11 | Learners ANNE M. EDIGER KEY QUESTIONS Teaching Second/Foreign Language Literacy to School-Age > In what ways is developing literacy in a second language similar to or different from developing literacy in one's first language? > Which aspects of language and literacy should teachers focus on when teaching children English? >> What kinds of teaching practices grow out of what we know about literacy development for English language learners? a cen EXPERIENCE Ms. Lee picked up a book she had already read to her third-grade intermediate English as a Second Language (ESL) class several times and said, “Today we're going to read The Paper Bag Princess (Munsch, 1980) again. This time though, afterwards, I want you to tell me in your own words what happened in the story, so listen carefully.” The last time they hhad read it, they had talked about princes and princesses, castles, forests, and even caves. They had seen pictures of a dragon with fiery breath and also discussed that many fairy tales illustrate a moral. They had already read several other fairy tales, 100, as part ofa collection of stories they were reading. When she finished reading, Ms. Lee turned to her class and asked, “So, who can tell me what happened first?” “The dragon burn up Elizabeth's house!” said Leyla. “The dragon took Ronald,” said Osvaldo. “OK, let’s write both of those down,” said Ms. Lee, as she wrote on the poster paper the exact words the children had said. The class continued working together to describe the events, and Ms, Lee wrote them down as each child recounted ‘what had happened. When they finished the story, together the whole class read each sentence as she 154 pointed to each word, Some of the children suum led over a few of the words, but after reading each sentence several times, most of them were able 10 say the whole sentence. | ‘That evening, Ms. Lee typed up the story and. made two copies for each child. One copy hal | the whole story on one page; the other had each: sentence on a separate line, which she cut up into strips, She put the sets of strips into an envelope for each child—their task tomorrow would be to order the strips to re-create the story. She took a couple of the envelopes and cut those sentence strips up further into individual words—these would be special challenges for those students who were already reading well ‘The next day, Ms. Lee handed out the papers with the entire story to the class, and they read through it all together. She then asked the class (o turn the story over on their desks, and she handed ut the envelopes containing the story strips. "In your envelope you will find your story of The Paper Bag Princess cut into stsips. Now I would like each of you to work with a partner to see if you can put the strips in order so that they tell your story.” Ms. Lee walked around the room, helping each pair of students put the story together.When they all finished, they read the story together again. “Now, I would like each of you to take your complete story and draw a circle around all of the words that begin with a P2* When they all finished doing this (with a lite bit of help from Ms. Lee), she asked, “What words did you find that begin with this sound?” The children came up with words like prince, princess, paper, and pretty, and Ms. Lee wrote these words down on the board and the class read the list again, WHAT IS SECOND LANGUAGE LITERACY FOR YOUNG ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS? ‘The notion of literacy has undergone profound changes in recent years, particularly in response to recent technological developments, For many years, literacy has referred not only to reading and writing skills but also to a host of other related skills: the oral language skills used to talk about and support reading and writing development; critical thinking for reablife and academic purposes; critical reading, that is, understanding how reading and writing are used for political purposes and views of literacy as a phenomenon that is closely connected to power, social identity, and ideologies (Gee, 1996); and visual literacy, the judgments and skills involved in interpreting and producing visual content and text for a wide variety of contexts and social uses. Reading and writing are clearly critical skills for life needed for understanding road signs, commu- nicating via email, filling out official documents, evaluating statements on a sample ballot, under standing instructions on how to use a new piece of equipment, thinking critically about advertisements we see, finding information about our favorite music, or just for enjoyment. More recently, along with developments in technological media, the “new. literacy” now includes such skills and functions as the ability to find, identify, evaluate, use, and communicate using a.nide variety of resources, including text, visual, audio, and video (Len et al., 2007). Online and other technology-based uses of reading and writing are leading researchers 10 identify new features and to view literacy as increasingly collaborative, distributed, and participatory (Lankshear & Knobel, 2006); as blurring the notions of authorship in such covonstructed online contexts as blogs and wikis. (Bloch, 2007); and, as asking readers/writers to use the Internet and other media to “identify important questions, locate information, critically evaluate the ‘Usefulness of that information, synthesize informa- tion to answer those questions, and then communi: cate the answers to others” (Leu, Kinzer, Coiro, & Cammack, 