Daring he wart ‘war acen ha patriot slang sc ins ws not pty gan thar [Greeks and Armenians voluntered to oun the any and dee the cmp agi coven an “however, use pottd ot hatin the clsing period ofthe expe the hold ofthe origina relgious communis on nda wat no Tonge stfcive aw append to be according tthe leprae da {0 sscerain i cera yper of ondary tangs bebo sc it ‘marrage inreaed, but there crtaily wat an ites wilingnes fo mide ol regions or milan! ctogores tore lecble and open ‘ange Indians convere wth ea and postions themes Wain 9 ‘newly Forming empire wide society (Devingl 1000) Lage cies beeame ‘onnopaltan places where ees ssocited on te bso poles sad omy ‘Bon interests Municipal scans ste lodges sed Caracas and Seca rid cn wan ea ‘athe ably toggle nl nd conmeptan senies sucecaly Reydet 1098, Key 19004) This not ty that atonal movement ot he uporateiete of the mls were oc Tonge in evidence Tn act drag ‘hetnetend century, nd expecta daring th wo sort ied plenty Piods corporate stucare ad taken on new soe, becoming soe ep ‘eattve in cares, Compate with Oto sad ape cheesy {Boe fom of representation related dlezent conception of te empire on that al tobe ensued of erporate groupe This conception was that ‘of tho elie, bac did appear a ae rough wich the ete recone the “een needs f te Conaencies. Ths done expat the lca ‘Social bse of he eventual seeadaney ofmatonaat move? "The fac that there were mona movement id not nec imply {he hegemony of separatist atonal, for there were always sooypetag ‘tients win the sume comsituenclon I event sueadaney, however Indicated that external creumances se the war, were conde to ave sy eye Une nin oni en hh nd sive afl; and with he danption of commodity sod exp ows daring ‘he war, de reesabltiment of the Uber market could aly bean impos thle dream. The exchange and other similar accommodation’ of the ‘ations eal si to the appeiton af ths psy “Aspects of the exchange {esas daring the war adits mane sfermath hate foundation forthe formation ofthe Turkish naoosate were cabled. "os aia poor Intemon of forming an elnically homogenous non sate to the perp | Ctr ‘at of the Armenian masszrer andthe Grek xchange may not be ut Tibi However bythe ine toe Terk Repub wae lial founded: he fling le cou claim ta have cleansed the tctory of ale enie ‘ements ‘This undersanding of ‘lcnnent” war bared on selon ‘lined concep of etn Inter words the mae wa recanted ‘he mins oft founders a one constutd of Musing, and wa he poe ‘pe that hey appod dsriog he exchange, a fc several groupe fected by such as the Terk speing KaramaaltChsian Oxhodox and the (Greckspeakng Cretan Matlins, wanted o remain out ofthe exchange For policing on both ade, however, conceptions of ellie homogeneity ‘ued fr more than the prince f if desermination The evento th at quarter of the mneecnh cent ba lea nt edhe process of ehni homogeniation within the terror that later became Turkey (McCarthy 1983; Karat 1985) Ax the empire ot land 0 ‘issn Atria and Greece, some two lion Muss emigated fom these temtore othe hearand of the empie. The Now consnued ducing the Balkan Wars, now induding reverse drei of Chetan reluges a wel ‘Bagweea the Balkan War apd the Fes World War, 10,000 Gres or he pire were reputed in Macedon, the Crock lands and mld (Groce and asia umber of Maslin refugees mal orn Greek occ pled Macedonia seed sn Anatol Follang he pater an exchange ‘nth Grecee wa nt broached in Api 1914 when the Otoman goverment ‘roponed an exchange of populations between Greka inthe Aegea ira fd Mim in Macedoat pla hat remained unease. ‘One othe nic eomeqoete of oman moderation which ought to ‘res eal ject corded wis incatip ight wa sc ne tose Sones fhe 108 aw fr nivera conserpion Ul then Mime servo iv anny and Chetan pencraly pd ecto avo mir service, How ter the new cnaional government made consripton tives. When ‘he warbegan andthe goverment call up the eres for mia sec, ita all posible fo by ons way ou. Poorer Grek, however, cold nt ay te compernaton ao sa had to ace conripton apt thea a ty igh bat many ter di not present henner sic deserted a2 Inter date. Some of de ane were deported. Creek nd Armin com Seip were mos atone in oor camp he inerior to werk on road frojace Many of tem died ter dering the macht he camps aera {rn Then te event de moe of 5 orang wich beaten ‘neal and wo tad ofthe Armenian population pred in mare, tie to dprvaon and dca, during fread marches Most 0 those Wh ‘Seapedenh ended pin other pate oe work. ‘Bing the war, large numer of howe abandoned by dhe Greeks ae they fat ot were deported from Anata were destroyed, In