uszors ESDEP LECTURE NOTE WG15 Brevious |Next | Contents ESDEP WG 15C STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS: MISCELLANEOUS Lecture 15C.2: Structural Design of Bins OBJECTIVE:SCOPE To explain the calculation of loads on soe! bins arising from stored materials. To describe the structural design of common types of bin PREREQUISI None. RELATED LECTURES, None, SUMMARY ‘This lecture explains how to caleulate loads on steel bins from the stored material and describes the structural design of common types of bin. The methods for the calculation of loads are based on rules given in Eurocode I {1] and the guidelines for structural design have been compiled from numerous publications. in design is a complicated subject covering the analysis of thin shells and stiffened plate structures ‘with uncertain load distributions. This leeture is necessarily limited to an overall view of simple and practical methods forthe design of common bin «ypes, NOTATION a,b plate dimensions A cross-sectional area of vertical walled section (C wall load magnifier, buckling constant Cy bottom load magnifier Cy horizontal load magnifier Cy Wall frictional pressure magnifier 4, characteristic erass-scction dimension (Figure 5) hitpiknww ogni. si-iprazelESDEPImastorgtSc0200 Km watasta01s ESDEP LECTURE NOTE W615) Contre tine UL Equivalent surface Vertical walled section Wi ‘Transition Pressures in Sf 34] Contre plano i ie Fllga_|__ Centre plane eo ‘Centre plane "gs Vertical centre line Cross - section shapes Figure 5 Silo forms showing dimensions and pressure notation E modulus of elasticity e the larger ofe; and ey « eccentricity due to filling (Figure 5) 9 evventrcity ofthe centre of the outlet (Figure 5) critical buckling stress total horizontal force due to patch load on a thin walled circular (membrane) silo yy ring beam force hdistance from outlet to equivalent surface (Figure 5) k plate buckling factor K, horizontal to vertical pressure ratio |y hopper wall length (Figure 8) hitpiknww ogni. si-iprazelESDEPImastorgtSc0200 Km 2asta01s ESDEP LECTURE NOTE W615) Ppa Pro hoe Figure 8 Hopper loads 1a horizontal pressure due to stored material (Figure 5) Pao horizontal pressure after filling atthe base ofthe vertical walled section (Figure 8) a pressure normal to inclined hopper wall (Figures 5 & 8) Pp Patch pressure Pps patch pressure (unstifened ste! silos) 1, kick pressure (Figure 8) ‘chopper friction pressure (Figures 5 & 8) 1 vertical pressure due to stored material Figure 5) pcVertical pressure after filling yo Vertical pressure after filling at the base ofthe vertical walled section ‘Py Wall frictional pressure on the vertical section (Figure 5) 4 Tength along the surface of the zone aff by the patch load (s= 0,2 4.) ‘wall thickness ty hoop tension U intemal perimeter of the vertical walled section \W weight of hopper contents 2 depth below the equivalent surface at maximum filling Zp parameter used to caleulate loads 4-mean angle of inclination of hopper wall measured from the horizontal (Figure 5) © circumferential angular coordinate B patch load magnifier ‘y bulk weight density of liquid or stored material i coeflicient of wall friction for pressure caleulation ( effective angle of internal ftiction hitpiknww ogni. si-iprazelESDEPImastorgtSc0200 Kmasta01s ESDEP LECTURE NOTE W615) ‘ow angle of hopper wall friction for low evaluation DEFINITIONS Bin (Figure 1) Any form of containment structure used to store particulate ‘materials (.c. bunker, bins, and silos). Slender Silo A silo where hid, > 15 Squat Silo A silo where hd, > 1. ‘Vertical Walled Section ‘The part ofa silo ora tank with vertical walls, Hopper A silo botiom with inclined walls where a> 20° Transition ‘The intersection of the hopper and the vertical walled section. Flat Bottom AA flat silo bottom: or a silo bottom with inclined walls where a < 20° Equivalent Surface (Figure 5) Level surface giving the same volume of stored material as the actual surface. Flow Pattern (Figure 2) There are three flow patterns: mass flow, funnel flow and internal flow. Mass Flow (Figure 2) A flow pattern in which all the stored particles are mobilised during discharge. Funnel Flow (or Core Flow) (Figure 2) A flow patter in which a channel of lowing material develops within a confined zone above the outlet, and the material ‘adjacent to the wall near the outlet remains stationary, The flow chanzel can intersect the vertical walled section or extend to the surface of te stored material Internal Flow (Figure 2) A funnel flow patter in which the flow channel extends 10 the surface ofthe stored material Kick Load A local load that occurs atthe transition