2004, p. 1570). So, ifwe are concerned with the development of reading and writing skills by English language Jearners (ELLs) in kindergarten through grade 8 (K-8), along with the oral skills that support this development, 2s viewed within the context of ESL and English as a foreign language (EFL), what do teachers need to focus on? In K-8 learning contexts, teachers and schools face different chal lenges in teaching literacy to young ELLs who are ‘often learning literacy skills for the first time, as ‘opposed to teaching literacy to older children who are more likely to be transitioning to a second language (12) from their first language (L1) and possibly L1 literacy abilitics, as might be the case for middle school, high school, or adult ELLs. In this context, not only do young ELLs need to Iearn to navigate the literacy demands of their first languages but also that of their second, along-with the uses of language across a growing range of technological media. Today, given the expectations that ELLs must keep pace (or sometimes, catch up) with their native Englishspeaking (NES) peers in all areas of the curriculum, many K-8 classroom teachers are expected to take the approach of teaching students to read and write in content and language integrated learning environments (also called content-based instruction [CBI]). CBI is a popular learning approach that is increasingly common in both ESL. and EFL contexts for K-8 leamers around the world, and it includes both learning to read/write and reading/writing to learn. (For more information on CBI, see Snow, this volume; for more information on teaching young learners, see Shin, this volume.) Thus, when we speak about literacy instruction for school-age ELLs, itis helpful to think of it in terms of the need to develop language and literacy skills while Simul taneously learning content in social studies, math, science, and English language arts. Thus, for the purposes of this chapters we view literacy as the necessary oral, written, and Chapter 11 155visual skills involved in using text (whether in print oron a screen) for purposes of creating and inter- ‘preting meaning (including messages) for various purposes. es CONCEPTUAL UNDERPINNINGS: THE RESEARCH BASE FOR SECOND LANGUAGE LITERACY Over the years, research has shown us that when people read or write, they bring a whole host of skills together into a seamless process for mak- ing and creating meaning through text, In the past 10-20 years, research focusing on under- standing how ELLs learn to read and write has grown considerably (for reviews of this litera- ture, see California Department of Education, 2010; Genesee, Lindholm-Leary, Saunders, & Christian, 2006; August & Shanahan, 2006), although some areas, including the develop. ment of second or foreign language writing by ELLs, have been relatively less explored (see Manchon, 2009, for recent work on L2 writing in EFL contexts). Only in the last few years have researchers begun to look in depth at ELLs beyond the carly grades or at students with lim- ited or interrupted formal education and LI literacy instruction (see DeCapua, Smathers, & ‘Tang, 2009). Fundamentally, we know that chil- dren need instruction to learn to read and write, whether informally at home or more formally in school; it does not just come automatically from being exposed to the language. But what can we say about that process? Several key theories, based on beliefs about the L1-L2 relationship in literacy and language development, have greatly influenced the research on literacy for young ELLs. Cummins's (1981, 1984, 2000) notion, originally developed as part of his developmental interdependence hypothesis, is that-learning to read and write in one’s L2 involves developing academic language, as distinguished from ‘informal, oral, everyday communication. In informal oral language, speakers can make use of shared background knowledge, as well as elements in their surrounding physical context to make meanings clear and can get immediate feed- back about what they do or do not understand. Then, further clarification can be made if neces- sary. In academic language, on the other hand, a 156 Unie different type of language is involved; according to Cummins, this language is more “cognitively demanding” and “context reduced.” For example, if two people are discussing a song they are listening to, they share the common experience of hearing it, they can watch each other's faces, hear each other's tones of voice, and use a variety of gestures to indicate what they mean. All these factors decrease the amount of specificity they need to communicate through the actual choice of words and the language structures they use. In reading and writing, however, the ability to give that immediate feedback and the use of nonverbal communication, not to mention the ability to make assumptions about shared back- ground knowledge and experience, are no longer possible. Instead, the reader and the writer have to put all their meaning into the specific words and language forms that they choose to convey their meaning. They can no longer look to see if the other person understands or if the person needs additional information. The demanding requirement of a lage proficiency is “the ability to make complex meanings explicit... by means of language itself rather than by means ‘9f contextual support or paralinguistic (Cummins, 2000, pp. 68-69). Cummins proposes that academic language is related to a “common underlying proficiency,” a set of skills and