ove hat emalned, the Turkish autores bad setded Masti felages trom the alka and the Agean sande After the coclson ofthe Madros Arm {ce (81 October 13}, some ofthe Grek ho ba let daring the wae ‘red ctaring to Anatol: These Ue factor ake togeber man hl Capt Ean Tk | 68 ‘one of he immediate problems the aor of the Greck occupation faced ‘vas etc howsing The station worsened wi the star th skh Wer ‘ot dependence when Greks fom the itor of Anata gn fo tke {ete the Grec-occpied sone to the west With the outbreak of cine Iosties between Taksh nationals and the Grek amy, the pres towards enc homogennitonacqured anew momentum Sone Mane {Eom the Grek occapeed area related inthe terior, whe a eves owe ‘f Onhodox Chrattane took efage in mextorn Anata A it boce cleat thatthe Greck army mould evenly be fore oa, a thatthe Baik ‘would nat eur to War the outlow of he Otbodax population fom Tare [Greontolled aren accelerated. The Bal wave was of course ithe ate ‘Summer of 192 when, under the ost adverse condone, nor tha als Illon Greck Orthodox let Tukey snd tok refuge in Greece Th he tific exchange of populations applied enby to the 150,000 to 200,000, ‘Geeks woh been It bend ~ ox concentrated inthe Black So a ‘Mero ngont~ cut of» population ecding Ian, hese Grol wore tempt fom the compulsory exchange) that had been around a milion before the war and to abowt $50,000 Mune who were reacted frm (Greece andthe Aegean lands t Anatolia In 113, one out of five prone Inthe geographic! aren that now Tukey as Chan; bythe end of 1928, dhe proportion had declined ose fry ‘The exchange and the Turkish Republic “The mumerial and soll impact of the newly exeved refuges on Greece ‘eer mach restr than the npac of shuges in Tukey. Anata Greske Fepresented not ony huge aston to he existing popalation oes one ‘qarte) but ao «generally more educated and wealter group than the Tbdigenous Greeks’ However, the Muslims mo srived fe Tarkey ree ‘eset ls than four perceat ofthe population, were peed in ach larger land, were mosy sted inthe tune, aad fener id not Ive much impact onthe poi nd soe devlopzent fhe county i ‘ther words the pact of he exchange nthe fo soled ws set ‘Anat ony became ofthe susnbore involved but cleo bees he pe a fefge or exchanges dived great ‘When the exchange was decided upon, Greece an Tukey were at ier ot wages of nation-state formation, Greece had already ied ae = ‘ato tate fr aos contr, ad had fashioned a ideology commen fate wth the nationalist ideal on Greece, the Auta Minor Greskr were faced with adapting themselves tothe plica and ideology of an aeniy ‘xing state. Altough dee sbsopion wae ele ter egacy was ay ‘ible only the ela ear and musa! evel ann thet spon fot Teftwing plies The Turkish atom, however was ome thigh hit proce fethnic unmisng: The exchange, all athe Armenian deport ons, consid the foundation wep ithe formation ofthe nan sta 44 | Gutrtnte dea, Fortis ean, lificaltoiaalae the pat of the exchange on “Trkish society fom the wider proces of sation ae formation | propose ‘seegoian the flac of te poptlton movement 08 Terk soc develop ‘nent under fe henge: pat on tat-solty resto, ad pact 0 {he fommaon of Tra nal sod atonal eo, ‘Changes in the state-society relationship rng the nineteenth entry, te Oman eh undergone a proces of ‘modernston wards he cman of «Hera orde. Tho Sate ad sated {Gembrace he do of lfintation so hats ce oct asd on clon Sn rl of law could develop. Ts dare, de Pore’ lea been ans {cme om runing site bared on purenonal ponies oe Wha Jncreningy atonal bareasray respecting the nga dee The or gag ‘he on developroent deve fom both the aur and occ. Wie te ‘Boseazaton warn pata respons bythe pola ete oneal pres ‘Rieysvatle ced tio stomp conta and hence atengihen ae pce Tn th regard, the Otoman cao «good example the nett ‘Sconsy dynamin whi npr pstion and mds om above ‘hfe each oer in changing char o oate-oeke)reaonsip. "A these tine, oo, developing within Ube emp Was socal ru whose demands parallsied he nl ning relorms of the ate. In tbe ‘Tord, the ier economy ofthe nineteenth century nurtured apy [rowing peripheral bourgeois sho expensed a cen prelerence for Uke {iveralguaratoor of property right, and predictable legal and policy ‘rvonment However, hr eend war revered during and ae the war pee ‘ips thecetew aaron of which war the regressive impact of popalaton ‘movements onthe evoltion of the property rogimne "The concep of property =the mater adhe degre f respect fox, propery ghee pesbape the panel inde of aebieverent ite ‘ceilinnent oft succenfl eal yume oper eight are tbat ‘So igh