during discharge. Patch Load A local load taken to act aver a specified zone on any part of a silo wall 1. INTRODUCTION Bins are used by a wide range of industries throughout Europe to store bulk solids in quantities ranging from a few tonnes to over one ‘mundred thousand tonnes. Bins are also called bunkers and silos. They can be constructed of steel or reinforced conerete and may discharge by gravity flow or by mechanical means. Steel bins range from heavily stiffened flat plate structures to efficient unstiffened shell structures ‘They cen be supported on columns, load bearing skits, or they may be hung from floors. Flat bottom bins are usually supported directly on foundations For structural design, i is convenient to classify bins using the BMHB system [2] into the following four categories: Class 1 Small bins holding less than 100 tonnes, ate simply and robustly constructed often with substantial reserves of strength. Class 2 Intermediate bins, between 100 and 1000 tonnes, can be designed using simple hand calculations. Care is required to ensure reliable flow and predictable wal pressures, Class 3 Large bins, over 1000 tonnes, Specialist knowledge of bins is required to prevent problems due to uncertainties of flow, pressure and structural behaviour. Sophisticated finite clement analyses of the structure may be justified. Class 4 Becentrically discharging bins where the eccentricity of the outlet ey is greater than 0,25 times the silo diameter, de ‘This lecture voncentrates on the design of Class 1 and 2 bins although the design cheeks are also applicable to Class 3 bins. Bin design procedures consists of four parts as follows: i. Determine the strength and flow properties of the bulk solid. ii, Determine the bin geometry to give the desired capacity to provide a flow pattern with acceptable flow chavactersties and to ensure that discharge is reliable and predictable, Specialised mechanical feeder design may be required squipment, thermal, ete ii, Bstimate the bin wall loads from the stored material and other loads such as wind, ancillary iv, Design and detail the bin structure, Before the structural design can be carried out, the loads on the bin must be evaluated. Loads ftom the stored material are dependent, amongst other things, on the flow patter, the propertics of the stored material and the bin geometry while the methods of structural analysis and design depend upon the bin geometry and the flow pattern, The importance of Stages i and ii of the design should not be ‘underestimated. Simplified rues forthe functional design of bins and for estimating wall loads are given in Eurovode 1: Part 4 [1], and are discussed in Section 3 ofthis lecture, Detailed rules forthe structural design of stel bins will be given in Eurocode 3, Patt 4 [3]. This code hitpiknww ogni. si-iprazelESDEPImastorgtSc0200 Km areasta01s ESDEP LECTURE NOTE W615) hhas not yet been completed. However some design guidance is available in journal publications and elsewhere (2, 4-16]. Sections 4 and 5 of this lecture summarise existing structural design practice and give guidance for common types of bin. 2. BIN CLASSIFICATION For design purposes, bins are classified by ther size, geometry, the type of flow during discharge of the contents, and the structural material of the wall. The importance ofeach ofthese parameters in design is discussed below. 2.1 Bin Size and Geometry ‘The bin size and geometry depend on the functional requirements such asthe storage volume and the method and rate of discharge, properties of the stored material, available space and economic considerations. Bins usually consis ofa vertical sided section with a flat bottom or a bottom with inclined sides, known as the hopper. They are usually circular, square or rectangular in cross-section and may be arranged singly or in groups. Typical bin geometries are shown in Figure 1 {ai Square with tb) Trough bunkor pyramidal hopper So fo {) Shallow funnel flow (4) Deep mass flow bin ylindrical bin with conical hopper Figure 1 Typical bin geometries Circular bins are more efficient structures than square or rectangular bins, leading to lower material costs. For the same height, a square bin provides 27% more storage than a circular bin whose diameter equals the Tength of the side of the square bin. Flat-bottom bins require less Insight fora given volume of stored material ‘The bin size is determined by feeding and discharge rates and the maximum quantity of material to be stored. High discharge rates require docp hoppers with steep walls, Flat bottomed bins usually have low discharge rates and are used when the storage time is long, the discharge