Σημειώσεις στην Τεχνολογία Υλικών και Εξαρτημάτων

.
- &
&
. .
2004
1
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. - &

-.

.
.
2003
2
. - &
1 :
1.1.1
1.1.2
1.1.3
1.4
1.5
1.5.1

Fermi
2 :
2.3

2.4

2.5

2.6

2.7

2.8

2.8.1 Cu
2.8.2 Cu
2.8.3 Al.
2.8.4
2.8.5 W.

2.9.1.1 .
2.9.1.2
2.10
2.11
2.12

2.1
2.2
3 :
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.4.1
3.4.2
3.4.3
3.4.4
3.4.5
3.4.6
3.5

-

.

josephson

3
. - &
4 :
4.1
4.2
.
4.3
.
4.3.1 n
4.3.2 p
4.3.4
4.4

4.5

4.6

4.6

4.7

4.7.1 p-n
4.7.1.1. Zener
4.7.1.2
4.7.1.3.
4.7.2 p-n
4.7.3 Transistor
4.7.3.1 Transistor (Field Effect Transistor)
4.7.4 .
4.7.5 (Thermistor)
4.7.6 (Varistor)
4.8 &
4.8.1
4.8.1.1
4.8.2
4.8.3 o
4 :
4 :
6 :

6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5 (FF)
6.6 (Mean Time Between Failure)
4
. - &
1.1
(Material
Science),
,

.
,

.

.

, . GaAs
, .
., . microchip.

,
,

.

)
.
)

)

)

)

)
-
5
. - &

.
1.2 .

.
. Bohr

.
.

.
.

.

.

.
.

.

.

Bohr. O Bohr
, .

,
Ln = mu n rn = nh
(1.2.1)
n h =
h Plank.
,
1 me 4
0 8n 2 h 2
m ,
e ,
0 .
En = K n + U n =
(1.2.2),
6
. - &
n=1
.
.
-1=13.61eV.

=(x,y,z,t)
.
dx

Schrdinger
h 2 d 2 ( x )
+ U ( x ) ( x) = E ( x)
2m dx 2
(1.2.3),
U=U(x) , .

. ,

Schrdinger
.

En =
1 me 4
13.60eV
=
2
4 0 2n h
n2
(1.2.4),
n
n
n.

n=1
n=2 L
n=3 M
n=4 N
(1.2.3)
L = l (l + 1)h (1.2.5) l=0,1,2.n-1

l ().
l .
l=0 s (sharp)
l=1 p (principal)
l=2 d (diffuse)
l=3 f (fundamental)
l=4 g
7
. - &
l=5 h
nl n=4 l=1,
41 4p

ml

L z = ml h (1.2.6) ml=(0 12.l)

. .

spin ms
spin ,
S s = m s h (1.2.7) (ms=1/2)
Pauli
.
4 .

K,L,M,N 2n2.
1.3

.

.

.

.
Van der Walls
.

.

1.4
.

.
8
. - &

.

= + ,
.
.

)

( ) ,
.

)

.
)

,

. .
:

.

.
.
.

.

-
.
9
. - &
1.5

.
Cl .
Cl Z=17

n
1
2
3
0
0,1
0,1,2
L
M
e
2
8
18 ( 7)
1s2
2s22p6
3s23p5
Na Z=11

n
1
2
3
0
0,1
0,1,2
L
M
e
2
8
18 ( 1)
1s2
2s22p6
3s
( 1-1)
1-1
Na 5.12 eV Cl 13eV
Cl 3s +
2p6.
Cl Cl- 3p5. ( 1-2)
10
. - &
1-2

l .
.
3s 2p .
.

.
.

.

Pauli.
1-3
11
. - &
1-3
2
. 5eV

, =1023 ,
5eV
= 5x10-23 eV.
23
10
.
3p (Cl) 2p(Na)
Coulomb
. 3s(Na) 3p(Na)
,
.
(Valence band )
(Conduction band)
.

Eg
Ev Ec
Eg=Ec-Ev
(1.5.1),
t

,
Et = E Ev
(1.5.2).