that guaranty, hough the rea a, he tegstyof the Ind “idl agua the sate. Without wel stable conception of prop), ete ue rma arblary ~ perhaps commited to ome see of tc tad uy bot ot formally eons Inthe oman can, and ax property had ‘tayebowna problematical concept, becsse ently alld belonged 0 the nltan who i theory could conficte fst will Therefore, pomesion ‘depended on poll favour ia tanbul and the balance of power oealy, aot ‘nol enforce, In aon, there were land than he popaion ‘hull clavate with the prevalent technology. Acgustin of land a not [roblmaic nce there was no sears or pebitvepurchae pre, Eve [forelavely done populated Anges staal rns ough aed exe for {he nmr of the netsh ery oe comfy accommodated “The famous 8 egihton, rated spon oor premre and ae pat ofthe tated merisaon ef, specified he base categories op te fay | {naivdual property, altbough the wording of the legion war ambiguous, ‘But moe lmporay, the Otoman Eapze became ever more open (he world marie he vale of agus and othe sinctecnthceaty {Rereued. With reser commetaliaton, greater competion over land ‘hated Expecally fe the 1600s when the pace of ecm acvy was ‘EClrating onthe bc oftnresiog invent nagar aed fy, competition ver land led to'2 more definite conception of landed ‘pope. This one case where changing demogeaphic and ecanomic co ‘Sons rated a demand for siguiant berlin. Asso happened, egal change inthe form of doping western concep pope igi) war ‘ming anya, arly because sate moderation requ and pany Because of Fregnpremare “Hlowever daring the 1010, polical logic overtook economie concer sod ths Uberalistion was evereed. Ax Armenians and Gres le or we {orcedo leave, anded property was akan over by tcl power pol ‘ally connected individ Tn fact te proviias of the exchange tpnted {ata abandoned property was tobe considered "aon and reverted tothe state, What Used in pce was that land ae msc ad not ‘ben tized by loa! power beskerr were appropated by the plicl eie hd ranted 1 her cents “Aer 1923, te nom scarcy of land in Turkey and thi atm of dt ‘bution combined to reverts the Heal trend of te ate Otoman Expo, ‘wth the res tha a capaist conception of property was delayed fora long Sine, The republican ste became a einernaon ofthe Ganiel pation ‘Ouoman ste, diapecsing land and benefits to ested cea thereby ble perpetaate ts pron saturabove the law Ths station had long {erm and paral adverse elec In urban areas where the post 1090 ‘development of shantytowns was one ofthe diert consequence of the ‘smbivalet lp fexmework regulating property and land” "The matfal resources the epublc had neqed during the was prced lng its estblshnent helped srngthen st silrwards. As the os Asin opulation was eininae, dee propertis and postions became part ofthe lowe ofthe ew slat, which could now dette them t the popalaton. "Ths dtbuton verved batho empedias te eration ofa native Longe {nano make been oats. At he aoe tie, world ecole ‘ondions and dhe Molo! Zee to favour an iberaism anda ‘Ste-dcied economy. During te 19808 and the Second World Wa, hese ‘reumstanees facia the process whereby the eure of epi accu Tatoo cme under the al contre of the ae "The land station symbole and tute ofthe rations bebwenn ‘hettat and oct ha ar srk dering th making fhe repblc 20d ot the new socal ruc that emerged afer the depatre of hw Christians. ‘The peripheral bourgrosie andthe profesional mid class ofthe Ite ‘Otoman er, which had also provided the soil fore behind the mod train fort ofthe sate, had been overelesingy nom Mai. The ‘oeld economy f the ninetenth century, Based on ee tude and the Ke 6 | attr movement of capita, rsa oa our that nly cgnged ‘only ur mtmes btwoea reg chants Osoman peace of Setolarl and nr! pay produ Gradually, however tere mer ‘Sit cane men wh del ely mi oc maces ‘Shseqentybnchne manures theme ‘aly Urng aad wound the prt nor ce and ie pe cae toheemued by townumen nar Ata cer cr well By the Young ‘Raker oft cay trend cory, Anaton eis had brome ding ‘ato snd! were hwy to some and socal evelopment come ste wi ncent barges nd eduestd mide ces witht by “Scot hls epoing toe hows nt eoeing mca sree Maine wero nbs inxcapbl onequene of cpp Ison movement and ter enchnge wat the renova rom Terey ff ‘Sonoma and nil mon odersed ca Fuchermore te Mh iin'becsntnen who cad took over he bonnes epporsies now ‘rnb were se depeaden ofthe sn Ty bed scguied the Stuer and poi reser and twos ek behind by the Sepring ‘Ghrctos ough a poca prove andr te oration of ae pi ‘St, Thus hey fined tho stat ond wee dent nw ‘Sur wap Beside ute th prdecssr, hey ilt havete eppore ‘St prtcon ofthe losin power, and ofr longtime tere wee no ‘Pombo thet provadingeppontion othe sate forming sao icerbee of pial rg Dug "Fe te ton ta schol entl n repubca They et epee 1985} n ou Tague in et Contin wae the Oxoman pst The Onorn seo sserp chaged end Tsky ws now ever Spin an ane ven: The anauon heer sme tothe Tope {Shard reveal in dowlopenent Bat woud ave cae in ‘tong und independent ours capable of economic sty ad ap ‘S'stmuaton fee orn te tvolteent and nteence, Compared ste te Omen sate erp stat ns much es account [ilreloe moe secre sad ray oncom, acty wa ‘Sich wcne ponon terms bth ft egal mower foc fn {Eon and the cl scl isto eceny foregut ‘Rosson of tc coun the xchnage ws heroes othe provodemn nt ins ‘The nature of Turkish nationalism Such a reversal in the trend ofthe sate-aocey reltonabip could not ‘secur without a change inthe lgiating discourse of sate authori ‘Te imperil Ottoman idesogy of the top vel sit fo be sanded ‘What ook place was delayed reaction to, and sppopiation oy hat Ia led to the dsolton of te empire: naonalum While they baled ‘pura and redone, the Oxtomanstate elt bad Beem slow i mp fie Bef ey | a7 concocting thei own brand of nationalism, which, of course, would Ive Beem selfdefeating anyway. ance theie Stempl wat to preserve {he emis. Late, howetee when he lslhood ato ofa amos er tora sovereignty alter the Frat World War, the lite had no hoist oop for Tuk naoalism ‘Since the mid nintontcontiy in counts as diverse as Germany an Chinn naona had proved te wocabalay fr defensive modern, Inthe hed wodd th qeeion of modernity bd become nobly bound up wih tbe quest of comtrvtng the nation tate (Calhoun 1003). was idroaional fom above tin conte he oucngidooogy of te ow “Tisish Republic Inthe comer the ste demarcted the Boonie of te ation ancl determine te serps nie of which be necenny ly [lth colecve body would be dretend Ths was the perspective teat had {Biomed de plementton ofthe exchenge iano peowed ce jicaton for rejecting the pouty of fationing a eve wenty around which he popula, as an eget of indidual, might fn cobeon, OF couse, [rochdod te post a itzenspconsttted on Tounvation of pi pes that would apply egress of dilrences olga, lange orate Toston inthis type of eosin natn, the eras wesc sy ‘el olacveparpon (ef Greefld 1992) The national by ar spond (Gexgress homogeneity desoing rom eh uty, whch wo lien be mae ‘ncrte tough speaking ia single vice Hence he calli vison ‘Stunted tn utrianan mplenatatn bec ited fr ade of {steps and exprenars to bnew and sopreet the unique vice ofthe ‘ton easier that winded ar gener he projet of oda The procs of reorgning a a epubie Turks nationals was as {one fom beingan ete cours to tae ecg content lo had ‘erelahnned to accomodate the new cently of theta sate pic way in which had come to beng Throughout his roca al = asin [therolegaton of the manesto sn eatey pane potion. Tach national {in an cxiioe coample of attain here tie mae mune lent Proc, wale the moderniang elt didnt stempaaccommedate opal ‘amen within he nainait cours, Another ator explaining he ak of {ny popular fervour ide contin of personne! between Oxtoran eo {8 and repblican ional. However, notwistnding such conn Faricpaton inthe national movemest cold ave proved Ue ein xpetence requ fr aegsanee to the ae ragine, bu hereto there were problems Milry engagement wih Geach widely been perceived 3 ‘or apunt an one aggressor rater hana rug ana cloil pes {hers it war yet another miliary campaign to Be endured bythe aleady ‘mobilied Anan youth decd for Atlan peasy, wells for mos ‘tthe urban population, te new vepbe mut have looked very mod ke 8 truncated version ofthe Bape, except for the unavoidable at of the ia pesrace of the Christian popolation. Thus, the thllnge fr the mer ‘etcnalcdacome war at ln ta logit te new tae cy reine ‘ip butaleo to make mous odessa hanged popaation csp, 46 | Carte What ad acted the mane diel daring the nso othe Tks Republic ws the process af die nage; de expulsion, deport tion amnere aol cnchunge ofthe Armenian and Cesc mje ef he tmpze Rather than being poplalyaecaimed, however the event ain ating inthe expulsion and disappearance of some nine tenth of the Christan population were covered ep both in ail course apd in the ‘tional pee Amite there bad been Mask esontment ofthe Chis {in bjec epi ocala eromomic ar dung he nineteenth centro ‘tion the war years may have infamed the setments spun! Grecs, ‘Sposa in western Anatoli Novels, wha tanypzed was way out of [oporton withthe degree of host that mast have exited between He Populatons Sigieanly, the