knowledge that, if learned in one’s LI, can also be used in the development of skills in one’s L2. When children begin school in an LQ, itis this academic language that they need to develop, both for engaging in discussions and for the critical analysis of complex ideas and, espe- cially, for learning to read and write critically, the means through which they will encounter many of the new concepts they learn in school. In recent years, there has been consider able discussion of what exactly academic language involves (for further discussion of this concept, see A. Bailey, 2007; Lyster, 2007; Rolstad, 20085; Scarcella, 2003; Schleppegrell, 2004) and how it differs from informal oral social language; neverthe: less, researchers generally agree about its impor tance in the development of language and literacy for schooling (see Snow & Katz, 2010, for suggestions on designing instruction for developing academic language for young children). Although there are various definitions, Chamot and O'Malley (1994) define academic language as “the language that isused by teachers and’students for the purpose of acquiring new knowledge and skills .. . imparting new information, describing abstract ideas, and developing students’ conceptual understanding” (p- 40). However, A. Bailey (2007) cautions us: against believing that there is something inher- ‘ent in social language that makes it less sophis- ticated or less cognitively demanding than language used in an academic context. . [T]hus, itis perhaps most accurate to speak of [it]... as differences in the relative frequency of complex grammatical structures, special ized vocabulary, and uncommon language functions. In some regard, it is not meaning- fal to conceive of language as either social or academic, rather itis the sigwation that is either predominantly social or academic. (p. 9) In recent years, the demand has increased for evidence-based instruction of literacy skills. In 2001, the National Literacy Panel on. Language- Minority Children and Youth, composed of expert researchers, was convened to conduct a comprehen- sive, evidence-based review of the research literature on the development of literacy in L2 learners, ages 3to 18, The panel produced a report evaluating and synthesizing this research literature to guide educa tional practice, inform educational policy, and help establish an agenda for future research. During neatly the same period, a group of researchers asso- ciated with the Genter for Research on Education, Diversity, and Excellence conducted a similar study. ‘The findings of these groups, although they used somewhat different standards and methods, are remarkably similar in many ways (for reviews of these results, see August & Shanahan, 2006, 2010; Genesee et al, 2006; Goldenberg, 2008; Saunders & Goldenberg, 2010). These studies suggest a number of implications for K-8 literacy instruction. 12 literacy is similar to LI literacy in certain basic ways; thus, ELLs’ L1 literacy background is helpful for developing L2 literacy. Studies investigat- ing the development of both wordlevel (word reading and spelling) and textlevel (reading comprehension and writing) skills have found that “although some L2 learners may progress at slower rates than native speakers, their growth in literacy gencrally follows similar developmental paths" (August & Shanahan, 2010, p. 211). Researchers generally agree that many-of the same skills used to.read and write in one’s LI are also involved in ‘one’s L2. Children who already know how to.read and write in their L1can use it in a variety of ways to learn toxread and write English more quickly and easily than children.who do not have that knowl edge (August & Shanahan;-2006, 2010; Riches & Genesee, 2006). Reese, Garnier, Gallimore, and Goldenberg (2000) reinforce this point: [Elarly literacy experiences support subse- quent literacy development, regardless of lan- ‘guage, and time spent on literacy activities in the native language whether it takes place at home or in school is not time lost with respect, to English reading acquisition. ... (p. 683) Being taught to read and write in their L1 serves as a significant asset for children developing L2 literacy (Schecter & Bayley, 2002). and_chil dren_are able {0 maneuver within two languages without becoming confused, In fact, Schecter and Bayley have found that the L2 children they studied surpassed their monolingual peers because they had the resources of literacy in two languages. When learning to read and write in a second or foreign language, children are able to build on whatever knowledge they have about their LI— both their language, in general, and literacy skills, in particular (Samway, 2006). They use what they. know about the sound system to figure out how to sound out and spell words in the L2; how letters or symbols in the printed text represent words, ideas, and meanings; and how different genres of text use language in specific ways and present informa- tion using different systems of organization and for different purposes. Children find it easier to write in genres of text they have been exposed to previously, @ good argument for introducing them to a variety of reading genres—they can then reflect and build on this when they write. Also, like L1 literacy, reading and writing are casior when one knows something about the topic and reads or writes from experience or knowledge of that topic. In the language experience approach (LEA) (Dixon & Nessel, 1983) lesson described in the Experience, Ms. Lee did exactly