=t-Eg
(1.5.3)
12
. - &

.

, , (-1-4)
1-4

.
.

.
Be, Mg, Zn, Al

Cu, Ag, Au.
.

.
1.5.1 Fermi

g().
()
dE,
+dE.
dS
dE
3
1
dS (2m) 2 V 2
g (E ) =
=
E (1.5.1.1),
dE
2 2 h 3
.
,
13
. - &
g ( E)
(1.5.1.2)
V
(1.5.1.1)
.
1-5
.
N ( E) =
1-5

.
Pauli

Fermi Dirac.
f(E)

f (E ) =
1
( E EF )
KT
(1.5.1.3)
1+ e
H EF Fermi Fermi.
1-6
14
. - &
1-6
. 0
.
EF =
E +
(1.5.1.4).
2
=
(1.5.1.4),
E +
EF =
= . Fermi
2
.
Fermi
Dirac,
=F f(E)=1/2.
<F f(E)>1/2
>F f(E)<1/2.
1-6 =0 >F

. >F f(E)
. <F f(E) .

, dNe
E+dE. ,
dN e = g ( E ) f ( E )dE =
2
3
(2m) VE
2 2 h 3
1
2
1
( E EF )
kT
dE
(1.5.1.5),
1+ e
,
dN e
dn( E ) =
= N ( E ) f ( E )dE (1.5.1.6)
V
(1.5.1.6),
15
. - &
EF
3
2
EF
(2m)
0 dn( E ) = 0 N ( E ) f ( E )dE n( E ) = 3 2 h 3 E F2
F,
2
(1.5.1.7)
33 3 h 2n 3
(1.5.1.8)
EF =
2m
Fermi ,
TF =
EF
(1.5.1.9)
k
16
. - &
2

2.1 .
E
J ,
J=
(2.1.1)
(2.1.1)

. (2.1.1)
,
V=IR
(2.1.2).
R ,
l
R=
(2.1.3),
A
. l .
1
Siemens 1S=1/.
R
(m)
,
1
=
(2.1.4)
(m)-1 Sm-1 .
.

( 2-1),
Fe
2-1
F
r
r
r
r
r
(2.1.5)
Fe = eE = eE = eE (i ) = eEi
17
. - &
r
r
u r
ur
F = F ( i ) = m (i ) = m i (2.1.6),
,
r
r
r
r r
du
ur
du r
u r
= eEi m i m i = (eE m )i
ma = Fe + F m
dt
dt

du
=0
dt
r
eE
u
eE
(2.1.7) u =
(2.1.8).
eE = m u =
m
m
r
r
r
r ne 2 E ne 2 r
r
r
eE
J=nqu , J = n(e)u = ne
J =
=
E =
m
m
m

ne 2
=
(2.1.9) ,
m
m
1
= = 2 (2.1.10),
ne

.
r
r
r
r
du
ur
du
ur
du
ur
du r
ur
= eEi m i =0 , m
= m i
= i
i = i
m
dt
dt
dt
dt
t
u
t
du
u
du
1
du
1
u
1
=
= dt
= dt ln
= t u = u 0 e (2.1.11)
dt
u
u
u0
u0
2.1.11
.
() .

.

.

)

.
)
)
J=neu= ,
u
= ne = ne
(2.1.12).
E
,
e
=
(2.1.13)
m
.
.
18
. - &

l
=
(2.1.14),
u th
l ( )
uth . >0

Fermi E<<EF,

.
Pauli.
Fermi

F. Fermi EF
uF ,
1
E F = mu F2 (2.1.15).
2
2-2

Fermi. 2-2. Fermi

.

Fermi F, lF
Fermi. , 2.1.9

ne 2 F
=
m
(2.1.4).
19
. - &
2.2
.

.
1
~
(2.2.1)

T ,
=0(1+dT)=0(1+)
(2..2.2),
0 0 C 0 .
(2.2.2) R .
R=R0(1+dT)=R0(1+)
(2..2.2.1),
R0 0 C 0 .

d 1
a=
(2.2.3) C-1.
0 dT
0 1 0C, 1.
2-3
2-3
2.2.1
.
20
. - &
2.2.1

,

.
.
2.3 .
athiessen,
=+
(2.2.4),
,
,
. =0 =,
.