ney emerging nationale dsourse made no ‘ieton of any inigenive mf, Totew! i defined an external enemy = Srperalit powers -agunst which natonal bration had succacded. These tatnever ben any dncnson ofthe ee competion of Anton rep [cura tenbookt Gres aad Armenians are hardly evened dtl the an decade when scholars became terested in he cul hesage ‘ofthe empire thee wan no ncuion of the denegraphic compotion of ‘Ana rt othe repli eer Is noteworthy tat he psp eve tthe mattonalitstrugele was reprened inthe cllctive memory of the ‘ation, This sence may have beta ithe mone secesary beaare ofthe ‘trl benef hat hat acco he ae following he peal emoval ‘of thee ein mints, ‘The sm of aaonaliet cblaon i frsulted ppropition of toe teanscendot logic ofthe West At the sae ine, a succes atonaiae ‘movemen segues tht se navlive recuse wth popular experience and ‘couments (Chatterjee IDBQ). The ajo peclem wih maonalist iary ‘tng Thay was tat did ot ake no arco! popular experience ot ‘coment Ie not ol fom a nogeition ofthe teem betwee wh te ‘onal elite were eying to achieve, Le, moderation, abd what hed ‘tivated the tans to prtepat in he anal suga, ddd nok ‘temps to coe to es wit he events tha ome lenge sn he exper ‘nce of the partcipants, The story propagated through oft dieourse Sttred fem an lttoocobviou coneinen of serial epg in the proce of matonl constuction 20 ha axead tee an exerci a re Eice Because ofthe artical uaityitwar pose for he national ee to trea! the constroction of iso and national entity in an ote tse ‘mental fashion. The Version they consctd was hewily based tad the ‘modeeton pret was wockly deen inte secommodaton of op ‘lee laments sds the mance as pase vcipont of the meng bemoulded according othe blueprint ‘Thre selencesin every aain's history that under an active foto forget! Turkish natonalethertogrphy le stinguated byte enor of the efor to nepee the previous exsteceof won Turk populations i he Jand that evntualy became Take. Ia fats the bghimising delogy of the new sepuble however, Tuich nationals wag ivented agai he nape fee Bala ay | Icke of mse shin population compton Ii canto sce why the ‘Satoualen opted foram eae vero ofthe naonal marae: econeapt of “Trkrine was constrain an serpt to preset the resaiing pop Ion as emogenconr, and i glued over any rea diversity. Asin te che ‘ofall the val nationalisms tat emerged inthe empire, cis was done ‘ough employing the consul ofan unbroken ee sory reaching back tor mythical pst Inthe eas of Tekin aoa nana ete ‘hat ths etn story as ido erga notin he new hea of An {inti smyth peogmphy eel "Wat coe be how a the Tk isn thei was diet po ‘tof and instrament to seve thi lam Even today school len earn ‘hat Turks populated al f uri forthe migetons rom Contra Aaa ‘According to this teaching the orignal nhatans of Anatla ax well a ‘howe of thet proxate lands were of Turks exact. Having scepted {hi proposition st becomes say to sabsume te ate populations of Ana (els ino Turkhees~ hence te dacons in pray schoo exhooks ‘bout Hite and Sumaran Tas In the 1900, extreme verso of i he Ssaluo ined corollary chiming that the fst hunan language was ‘Te, and that al eer ngage dese from “The “Turkish hstry thes wa slog neceaty ta bas for an thi ‘atonal, As sated in Otoman heiography, Take badgradualy cone ‘quored Anatol afer the defeat ath Byzantine ayn 107 Given tha se ‘Sloe the ist World Wr = afer coors of empire and religious com ‘ersion and intrmarige ~ Christan sll constuted oe ith ofthe population ofthe ied lands was very deal a ague tht Aston ‘iat the homeland apd is popssion ethnically pare. Ion the her band, The ancient populations wire prot Tiky te ten wang would cons ttt the rnin of lon ence, Without spiel addrensng ths oosadrum, offical history managed to Imply tat the formation of the tion sae ae he deporion othe Armenians and he Greek exchange) Id enmed Anatoli sight be “The foundation ay chosen for nationalist course posted a eco ogi i distant ad “Orta Aye” or Cee ata which furore was Sipps to have undengoneeajor environmental eaformaton ng, the" Terks to migrate Consequndy, de land of origi could nly be ag {neds ran unreclaable not nly beesse war dant bt also bees Sear iereveriy altered Siguieanty, hs imagined land eld renter ely Than he conqucred and eure cupid Anni: National toys he ‘epublc we leoud af pal elerence There was on glean grog ‘apy of oly stn of character that act space apart. Anatoli act war no ‘Sider magia snd mystical ar Engl swith andape, Gera ‘st its nine and vr, Hance with is vasous sts and hexagonal space, {e Fasa wtholy ml, land, communi), Bn