is infrequent and the slorage volume is high. The ratio of bin height to diameter influences the loads from the stored material and hence the structural design. Eurocode 1 classifies bins as cither squat or slender [1]. Squat bins are defined as those where the height does not exceed 1,5 times the diameter or smallest side length. Slender bins have a height to diameter ratio greater than 1.5 Hoppers are usually conical, pyramidal or wedge shaped, Pyramidal hoppers have the advantage of being simple to manufacture although they may lead to flow problems due to the building up of stored material in the comers. Outlets may be either concentric or eecentrie to the centre ofthe bin. Eccentric outlets should be avoided because the pressure distribution is difficult to predict and there may be problems due to segregation ofthe stored material, The angle of inclination of the hopper sides is selected to ensure continuous discharge with the required flow pattern 2.2 Type of Flow ‘Two types of flow are described in Eurocode | and shown in Figure 2. They are mass flow and funnel flow. Discharge pressure is hitpiknww ogni. si-iprazelESDEPImastorgtSc0200 Km 21asta01s ESDEP LECTURE NOTE W615) intluenced by the flow pattern and so the flow assessment must be made before the calculation of loads from the stored material. lu mass flow bins all the contents ofthe bin flow as a single mass and flow is on a fist-in first-out basis. The stored material in funnel flow bins flows down a central core of stationary stored material and flow is on 2 las-in, first-out basis, cee ew Figure 2. Flow patterns The flow type depends on the inclination of the hopper walls and the coefficient of wall friction. Mass flow occurs in deep bins with steep hopper walls whereas funnel flow occurs in squat bins with shallow hopper walls. Eurocode 1 gives a graphical method (shown in Figure 3) for determining the flow pattern in conical and wedge shaped hoppers for the purpose of structural design only. Bins with hoppers between. the boundaries ofboth the mass and the funnel flows should be designed for both situations, Hopper wall Hopper wall friction angle friction angle Pw ow a A 80 4- 80 i 50 50 Funnel flow Haw or unl flaw may eesur tin 404 tse imi 40 ‘Mass tow or umel flaw may occur within vot ; ee eas 2 ! 20 Mass flow ' 10 ' 10 “st Mass flow: o 1 1 | > ° . . ; > 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 80 0 70 60 50 40 20 Angle of inclination of hopper wall Angle of inclination of hopper walla Figure 8 Graphical method for the determination of flow pattem 2.3 Structural Material of the Bin Wall “Most bins are constructed from steel or reinforced conerete, The economic choice depends upon the material costs as well as the costs of fabrication and erection. Other factors such as available space also influence the selection. The main advantages of steel bins over cast in- hitpiknww ogni. si-iprazelESDEPImastorgtSc0200 Km atasta01s ESDEP LECTURE NOTE W615) situ concrete bins are + small and medium sized steel bins and bunkers can be prefabricated and, therefore, their erection time is considerably shorter; + bolted bins are relatively casy to disassemble, move, and rebuild in another location; ‘The main disadvantages of steel bins are the necessity of maintenance to prevent corrosion, the stel walls ray require lining to prevent excessive wear, and the steel walls are prone to condensation which may damage stored products such as grain and sugar, ete, which are TThe selection of structural material forthe wall may depend upon the bin geometry. A bin wall is subject to both vertical and horizontal forces. The vertical forces are due to friction between the wall and stored materials, while the horizontal forces are due to lateral thrust from the stored materials. Reinforced concrete bins carry vertical compressive forees with ease and so fend to fal in tension due tothe high lateral thrusts. Steel ins, circular in plan, usually carry the lateral forces by hoop tension. They are more prone to failure by buckling under excessive vertical forces, The increase of horizontal and vertical pressure with depth is shown in Figure 4. Increases in horizontal pressure are negligible beyond a certain depth and therefore conerete bins are more efficient if they are tall, whereas steel bins tend to be shallower structures Prossure Horizontal Ph Depth Figure 4 Distribution of horizontal and vertical pressure against depth of stored material 3. CALCULATION OF PRESSURES ON BIN WALLS 3.1 General Most existing theories forthe calculation of loads from the slored material in bins assume that the pressure distribution around the