.
2.3

.

=d=b(1-x)x
(2.3.1)
=-,
d ,
b ,
x .
x<<1
d=bx (2.3.2) ( Nordheim).

.

.

=aVa+bVb+cVc (2.3.3)
a, b,c
Va,Vb,Vc .
21
. - &
2.4
.

=1(1F)
(2.4.1),
1
+F
-F

.
.

.

.
2.5
= LT
(2.5.1),
,
,
T ,
L Lorenz L=2.45x10-8(VK-1)2
(2.5.1) Wiederman Franz- Lorenz.
2.6

1
1
J
E = mu 2 = m( ) 2
2
2 ne
.

. W

W=IR2 t
(2.6.1) ( Joule).
22
. - &
2.7

, ,
,

,

2.8
2.8.1 Cu
Cu
. Cu 99.85%
100%.

CuO.
Cu
.
0.1%
Cu.
, ,
2.8.2 Cu
Cu (Bronzes) Cu
Zn
(Brasses) Cu Zn.
Cu
. , ,
.
.
.
2.8.3 Al.
To Al 61% Cu.
210% Cu
Cu.

Al.
Al2O3
23
. - &
. Al
.
Al

104m-2.
.
2.8.4
Au, Ag, Pt, Pa. O Ag
200 0C .
Cu, Ni Cd
, . Au

.
Pt-Rh

2.8.5 W.
3380 0C.
400 0C. (2, Ar, Ne)
2000 0C.
2.9
.
2.9.1 .

Joule.

.
Al, Ni Cr.

Al, Ni Cr
. Ni-Cr (Nichrome)

.

.

. MgO
.
.
24
. - &
Fe-Cr-Al ( Chromal fechral).
Nichromes
2.9.2

1300-1700 0C. SiC
Cr, Ti, Mo.
2.10

.
.
Cu. Ohm .
.
) Cu Mn- Ni 85% Cu 12% Mn 3%Ni (Manganin) =0.42048 m 6 50 x10-6 K-1,
Cu 1-2 VK-1.
0.02 mm.
200 0C.
B) Cu-Ni (Constantan) 60%Cu 40%Ni.

(constant)
. =0.42-0.48 m 450 0C.
Manganin
45-55 VK-1 Constantan Cu.
2.11
hm

1. Thermistor R=R(T)
2. Varistor R=R(V)
3. R=R(hf)
.
2.12

.
.
.
.

25
. - &
26
. - &
3

3.1

c .
, .
1911 Kamerling Onnes
Hg Tc= 4.2 K,
.

.
T 3.1
3-1
Cu,
Ag, Au .
Al 1.2 K.
.
27
. - &

.
109 !.
. 3.2
3-2

.

i = i0 e
R
t
L
( 3.1.1).
. R=0 i=i0,
. 3.3
28
. - &
3-3
3.2
B0

)
B0=0 tot=0.
. B0

B=B0+0 (3.2.1),
r r tot
M =
(3.2.2)
V
(=) ,
0 .
m ,
B
,
B0
m=Km-1,
Km =

m>1, m>0.
)
29
. - &
.

m>>1, m>>0.
)
B0=0 tot=0.
. B0

B=B0-0 (3.2.2),
. m<1, m<0.

. m=-1 3.2.2
= B0-0 =0. 3.4
.

Mesnier. H Mesnier
3.4. (3.4).
Mesnier
.
Ic >c
.
>c
3-4
30
. - &
c Ic
.
Tc Bc
3.5.

T2
Bc = B0 1 2
Tc
(3.2.3)
3-5

.
3.6.
c, Bc, Ic H
c.
.
Pb,Zn, Hg, Al.

Bc1, Bc2.
Bc1 Bc2
.

.
0>c1.
31
. - &
.

.
.
Bc1 Bc2
. Bc2>>100 c.
3-6

3.3 -

. 138 K.

..