that by providing her students with multiple exposures and a chance to develop extensive content knowl edge of the fairy-tale genre by reading a variety of different fairy tales. If teachers are aware of this L1-L2 relationship, they can use it in various ways to help the ELLs in their classes, Chapter 1 157Like their NES peers, ELLs’ literacy develop- ment benefits from explicit teaching of multiple components of literacy in deliberate and balanced ways, Similar to findings for NES children learn- ing to read in English, research tells us that ELLs benefit from instruction in the essential literacy component skills of phonemic awareness, decoding «l encoding, vocabulary, fluency, comprehension, strategies (including “ways of thinking during read- ing"), and writing (August & Shanahan, 2010). We have long known that reading and writing involve the use of lowerorder (or bottom-up) skills related to understanding sound-letter rela- tionships, word recognition and understanding, spelling, and an awareness of grammar and sentence structure. They also require higher-order (top-down) skills, including bringing world knowl edge and knowledge of the various ways we use texts in society to the understanding, analysis, or creation of a text, as well as using strategies in reading and writing to help learners understand, monitor, or perform these skills more effectively The skills involved in reading and writing effi ciently are not used one at a time; rather, they involve the integration of multiple skills, and the more one is able to perform them quickly and almost without thinking (called automaticity), the stronger they will be. While the lower-order skills are critical foundational skills for other skills, a focus on meaning and comprehension is impor- tant for learners at.every level and cannot be set aside (Gersten et al., 2007): In monitoring student progress in phonologi- cal processing, phonics, and reading fluency, instruction in the development of compre- hension and higher order thinking skills may be overlooked. But these skills should not be neglected. Instruction in comprehension and higher order skills should receive attention in the earliest phases of reading development. The challenge for schools will be to maintain a strong instructional focus on both higher and lower order skills. (p. 14) Writing, too, has multiple components and is not a simple linear process (see Figure 1); in fact, it includes multiple subprocesses (I. 8. P. Nation, 2009). We know that good writers plan, revise, and edit at various points in the process, In the composing stage, writers often are still plan- ning and reworking their original ideas, and they 158 Unit may do this again and again later in the process, These various stages in the writing process can also occur in varying orders, and writers often come back to previous steps in a recursive process. Thus, teachers who know this can be careful not to’over- writing, present steps in a linear fashion, or provide only a single opportunity to perform arts of the process in a lock-step order. 2 literacy also differs from L1 literacy development in important ways. At the same time, developing 12 literacy is not the same as developing it in one’s Ll. Although a good starting point may involve using some of the instructional approaches that work for NESs, using exactly the same techniques with L2 learners is not the most effective approach. Some of the ways in which ELLs differ in their develop- ‘ment of literacy skills from NESs include: = ELLs bring different background and world knowledge to literacy processes; NES chil- dren, while they too are broadening their background knowledge and are learning to apply it to the literacy process, typically share more of the background knowledge needed for comprehending material they read. = When NESchildren first begin learning toread and write, they already have substantial oral language ability and vocabularies of several thousand words in that language (LS, P. Nation, 2009). Beginninglevel ESL readers and writers, in contrast, do not have those same oral skills or vocabulary knowledge in English and are often developing literacy skills at the same time as they are developing basic oral language and vocabulary. = ELLsareable to able to match their NES peers in developing decoding skills, but significant gaps still exist in their achievement of higher- level reading skills, including comprehension, making inferences, And writing (August & Shanahan, 2010; Gersten ct al., 2007) = One advantage that ELLs have is that they also bring their LI literacy skills to 12 literacy devel ‘opment (and in some cases are older when they begin) and may be able to transfer some literacy knowledge from their L1 to the L2, Because ELLs come from many language and learning backgrounds that differ from those of NES children, a child’s L2 literacy needs depend on his or her prior experiences andSubprocesses Having/corsidering a goal or purpose for writing Information| Considering the type of writing to entertain; to maintain contact to store or document or remember - Annote: formal letter; summary or paraphrase; narrative; description; ‘exposition, analysis, definition, classifiation, or argument; literary text; adverdserent; journal or personal writing Considering who the readers aro, and ‘what they know about the topic the field? Gathering ideas and information Organizing ideas CComposing/putting ideas down Reviewing what one has written Revising what one has written ‘Are they encountering these ideas