perimeter of bin is uniform at any given depth. In reality, there is always a non-uniformity of loading. This may arise from imperfections inthe bin ‘walls, non-concentric filling techniques, or discharge outlets positioned eccentrcally to the centre ofa bin ‘The pressure exerted on the bin wall by the stored material is different when the material is flowing and when itis stationary. The stress slate within a stored material changes as flow commences and the bin walls are subjected to high localised pressures of short duration Research studies have identified two types of high pressure during discharge. The first is known as the kick load which occurs atthe start of flow and is only significant in the hopper. The second high pressure is attributed toa local stress re-distribution within the flowing material as it passes the imperfections of the bin walls. ‘The neglect ofthe non-uniform loading in design results in more bin failures than any other causes. It leads to particular problems with circular bins which are designed to resist membrane forces only, Pressures due to eccentric discharge are erratic and may be higher or lower than the uniform pressure predicted using most existing theories, Although high discharge pressures and their fundamental causes have been identified, they are difficult to quantity. Its common practice ‘therefore for designers to multiply the calculated static pressure by a constant detived from experimental data. The empirical factor has traditionally been applied tothe static pressure without any regard to the structural response of the bin. Since the high discharge pressures only affect local areas, variation ofthe pressure may result in a worse stress state inthe bin wall than a high uniform pressure. Therefore the assumption of a high but constant pressure at any level ig not necessarily safe. 3.2 Eurocode 1 - Rules for the Calculation of Loads from the Stored Material ‘Eurocode I [1] gives detailed rules forthe calculation of loads from the stored material on bins subject to the following limitations: + The eccentricity of inlet and outlet is limited to 0,25 d, where dy is the bin diameter or shortest side length ‘+ Impact loads during filling are smal + Discharge devices do not influence the pressure distribution. hitpiknww ogni. si-iprazelESDEPImastorgtSc0200 Km 21asta01s ESDEP LECTURE NOTE W615) + The stored material is fee flowing and has love cohesion, Rules are given for calculating loads on slender, squat and homogeneous bins. The following four loads are specified and may be defined using the notation shown in Figure 5 + horizontal wall load and wall fretion + patch load + hopper load + ick load. ‘The inital horizontal (py) and wall fiction (py) loads are uniform at any depth inthe bin, They are mult for pressure variations during discharge. A patch load is added to the syrmmettic load to allow for the effects of non-symmetic loading. Due to the complexities of structural analysis of shells incorporating a patch load, Eurocode | permits the use ofa symmetrical pressure distribution for the design ofall bins with diameters less than Sm. The symmetrical pressue is increased to compensate forthe patch pressure, This gives bins that are safe but more conservative than those bins designed for the patch pressure and the lower symmetrical pressure Hod by a constant factor to allow TThe hopper loads consist of a lincar pressure distribution and a kick load. The kick load is applied at the junction of the transition of mass flow hoppers only. 3.2.1 Horizontal pressure and wall frictional pressure The horizontal pressure at any depth inthe bin is calculated using the classical Janssen theory. Janssen considered the vertical equilibrium of a horizontal slice through the stored material in a bin (Figure 6) and obtained the following relationship: Hilf rasost fo Re z pt Figure 6 Stresses on a horizontal slice through the bin (Jangsen’s theory) Alo, + day) “UK, oy de=y Adz + A oy (1) Rearranging and solving the first order differential equation gives the Janssen equation for vertical pressure py at depth 2, the horizontal pressure pyand the wall frictional pressure Pw py ~ FAM K If ~ e5H20!4) Pre-K Py 3) Pues HPA) ‘The avcuracy of the method depends on the selection of a value for the ratio of horizontal to vertical pressure K, and the coefficient of wall fiction. Most bin wall pressures vary because the bins ar filled with materials of different properties at different times. Other pressure changes may ‘ccur as the bin becomes polished or roughened by stored solids. Bins should therefore be designed witha variety of conditions in mind rrocode 1 recognises