.
900 0C
.
, .
Nb3Ti NbTi
.

gO. 2.

.

32
. - &
3.4
.
3.4.1 .

.
hm I=V/R R=0
. Meisner
. Nb3Sn
1cm2 T=4K max =5x106 A.
60cm .

.
3.4.2

3.4.3 josephson
1926 Josephon Josephson .
20-50 .
Josephson

=sin(t+)
(3.4.1),
2e
= V
(3.4.2)
h
V .
3.4.2
.
. Josephson

.
Josephson

.
(Superconducting Quantum Interference Devices), SQUID.

10-18V 10-18
. SQUID
C.
o C.

33
. - &

.
SQUID
3.4.4

SMES (Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage)
5000Wh 90-95%
3.4.5

.
3.4.6
Josephson
10-10 s , 10-6
.
3.5

.
Pauli
. spin
BARDEEN, COOPER, SCHRIEFER
q e 2e.

Cooper. To spin 1
. Pauli.
Cooper

.

U = U c
U e2 ph
h
(3.5.1)
Ue-ph
,
Uc Coulomb,
,
h=h/2 h Plank.
34
. - &
U>0 ,
.
U<0 ,
. Ue-ph
Ue-ph
.

.
Cooper , 1 meV

BARDEEN, COOPER, SCHRIEFER.
35
. - &
4.1

, , , .

.
.
.
Si Ge
.
. 4.1
Ge
4.1
4.2 .

Si, Ge .
..
4-2. T=0

. .
36
. - &
4-2
Eg= 1.14eV Si 0.67 eV
Ge 5 eV.

.

.

4.2

.
.

.
E

.
.

.
37
. - &

.

.
n , p
n p
,
.
H ,
= nen+pep=e(nn+pp)
(4.2.1)

dn(E)=g(E)f(E)dE

Ec , n
,
n = Nce
Ec E F
kT
(4.2.2),
2mn* kT
N c = 2
2
h
3/ 2
(4.2.3),
mn* ,
h Plank,
k Boltzman.

,
=0 v. ,
p = N ve
E F EV
kT
(4.2.4),
2mh* kT
N V = 2
2
h
3/ 2
(4.2.5).
38
. - &
Nc NV (~3/2)
.
(4.2.2) (4.2.4) n, p,
F, T (c-EF), (EF-Ev)>( kT),
.
(4.2.2) (4.2.4)
np = N c N v e
Ec Ev
kT
= N cN v e
Eg
kT
(4.2.6)

n=p=ni (4.2.7),
(4.2.6) ,
ni2 = N c N v e
Eg
kT
(4.2.8)
n p Fermi
Eg.
(4.2.4), (4.2.6), (4.2.7) EF,
mp
1
3
(4.2.9).
)
E g + kT ln(
2
4
mn
<<g (4.2.9)
Fermi ,
.

(4.2.7) (4.2.8)
EF =
n = p = Nc Nv e
Eg
2 kT
(4.2.10).
(4.2.10) n
.
(4.2.1) (4.2.10) ,
Eg
= e( n + p ) N c N v e
,
0 = e( n + p ) N c N v
(4.2.11) ,
= 0e
2 kT
(4.2.11).
(4.2.12)
Eg
2 kT
(4.2.13),
39
. - &

.
(4.2.13)
Eg
ln = ln 0
(4.2.14).
2kT
1
ln (Arrehnious plots 4-3)
T
Eg
-4.3
4.3 .

.

( )
.
.
40
. - &

(doping).
4.3.1 n
4.1 Ge
As .

.
.
Si
As, 0.01 eV
. D.
As
. .

.
. n>>p
n.

.
n 4-3
4-3

n :
I)

. n
,
n=Nd+ (4.3.1.1),
Nd+ .
41
. - &
Fermi
1
( E c E D ) (4.3.1.2)
2
Fermi
.
EF =
) ( )
d
,
n=Nd=Nd+
(4.3.1.3),
.
)
n
.
(4.2.10)
.

n 4-4.

-4-4
4.3.2 p
42
. - &
4-5
4-5-a Ge
Ga . Ga
43
. - &

..

h
Ge , 0.01 eV
.
.
Ga .
.