forthe frst time? Or are they experts in By brainseorming, researching, making lists > By constructing a web, outing By freeswrcing, gathering ideas ina journal By obtaining sat, ceacher, or peer feedback: by using checklists Examples To learn, convey, or signal something to inform; to convince or persuade; | | | | By rewriting parts chat one has gotten feedback on, by restating something | using diferent words, by adding examples or explaining in more vivid detail Editing what one has written By using a checklist, a chart of grammar or vocabulary that is updated with areas the learner needs to work on Publishing or sharing what has been writen By making books that students have written, posting on the Internet, sharing ‘with or sending to another person Figure |. Subprocesses of writing, with examples. stage of literacy development. Teachers who are aware of this know the importance of conducting formative assessments of ELLs on phonological processing (segmenting the phonemes in a word, sound blending, and rhyming), alphabetic or letter knowledge (measures of speed and accuracy in letter naming and phonological recoding), word and text reading and writing (measures of single-word reading and phonics rules for younger children, and measures of reading and writing connected text and reading/writing fluency for higher grades) to determine which areas they need further work in (Gersten et al., 2007) ELLs need early, constant, and deep instruction in vocabulary. Research also tells us that one of the areas ELLs need a lot of instruction in throughout their schooling is vocabulary development (August, Carlo, Lively, McLaughlin, & Snow, 2006): Knowing a word means knowing many things about a word—its literal meaning, its various connotations, the sorts of syntactic constructions into which it enters, the morphological options it offers, and a rich array of semantic associates, such as synonyms and antonyms. (p. 97) ELLs benefit from daily explicit instruction in vocabulary, which should also be emphasized in all areas of the curriculum in addition to reading and writing, including math, science, and social studies. Optimal instruction goes further than just teaching ELLs to learn definitions of words; they feed to be able to explain meanings in their own words, as well as to use the new words when talking about their reading and writing, Research tells us that readers need 8-12 encounters with a word to remember or be able to use it. Furthermore, word knowledge is critical for reading and writing. For ELLs to truly comprehend what they read, they need to understand close to 98% of the words in what they read (I. S. P. Nation, 2009). ELLs have enormous challenges—to catch up with their peers by the time they graduate from high school, they need to know at least 50,000 words (M. F. Graves, 2006). The importance of vocabulary learning for ELLs cannot be overemphasized. In addition to high-quality literacy instruction, ELLs also benefit from simultaneous develop- ment of their oral language proficiency—and of academic language in particular, The oral language knowledge of ELLs plays a major role in Chapter 11 159)their development of literacy. The level of ELLs’ oral language is not necessarily a good indicator of their literacy skills—an ELL may be able to communicate fluently in oral English without being able to read and write well, Nevertheless, ELLs’ English reading comprehension and writing skills are closely related to having well Based on important findings that L1 literacy imilar to L2 literacy in certain basic ways, it is helpful whenever possible to build on ELLs’ L1 literacy backgrounds when develop- ing L2 literacy. > Like LI learners, ELLs benefit from the explicit teaching of multiple skills, including phonological awareness, decoding /encoding, vocabulary, comprehension, fluency, an writing, > However, L2 literacy. also differs from L1 in that ELLs often need to develop their oral language and content knowledge at the same time as they are encountering literacy, and they do not bring the same background knowledge as NESs to their reading/writing, > _ ELLs need integrated instruction in reading, writing, speaking, and listening that devel ops multiple sub-areas of literacy through a constant focus on making meaning. > ELLs need instruction specially adapted to their varying needs and levels that focuses explicitly on developing their_academic language, including language functions and vocabulary. > Young ELLs benefit from being exposed to texts of all kinds, spanning a wide variety of genres and illustrating large amounts of language in different contexts. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 1. Look back at the description of Ms. Lee's LEA lesson at the beginning of this chapter and answer the following questions: a. What were the steps the teacher followed in this activity? If the children in that class already know what happened in the story, is this really reading? Explain. In what ways does this type of activity scaffold the literacy challenges for beginning-level ELLs? b. In the scenario, the teacher did not correct, the errors in the sentences dictated by some of her students. Why mighta teacher in this situation not want to correct her students’ errors? What are some other times when teachers might not want to correct students’ errors? ¢. How could technology be used to enhance Ms. Lee’s LEA activity if her class had access to it? What are some other ways not mentioned in the chapter that L2 literacy “skills could be developed