More sige, Paral locations snd fete of te geography ere regarded wt ace pion emir was considered infidel, Itanbul wae Byzance, while the ‘tl etches and sands were iaaed by "oe hose who mere not 50 | Galen aloo the afer of he capital ty fom Istanbul to Ankara» ‘ace without sigteatons tiesto the deseo ocle he new projet in {al pce deve ny nd sabe weight a oa, 2 {neva of nowhere war contucted to correspond to Oe claim inthe tl ds ot al rg ahr Tes ot diel o wpe ihn geogapical earangement was prompted ty nee elt to fnget a eras rr nemo the aocation of laces ‘Bat had ben populated preponderanly by Grecks they were now Spent arn be cna, cdot et ‘Er regent oponyni eoafpring of AasioBa. Aenping fond Turk tiger plane nam he goverament fen dred 8 slr soanding ‘hme to rftce the peti Greek or Armenian ue. Where a Trt Sac hed sessed we in llowed to remain ols to contained ‘i tnnccrpableseleence, fr iatance, toa hetroox tadon. In oer ‘het ihe tld was domesticated trough the deve of bogus sory ‘hh replantation rhe oy Enoryng his natonalat sentiment care to fefect = selective {pptpriaton ef the othedand National suhors wrote abou villages, ‘Bene al tay about he cl Wanafrmation taking place i the he land The select expats on some apt of anal geography an the {iterate loving of others becomes Apparent inthe aabonalststtade ‘Svar dan country Un tently penis wth avery log ‘Saline tn semarkabl bow minimal he population's ration withthe ‘Shr Soe, The major ran that the coat wa ede she domain ‘ie Gronks Indesth sont ofthe coal popeation ofthe empite = ‘Svs fabeme and sea sesehants didnt, by dein, dee om the Masi Tuk clement forse Oxloman ange de word Turk refered to ‘atolin post and nomad in keeping withthe selective appropriation of the motherland, the seaboard Lows of Anas that had bow prosinantiy Grek were left {shay empty unt the 19600 A small grup of ast lectus ad Tne am dela challenge to Ankara epubians by wag a recog hon f Tukey betage in Atohan viiaatons, alee in 0 lle {Central Asa Slowly detaching sel from the hegemony of mlinals ‘ology, same prospered he Tari tigen to de rate ‘tle pe, es cual erusng in vey bse condone ving acent ‘Sts th oro con ot be ecb by roud Tiss bow he replicas {neg seated om atonal yclogy ad inland pop, cme to Sow of diferent, Mdirancan heiage soci i he land Use fled thet own. Aer the 18m the wilage aod the Tra Syl were mo finger Seas; tend the mide ames ad 0 age atx nd ime ‘turer in coal towne amp fie Bef oy | 5 Conclusion ‘The exchange was » defining moment in dhe consitstion both of the slate Scie balance and of the dominant Wesly of atonal he ‘Turkch Republic lrwar however, overdetrned he see tat the poe wraling tendency of the tne war towards the craton of eaiclly homogeneous ents and this goal was achieved in diferent context through the exerelse of mance population exchange, and ideologieal ‘oer, Indeed inthe pose ist World Wr rth de erent vot ‘ofthe mural of «sme ate with Mra nconnmedaon al come Sent groups Within hs world contest, the impact of the exchange oa Turkeys fare evelopment was igient both i the compotion af socal clases and the formation af fil decogy Arfor soil clases andthe relatos ‘it the state the principal onsequenc ofthe departs of Ottoman Che Une was the mabsequentdocmation of wha oul bet be dese he ascent bourgeoisie of tho toma Epic, the who had aed Segre of ndopendence rom the state in expleing a arlet potential aa {n'eatg th foundations ofa ci society inthe Frm aft network af utoomous organisations The Takes Repel wash le with rest Aiminted potential fr independent boagene secumultion and for ah stonomousnaciey tht could mancpate al fom the ats “The exchange’ mpliaion for the national vecogy tha became the sical htorigrapy ofthe nation ate more ols cose Important sens, the exchango, along wih the Armenian massacres, fexcsed fom natonl history "Tis main history sn lial vemon thcame, and wal ecenlycontinsed tobe the unchallengeble foundation ‘Tuas identity The repblean founders of te state pte for lta ntrcted artefact wih reference to lived Rory, which ae emerge ‘thee story’ of the land ands popu. In th soy the par ese ‘nce of non Mins in the geographical retort bean farkey was {one ver, and no eforence was made tothe none, hoa, ad the onsequent expulsion and exchange ofthese populations The ery eal ‘experience of the conten of Masi sed ton Malin popelation, at ‘oat mes peace but terminating in holy, wat actively suppres “Aoata wat presented a baving ben land of Tr ros err nes, Sod ite oconguen afer the eleventh cetury, only a welamaton. The best {age of modern Turkey was tid to he in'the tue heard of tha ‘Trktiness hat ty nner Ana The sch cultural hoy of Anton was ‘flonsed over This ruppresson, which was occa forthe cberence of te Soevgetcally propagated offal version of atonal hicry and ident, ‘oul noc acebmmodate the lived experience ofthe existing population ot {he abundant phys evidence of «pio ‘nom homogencow popaltion ‘Theol has ben pare sctisophrene extents for moder Turkey sod especialy forthe ident ofr inbabitants the say on Mow by bing underway. 