this situation and gives a range of properties for common stored materials, Material properties ae selected to give the most adverse loading condition. The most adverse horizontal pressure occurs when K, is at ifs maximum value and jis at its mizimum, ‘The most adverse wall friction load arises when jt and K, are both at maximum values. Material properties may be determined by testing or by taking values from Table 4,1 of Furocode 1 For bins with corrugated walls, allowance must be made for higher values ofp due tothe effect of the stored material within the corrugations, For convenience Furocode 1 gives a formula for the calculation of the axial compression force duc to the wall friction pressure at any depth hitpdkwww ogni. si-iprazelESDEPImastergtSc0200 Km a1asta01s ESDEP LECTURE NOTE W615) ina bin. The axial compression per unit perimeter at depth zis equal to the integral of the wall friction pressures on the wall above and is obtained as below: Pas) [Pete = Ate sea o) ‘The Reimbert method [6] is a suitable alternative tothe Janssen method for the calculation of static pressures, However, it has not been included in Eurocode 1 The pressures calculated using the Janssen theory are multiplied by empirical factors to give filling and discharge pressures forthe following conditions: i. Patch load for filling, ii, Uniform pressure increase for discharge. ii, Patch load for discharge. iv. For simplicity of structural design, Purocode I also includes a simplified alternative rule to the patch load for filling and discharge ia. The pateh load for filling: non-membrane bins Pressures determined using the Janssen equation are increased by a localised load or ‘patch load to allow for unsymmetrical pressure distibutions. The patch load is prescribed to account for unsymmettial pressures which experiments have shown occur in all bins. The ‘non-uniformity of pressure depends mainly upon the eecentrcity ofthe bin inlet, the method of filling and the anisotropy of the stored material. The patch load inereases with the eecentriity of filling. The eccentricity of filling is shown in Figure S and results from the horizontal velocity of the stored material, It depends upon the type of filling device and must be estimated before calculating the patch load, ‘The patch load is different for unstffened steel (membrane) and stiffened steel and concrete (non-membrane) bins to allow for the differences in the response of these structures to loading. The maximum stress in the walls of non-membrane bins depends upon the magnitude of the pressure whereas membrane steel bins are more seasitive tothe rate of change of pressure, For stiffened steel bins, two patch loads are applied on diametrically opposite square areas of wal, cach with side length s = 0,2d, (Figures Ta aud 7b). Te loads are symmetrical and allow a relatively simple calculation ofthe bending moments induced in the structure. hitpiknww ogni. si-iprazelESDEPImastorgtSc0200 Km 1asta01s ESDEP LECTURE NOTE W615) wh ui fa} Side elevation {c] Plan view of thin walled circular silo Figure 7 The patch load ‘The patch pressure is calculated as follows Pp O28 met) The pressure ats over height s, where: 50.24, (6) B ‘The patch should be applied at different levels onthe bin wall to find the worst loading ease resulting inthe highest wall stress. For simplicity, Eurocode 1 allows the patch load in non-membrane bins to be applied at the mid-height of the vertical walled section and uses the perventage increase in the wall stresses at that level to increase the wall stresses throughout the silo. The simplified rule does not apply to groups of silos, 026 i.b. The patch load for filling: membrane bins Membrane sieel bins are sensitive tothe rate of change of the patch pressure and so a cosine pressure distribution is specified. The pressure pater shown in Figure 7e extends all around the bin. Pressure is outward on one side and inward on the other. The most important influence of the patch is the increase in axial compression atthe base of the bin, The increased axial compressive force can easily be calculated using beam bending theory and assuming global bending ofthe bin. In order to calculate the axial compressive foree, the total horizontal force from the patch load should be calculated from: Battin a) hitpiknww ogni. si-iprazelESDEPImastorgtSc0200 Km a1asta01s ESDEP LECTURE NOTE W615) where Pps Pp cos 8 and p, and s are calculated using Equations (5) and (6) respectively. Te patch should be taken to act ata depth %9 below the equivalent surface or at the mid-height ofthe vertical walled scetion, whichever ives the higher position ofthe load, where A