using technol- ogy? Which reading or writing skill(s) wie Chapter 11 167would that particular technology applica- tion enhance? Make a list of these ways. How might encountering vocabulary through text set (a collection of fiction and nonfiction books and readings on a single theme or topic; described on p. 165) help ELLs learn new vocabulary? What about having the students read on several topics? Which do you think is better: deeper vocabulary knowledge on fewer different topics or broader (but shallower) vocabulary knowledge from a wide range of topics? Give arguments for both approaches to teaching vocabulary. Review the various adaptations to literacy instruction recommended in this chapter for school age ELLs. What sorts of patterns do you sce among them? What are some principles underlying the different adaptations recom- mended for ELLs? What are some of the ways you can find out about the L1 and L2 language and literacy abilities that a class of ELLs brings with them? What assessments already exist in your area for doing this? What informal assessments might you also want to do yourself to find out about the backgrounds and abilities of your students? SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES L 3. With a classmate, do a think-aloud in which you describe the steps in your mental processes for doing one of the following: ‘a. identifying the main idea of a passage b. making an inference from something you read ¢. figuring out the meaning ofa sentence that contains an unknown word ‘Together with a classmate, put together a text set of children’s books on a single theme or topic, including both fiction and nonfiction and books at multiple reading levels, that you can use to develop the vocabulary and content knowledge of children at a particular grade level. Then present your text set to your class- mates or post it'to a course website so your entire class can see it. Look up.on the Internet or find other sources to learn more about the LEA (e.g., Unie Nessel, 1983). What are the various steps in this approach? What are some of the kinds of experiences that can be used for an LEA activ- ity? Then design a L2 literacy lesson in which you incorporate an LEA activity. 4, a Research more about what academic Tanguage involves. What are its character- istics? What do we know so far about the Janguage demands of schooling? b. Not everyone agrees with the distine- tion between informal oral language and academic language. Research and discuss the difference between the two. Do you agree that this isa helpful distinction? Ifso, why? If not, why not? . ©. Sit in on a contentbased L2 literacy class for several days that focuses on a unit in math, science, oF social studies. From that class (with the permission of the teacher), gather together copies of the textbooks, reading materials, and reading and writing assignments. Then analyze the language used in them to identify what the academic Tanguage requirements are for that unit. Identify the technical and subtechnical vocabulary; also identify grammatical struc- tures, language functions, and character- istics of specific genres of materials in the lesson, among other aspects of languagé. After you complete this, what can you say about your findings? What sorts ofacademic language did you find were involved? FURTHER READING California Department of Education. (Ed.). (2010) Improving education for English learners: Research based approaches. Sacramento, CA: Standards, Curriculum Franteworks, and Instructional Resources Division, California Department of Education, ~ This is a very accessible and thorough review of research-supported practices for teaching all aspects of language to schoolaged ELLs, with ‘many concrete examples for teachers; it includes a chapter focusing specifically on research-based teracy instruction for ELLsCloud, N., Genesee, F., & Hamayan, E, (2009) Literacy instruction for English language learners Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. This textbook provides an overview of effective, evidence-based teaching practices and suggestions for L2 literacy development of K-8 ELLs. Gibbons, P. (2009). English learners, academic literacy, ‘and thinking. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. ‘This practical guide for teachers explains how to provide “high challenge and high support” instruc- tion that fosters literacy and language develop- ‘ment for ELLs in the middle grades of school. Samway, K. (2006). When English language learn- ers write: Connecting research to practice, K-8. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, This work is a practical, hands-on guide to teach- ing writing to K-8 ELLs. Scarcella, R. (2008). Accelerating academic English: A ‘focus on the English learner. Oakland, CA: Regents of the University of California. Available from http: //exstream.ucsd.edu/UCPDI/webtool /html/publications/ell_book_all.paf This is a review of the various aspects of academic English and how to facilitate its acquisition by ELLs. Young, T., & Hadaway, N. (Eds.). (2006). Supporting the literacy development of English learners. Newark, DE: International Reading Association. This collection of articles by well-known teacher ‘educators on various aspects of L2 literacy devel- opment provides helpful suggestions for K-8 teachers of ELLs. ENDNOTE “nthe dictocomptechniqye (alo known ea reproduetion), students Theat shor text read several mes by the teacher and then stempe to reproduce i, malttalaing the meaning but using thei ‘own words. Chapter 11 169)