21 carte Notes 1 Se cata wn Me eal ei fe gn i 2 Rest pwc impos ost ety + Rng tay mean, aly naa ua exon he A ‘ons trade epi te ita cay ord ‘prance espe s Omens emoeraed ‘pe td orc and Hat ney cng lt, bay fom ‘Sensis pron wen ot aye ‘Sear sly wou nto ona mba pr om «Seeley AE Pte movement he chmge eed oo ‘iu ewptn et ones Sn win moved in 2 wn Sno ot ats dtag ecg Does se co ee ene beat (nme ene ope th 1 Tilt mt tte oa hn fa bs rts Sr 6 Tn anter wy egeatng Re en peng Hr ne Se em 40 ia, 2. tml ip Ka anemia 2 at 1» Soe we ie pr rs i < eme o ‘Selon ey on Ant ic Aran esol ne py ‘Si ln pa a oe Bn veg ok nt ies mpm og eet 5 1922: Political Continuations and Realignments in the Greek State Thanos Veremis ‘The Grok sate achieve ts indepondence in 1830, The ain themes of ts evelopment until 192 ineuded the consolation of the new sate’ at ‘ty the moderation af state ad pubic stn and Use neon of {entre iahabited by satan Greek popaaions, shoud be noted hat {he Greek ate developed wa remarkable sped nd coneteny hat the foo decades spaning 1860 to IB80 appear x someting oft gldon era of {eral democracy In paras, Greek trent, encapsdated nthe Meg ‘ia, the Goat Te, was a grand tomo runing though and beyond this [erode found te champion nthe reloraapolcns, Elteroe Viel [ester ofthe Liberal Party and Print Miniter over many Year who played ‘pray role the evn around te Lassen negetons ‘With te outbreak of te Fat World War, Venison an ardent Anglophie ‘auenton tetra gains ras determined to ater the war on the nde he ‘Ale. King Constantine, however, wan convinced of Germanys malty ‘sperioeky and opted for neta The determination ofthe Pe Mini {arto previ and th King’ totevenion in coordinating coal again, ‘him ih 1915 exacerbated politcal and socal polarisation that beeame [Known a the National Sci (sir dhs The a beeen Pat ‘Miniter and King was bitter and potacte, apd crened aor pita ‘ewenge tht had lng lating consequences for the country” With the ‘empl f Venianlor in 1915, however, Gece etered the wat on these of the Als. Gree: presence among the vot ofthe War promised com {erst esol rowan the Pais Pace Conference of 191 But ‘hey cost was to follow (Lewellyn Soh 10981073). Am M-conceved tlry campeign (101022) remited inte delet ofthe Greek ary bY ‘Tse ationalit forces under Kemal Attick, and lina i he ast 7 Homogenising the Nation, Turkifying the Economy ‘THE TURKISH EXPERIENCE OF POPULATION EXCHANGE RECONSIDERED Ayhan Aktar ‘hein gate eth han hea fat hid ‘pie 31 Be tei tro ofthe ati and ational ae cate fl ss ti on ma i th Introduction. ‘Commenting in 1922 on the export of nationalism to Geek and Taki, ‘cites, the Bria hierian Anais Toynbee noted that hilo of tit "Extwa satonalim ha rom the boning bought in easing eins ‘hppa and romper (102: 1h compury exchange of popeations ‘between Greece and Turkey dementias point The need agen of ‘wll ver one milion Greek aod Tra nl ony need chaos sa despair “mong the migrants bol ao profoundly changed the socal and pli tx {ge of bd coutree Concentrating mnt on Turkey, Larue tha the ‘xchange rece the pony of fregn intervention nor does afte {y bomogensing the poplaon slong ene snd reign whi ‘Promoted the formation of nation ste arto western noel However, The exchange’ foc on the economy ofthe new sate wav draging, sad ‘cso many ens of Suc modieaoa and readjsmen 0 | spat ‘A balance sheet: comparative advantages and disadvan- {ages of the exchange of populations ‘The Ankara Convention of 10 ue 190, signed by Turkey and Gres pro- ‘ded solstion tothe problems sll osttanding from the eompuiony ‘xchange of populations 1928 A carfal analy the US archive doce ‘ents the pened dates that American diplomats had peeved te population exehange and is ntendant problems asa grat obstacles {ng pence i the Balkans. Flowing tho Ankara Convention, ah extensive ‘port onthe population exchange prepared by Rajmond Hare in October 1160 seme he econo nd poll consequences othe exchange: "By vray of making = general summary of the stanton, night be sd that {Greece ae gned economy and lot politely, snd that Terkey as {ned polioealy