z= Rea ‘The patch pressure introduces local bending stresses in the bin atthe level ofthe patch, These bending stresses are difficult to caleulate and a finite element analysis of the structure is required. To simplify the calculation itis easier to design using the increased pressure distribution deseribed in iv. below as an alternative to the patch pressure, ii, Untform pressure increase for discharge The static pressures are multiplied by two constant coefficients (Cy, and Cy) to design for uniform discharge pressures. Cy, increases the horizontal pressure and C,, increases the vertical pressure, Cy varies depending upon the stored material and Eurocode 1 gives a value that ranges from 1,3 for wheat to 1,45 for flour and fly ash. Cy is taken as 1,1 forall stored materials, These Factors were selected from experience gained from satisfactory bin design and test results iii, Pateh load for discharge ‘The patch loud for discharge is celeulated in the same way as the patch load for filling. Horizontal pressures caleulated for discharge (described in i.) are used to calculate the patch load. In addition, the eccentricity e, is taken as the greater ofthe eccentricities ofthe filling and the outlet (see Figure 5), iv. Increased uniform load - an alternative to the patch for filling and discharge For simplicity in structural design, Eurocode | permits the use of another constant factor on the uniform discharge pressures to allow for stress inereases duc to unsymmetrical pressure. The factor is calvulated from the patch load magnifier and results in a simple but conservative nile which may be used instead of the patch pressure, For filling and discharge the normal wall pressure calculated wsing ‘Equation (3) is multiplied by 1 + 0,4 f and the wall ftiction is multiplied by 1~ 0.3 6. 3.2.3 Hopper and bottom loads Flat bottoms are defined as bin bottoms where a < 20°, The vertical pressure pys varies across the bottom but for slender bins its safe to assume that the pressute is constant and equal to Pye 12 py (®) where: py is calculated using Equation (2, It should be noted that for squat bins, the pressure variation atthe bin bottom may influence the design and so flat bottomed squat bins may be designed for non-uniform pressures. Loads sloping wal of hopper Burocode 1 considers the sloping wall (where «> 20°) to be subject to both normal pressure, py and friction force per unit area py. The hopper walls carry all the weight ofthe stored material in the bin other than that carried by wall fiction in the vertical section. Knowledge of the vertical pressure atthe transition between the vertical walled section and the hopper is required to define the loading on the hopper. :mpirieal formulae have been adapted in Eurocode | for the calculation of normal and frictional wall pressures on the hopper wall following a seris of tests on pyramidal hoppers. The tests showed that it was sufficient to assure that the pressure distribution upon @ hopper wall subjected to surcharge from the vertical walled section decreases linearly from the transition tothe outlet, The pressure normal to the hopper wall, py, as shown in Figure 8 may be obtained as follows: Pa Pas * Paz + (Pat ~ Pa2) '* (9) where ‘isa distance measured ftom the edge (0 x < Ly) between 0, and ly Pat Pao (Cp 608? 1,5 sin? a) (10) Pa2 = Ch Pyo 60s? a (11) hitpiknww ogni. si-iprazelESDEPImastorgtSc0200 Km etaos ESDEP LECTURENOTE WIS Am fe any Pa where isa constant and is equal to 1,2 vo is the vertial pressure ating ot the transition calelated using the Janssen equation The value of the wall ftictional pressure py, is given by: Pompe (13) ick load High pressures have been measured in mass flow hoppets at the start of discharge due to a change in the stress state ofthe stored material The change is often referred to asthe 'switch' and results ina ‘kick load’ atthe transition It oceurs when the material moves from a static (active pressure) to a dynamic (passive pressure) state, An empirical and approximate value for the kiek load, p,, in Eurocode | is given as follows: = 2 yo (14) where ois the horizontal pressure at the base ofthe vertical walled sestion (see Figure 8) 2 is taken to act normal to the hopper wall ata distance equal to 0,2 d, down the hopper wall ‘The kick load is only applied to mass flow bins. This is because it will be partially or totally absorbed by the layer of stationary material in funnel flow hoppers. The transition hetween the hopper, and the vertical section is subjected to a compressive inward force from the inclined hoppet. The kick load acts against this compressive force and so, it may actually increase the outward load from the stored material (pq) which may be carried by the hopper during discharge although the kick cannot be guaranteed and should not be used to reduce the design stresses). 