.
p 4-5 .
.
n<<p p.
.

p :
)

. p

P=Na- (4.3.2.1)
Na- .
Fermi
1
( E A Ev ) (4.3.2.2)
2
Fermi
.
EF =
) ( )
,
p=Na=Na(4.3.2.3),
.
)
p
.
(4.2.10).
44
. - &
4.3.4

4-6
-4-6
4-6
.

4.4
-V.

GaAs GaP, InAs, GaSb .

. Ga As .
-V CdS
ZnS V-VI PbTe
.

.
n p .

.. NaCl
45
. - &
p Na
n .
4.5

,

.
.
.
4.6

.
4-7
n

.

.

.
0.1 10 ppm

.

.
4-7
46
. - &
4.6

.
Czochralski . Si Ge Si Ge
1cm/h

.

.

200 0C
.
. 15-20 50 10 0 C

4.7

.
,
. .

.
4.7.1 p-n
p-n Ge Si
p n
p Cu2O n TiO2.
p n n p.
n
p
p

p.

n p (-4-8).

.
p
n. H
47
. - &
p n .
p n n
p

. .

p n.
p

n.
. .

.
,
pP=nN,
pP p nN
n
. pP>> nN pP<< nN .

100 1000 .
p-n Shockley
,
I = I s (e
eV
kT
1)
(4.7.1.1),
s , ,
e ,
k Boltzman
T .

Eg
Is e
kT
(4.7.1.2)

-V .
(4.7.1.1) V.
Si 0.01 0.6V,
Ge 10 0.2V.
48
. - &
4-8
V V
-s. I-V p-n
4-9.

Vb (breakdown voltage)
-V
(4.7.1.1).
) Zener
106 V cm-1

.
p ,
.
B)

)

.. .

49
. - &
4.7.1.1 Zener

Zener.

.
. Si 10-1000V. 4.9
I-V Zener.
4-9
4.7.1.2
Si In
Ge B Al.
10pF
100KHz. Si
Vb=1.5 2 KV, max=150 0C
Ge Vb=100 400V,
max=80. 0C
4.7.1.2 (Tunnel Diode)
1021/cm3
1016 /cm3 .

.

.
50
. - &
.
.
4.7.2 p-n
- : ()

() .
. 4-10
51
. - &
4-10
,

.. .
52
. - &

,
.

.
,
,
p
.
p
, p-n.
.
, ,
.

,
.
p-n,
.

,
,
,
.
SiO2
, ,
.

SiO2
SiO2 . (
.
.

SiO
. ,

Si, SiO2,
SiO2.
,
.
4.7.2 ransistors
n-p-n p-n-p. transistor
p-n . 4-11
p-n-p transistor p-n-p
. n-p-n
transistor n-p-n .
()
53
. - &
4-11
() (C).

.
transistor p-n-p 4-11.
,C,B
pn1 pn2 .
-

.

, pn1<<Epn2.

IE.
.
F2 Epn2,
IC
transistor. To
, ,
.

.
.
,
=C+IB. (4.7.2.1)

IC
(4.7.2.2)
IE
transistor

a=
54
. - &
IC
(4.7.2.3)
IB
.
(4.7.2.1), (4.7.2.2), (4.7.2.3)
=
(4.7.2.4)
1

.

C<IE <1 0.95 0.99.
transistor 1m 0.2V
5V 10V 0.97 0.99 =32 99.
(4.7.2.3) C=99 IB.
.
transistor .
UE

.
UE .
UE.
,
C.
RC
transistor.
p-n
. RC
Rc
V .
.
4.7.2.1 Transistor (Field Effect Transistor)
transistor transistor ( 4-12).
Si p
n (source) (drain).
(terminal).
SiO2
(gate)

p-n .
. p

.
SiO2.
.
55
. - &
4-12

.
.
. .
Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect
Transistor MOSFET. MOSFET

.
4.7.3 .

MOSFET,
,
mm.
(LSIC) (VLSI)
4.7.4 (Thermistor)
(Thermally Temperature Resistors)
.
.