bot at conor (152. Tor Greece he pli les cant in the form of outside interecnce ‘erween 1922 and 1990, Gresce had spot more than £10 millon oa the totem of Anatolian rgers: Moy financed by foreign ans, te cone {0 Greece ofthis expendae was a yealydebiservicing burden of approx Stl £20 mulon Indeed, boca ofthe cot of mobilisation ad he Aut Minor sdventize, Greece had been in desperate need of foreign asstance {om the bogiing ofthe 1020 ara ree rel of which Gresk plans ‘opted developmen rategy whereby in return for Sanda ad hry Scctpted' cortan amount af plies! interference by outside power {eropouls 1976: 160, Acceptance of foign intervention this became ‘maar werd for te Greek pote esablstent “Convery, They’ mar pli gin was to rid her domestic ale of ‘eterernee rom the Great Power, + pablo hatha plagued he Oto [Empre thrughout the nineteenth eontay, for mith he emipyng of Anat lis of is nom Main minorities there was no longer bars Tor sich {sterlrene Inston, unlike Greece, Trey di at rcs any ftelgh Stance fo fctate the integration ofthe Ramelan? refgecs into he ‘atonal economy. Although Tuskey was economically shatered nd he {government could not even spend £1 mili on setement and eter {ge lated programmes the advantage for Tuy wa that tinct no {nanctally and polically crippling debs tothe Power. Combined wi, ‘trong economie protection and lesly awed mousey i ater tional lations the consequent level of mointervenio hat he Taki poll ite wis able to enjoy i arguably the roe! important achievement tthe Kes regione spon ‘Transformation of the social fabric: a search for ethnic homogeneity in both countries In the post Lausanne period, Tukey and Greece were preoccupied with ‘ulin nation sates, the diainetive fear of which wa the phason ging eet Tif Bony | ‘thiclly homogenous population. In lng speech ven othe Gretk ‘aniament on 1 June 10, Prine Mater Venasos ged alia of ‘he Ankara Convenon. I so doing. he analysed the dominant pollo dence f bot countess allow Tague New Tey clan rw het lng sou sn Ososen Empe She pececds nah the development of homogeneous Terish nl sate Bt we sine the cataope of Aa Mimo, nd mace ‘oa at urna okay ve com overt Ors ar ee ‘eupewi mark The fac that oh poll eadersipe were bar completing sir ak? ‘rain thei pede downinn proved the objective bas of rapoche- {Rent beween the two couse the 13D “lower the proce f forming ena homogentout nation state dd ot take cea once, sor was ay he fe of the compulsory ‘nchnngeof populations beeen Greece and Turkey theseves or sy, isa te eof tet yar of war bese OL and 1922 (ie Badan tanh Fin Wd Wr ate Wr nope The at anger Ux population exchanges between “ce, Gresre and Bulga took pace Jot afer te Balkan reo 1912/13. The, drag te Fit Word Wat the ‘Rimenian of Antolin were ford into migration or worse, mamacred "Pe Oteman population conus of 90D alates tha wit he borders of present day They the population a tht tine war 1 align. However, ‘he te Tra popstion Eeausto be conduded Under fhe republican fegime i 192, eds te popula the country had dctesed to ‘Sromillon, McCarty cacaaes tat nearly 18 percent of he osha in ‘Ania ped righ ten yoo (108513) Changesin the eh ‘ic and eligi compiion ofthe population wee alse dramate: Keer ‘aus that efor the ant Work War, one out of every Sve persons [20%] Ing preaeaday Toskey was no Mus, fe he war, Sly onc ot rss. warn Musi: 72) “Pus de dechne to he umber of or Mis bad severe economic consequenes ine Takey, Observes othe period have noted the decir ‘leet Grek nt Armen no only np dead edt aie but ‘So in wholesale internal ade, i ipo and export, and in the overall fnancal srcture af They Asa cacal cbeve af he prose perio, Stun presente fact ae "The Crees and Armenians are preponder Sitalnot overywbere Rete the Are and Reman, who ae able ade, itor by and lage tJ can compete te (008 1B0-2) The dopa {ite Of the Cree and Armentans ocr Turkey meant thatthe most ‘rodacve elements othe population, end a god deal ofthe entrepreneur ‘Elko; had lft the country for good. Than hen the repebe was fee he breacracy found ergy uachalenged Keyde 1987: 7), ‘abling the Kemal to implement polis of trkiicstion inthe ex Jeu of ie republic without tach oppo, 2 | dee For Groce, however, wile he Mat ht eft Roe were may eae sot the coming Ansisan Gosh were mol ban rane or roca ‘omer cles Indeed, he ia of rele orn Teey bn poste ‘epercnioos ome comes sre iia ie of Crone, ad wat int ‘eponable ora shorter scone boom nthe ost urine peo At “Yotnitopotos clay argos The ubaa eluge popelton vas tours of

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