3.3 Other Loading Considerations Pressure distributions can be affected by factors which may’cither increase or decrease wall loads. Such factors are difficult to quantify, and are more significant in some bins than others. A limited list is given below. Temperature variation ‘Thermal contraction of a bin wall is restrained by the stored material. The magnitude of the resulting inerease in lateral press upon the temperature drop, the difference between the temperature coefifcients of the wall and the stored material, the ocurre: temperature changes, the stiffness of the stored material and the stiffness of the bin wall © depends eof Consolidation Consolidation of the stored material may occur due to release of air causing particles to compact (a particular problem with powders), physical instability caused by changes in surface moisture and temperature, chemical instability caused by chemical changes atthe face of the particles, or vibration ofthe bin contents. The accurate determination of wal pressures requires a knowledge of the variation with depth of bulk density and the angle of internal ftition, Moisture Content ‘An inerease in the moisture content of the stored material can increase eohesive forces or form links between the particles of water soluble substances. The angle of wall friction for pressure calculations should be determined using both the driest and wettest material likely to be encountered, Increased moisture can result in swelling ofthe stored solid and should be considered in design Segregation For stored material with a wide range of density, size and shape, the particles tend to segregate. The greater the height of fre fall on filling the greeter the segregation. Segregation may create areas of dense material, More seriously, coarse particles may flow to one side ofthe bin while fine cohesive particles remain on the opposite side. An eccentric flow channel may oceur, leading to unsymmetrical loads on the wall. The concentration of fine particles may also lead to flow blockages, Degradation Acsolid may degrade on filing. Paticles may be broken or reduced in size due to impact, agitation and attrition, This problem is paxticulaely ‘elevant in bins for the storage of silage where material degradation may result in a changing pressure field which tends to hydrostatic, Corrosion hitpiknww ogni. si-iprazelESDEPImastorgtSc0200 Km raeasta01s ESDEP LECTURE NOTE W615) Stored material may attack the storage structure chemically, affecting the angle of wall friction and wall flexibility. Corrosion depends on the chemical characteristics ofthe stored material and also the moisture content. Typically, the design wall thickness may be increased to allow for corrosion and the increase depends upon the design life ofthe bin, Abrasion Large granular particles such as mineral ores can wear the wall surface resulting in problems similar to those described for corrosion. A. Fining may be provided to the structural wall, but care should be taken to ensure that wall deformation does not cause damage tothe lining, The linings are usually manufactured from materials such as stainless steel or polypropylene. Impact Pressures ‘The charging of lage rocks can lead to high impact pressures. Unless there is sufficient material to cushion the impact, special protection ust be given to the hopper walls. The collapse of natural arches which may forma within the stored material and hold up flow, can also lead to severe impact pressures. In this case, a preventative solution is requited atthe geometric design stage. Rapid Filling and Discharge ‘The rapid discharge of bulk solids having relatively low permeability o gasses can induce negative air pressures (internal suction) in the bin. Rapid filling can lead to greater consolidation, and the effects are discussed above Powders The rapi filling of powders can aerate the material and lead to a temporary decrease in bulk density, cohesiveness, intemal ftiction and ‘wall friction, In an extreme ease, the pressure ftom an aerated stored material can be hydrostatic, Wind Loading ‘Methods for the calculation of wind loads on bins are given in Burocode 1, Part 2 [17] and are not repeated in this lecture, Design aga ‘wind loads is especially critical during bin construction. Dust Explosions rocode 1, Part 4 [1] recommends that bins storing materials that may explode should either be designed to resist the explosion or should have sulficient pressure relief area, Table 1 