56
. - &
) NTC (Negative Temperature Coefficient)
) PTC (Positive Temperature Coefficient)

NTC
,
1 1
( )
RT = R0 e T T0 (4.7.4.1),
R0,
.
.
4-13
4-13
NTC 350 0C. NTC

.

.

, ,
... NTC 10 107.
MnO,Fe3O4 Mn, Cr, Co,Ni, Fe.
PTC 4-14
57
. - &
4-14
4-11

NTC .

. NTC ,
BaTiO3, SrTiO3.
4.7.5 (Varistor)
Varistor (Voltage Dependent Resistors) o
. .
4-15 I V
Varistor P
V.
4-15
58
. - &

.

. Varistor

8V1300V. H 1 100 mA.

. , Zn Ti.
4.8
&
4.8.1

=hf
.

.

-
.
, .

. 4.8.1
(1) '
.
(2) - '
.
(3) & (4) .
-
.
Si,Ge,ZnS,CdS,PbS,PbSe,CdSe,Bi2S3,SiC
: , ,
, - ( )
59
. - &
4.8.1
4.8.1.1
(Light Dependent Resistors)
.

.
.

.
CdS, PbS CdSe .

RL 106 .
.
60
. - &
4.8.2

.

.

.

.

.
10-8s

.

.

.
.

.

p-n..
.
GaAs, GaP,CdS,SiC.
, ,
.
. .
-
.
(=2537 ) .

CaCl2 Ca3(PO4)2 Sb, Mn,Ta Sb
Mn .
.

.
ZnS Mn,ZnS
Cd

.
.

.
.

.
.
61
. - &
4.8.3 o

.
p-n .

( )
.

. n
p ( 4.8.2 a).
4.8.2.

2 (1=2) .
1
p-n .
62
. - &

eV
I = I L + I d = I L + I 0 (e kT 1) (4.8.3.1)
d L
.

.
.
.
Si , GaAs

.

100m 1m
Si 50 m
Si 1 m CuInSe2 0.1 m.
63
. - &
6.1

.
(t)

.

(t). /h % /1000 h
.

, ,
,
R(t)=e-t (6.1.1)

.
, .
6.2
,
) .

.
.

.
()

. ""
.
.
. .

.
)
.
.
64
. - &
6.3

. .
) ( - )
0 s-a-0 (stuck at 0)
1 s-a-1 (stuck at 1)
.
.

)
)

.
6.4

, 6.4.1. (),().

( 6.4.1 .().).
65
. - &

. ,
, , ,
I
,
.

.

.
.
20-200h
.
.

.
II
66
. - &

.
,
,
, .
.
6.1.1.
III

.
6.4.1.()
.
.

6.5 (FF)

(Mean time to first Failure) FF.
FF
FF ,
MTFF = R(t )dt (6.5.1)

0

6.1.1 FF ,
1
MTFF =
(6.5.2)
6.6 (Mean Time Between Failure)

, ,
, .

(F)
. t
n F
,
t
MTBF =
(6.6.1)
n
F 6.6.1

t,
. F
.
F .
67
. - &
F
.
' FF FF
F F ,
MTBF = R(t )dt (6.6.2)

0
6.1.1
,
MTBF =
(6.6.3)
68
. - &
1. , . .
2. & , .,
3. , . .
4. , .. YOUNG
5. , R. LEVY
6. , C. KITTEL
7. ELEMENTARY SOLID STATE PHYSICS, M.A. OMAR
8. , ..
9. , . , ..
10. , . ,
, .
11. NATURE AND PROPERTIES OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS, D.J.
JASTREBSKI
12. . ,
13. .. , , 1993.
69

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Σημειώσεις στην Τεχνολογία Υλικών και Εξαρτημάτων

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L = l (l + 1)h (1.2.5) l=0,1,2.n-1

PDF created with pdfFactory trial version www.pdffactory.com

) PTC (Positive Temperature Coefficient)

MTFF = R(t )dt (6.5.1)

6.6 (Mean Time Between Failure)

MTBF = R(t )dt (6.6.2)

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