of the Eurocode lists materials that may lead to explosions. Other general design guidance is available [14]. Hurocode 1 recommends proper maintenance and cleaning, and the exclusion of sources of ignition to prevent explosions. Differential Settlements Large settlements offen occur as bins are filled, particularly the fist time. The effects of differential settlement of groups of bins should be considered, Differential settlements may lead to buckling failure of membrane steel bins, Seismic Actions Provisional rules for scismic design are given in Furocode 1. These rules are beyond the scope ofthis lecture Mechanical Discharge Equipment Mechanical discharge equipment can lead to unsymmetrical pressure distributions even when itis considered to withdraw the stored ‘material uniformly. The influence of mechanical discharge equipment on wall pressures should be considered during design. Roof Loads Bin roofs impose an outward thrust and axial compression on bin walls and should be considered during wall design. The design of bin ‘oof’ is beyond the seope of this leture ‘Load Combinations Many bins are filed to thei full design loads for most oftheir life, Eurocade J states that 100% of the predominant load should be added to 90% oF 0% of other loads to give the most anerous design load at hath ultimate and serviceability limit states respectively 4. STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND DESIGN 4.1 Selection of the Bin Form At the conceptual stage of design, the geometry ofthe bin is selected and consideration is given to the relative economy of different structural forms. The costs of materials, fabrication, erection and transport all influence the selection ofthe structural form. Steel bins usually have rectangular or circular cross-section shapes. Circular bins are usually more economical than rectangular bins because the circular walls carry loads in membrane tension whereas rectangular bias cary load less efficiently in bending, Rectangular bins typically require 2,5 times the material required for circular bins ofthe same capacity. Rectan ‘vertical walled section and the hopper. Rectangular bins tend to have large reserves of strength. This is not generall Jar bins tend to be heavily stiffened structures whereas circular bins are oflen unstiffened except atthe top and the transition of the ‘the case with circular hitpiknww ogni. si-iprazelESDEPImastorgtSc0200 Km ratasta01s ESDEP LECTURE NOTE W615) bins for which cate is needed in design to pre overstess or buckling ofthe bin wall 4.2 Design of Non-Circular Bins A typical non-circular bin is shown in Figure 9, The structural design consists of the following main procedures: x¥ || ¥x |e | ¥ fs } Na Section x Section ¥ End elevation Cross section Figure 9 Typical stiffened rectangular bin : [11] select the support layout, stiffener layout and connections, design the wall plates, design the vertical and horizontal stiffeners including the transition ring beam, design the supports, ‘The press below. on the vertical and inclined walls are calculated using the rules outlined in Section 3. The structural design is diseussed 4.2.1 Wall plates Non-cireular bins tend to be heavily stiffened structures as shown in Figure 9. Material loads inthe bin are applied directly to the wal plate, and transferred via the plate to the stiffeners. The walls are subject to bending and tensile membrane stresses. Frictional forces result in vertical compression of the wall and, because of the stiff cores and column supports, cause in-plane bending of the wall. There are two main approaches to model the structural system. Either the bin is analysed as many isolated components or itis considered as, «continuous folded plate structure, Most existing guides recommend the first approach, The walls are designed with assumed boundary conditions and interaction betwecn individual plates is ignored. The guidance given is fr flat plated bins. A more economical solution may be to use corrugated wall plates, In this ease the bin wall is designed using the section properties ofthe corrugated sheet, Wall pressure is carried partly by flexural action of the plate in bending and partly by membrane action, Bin walls are generally analysed using small deflection theory. The wall deflections are small (less than the thickness of the plate) and so for design purposes its acceptable to assume thatthe load is carried entirely by plate bending. Three methods of analysis are commonly used. Wall plates between stiffeners ‘with an aspect ratio greater than two to one are analysed as beams bending in one direetion only. The beam is assumed to span continuously over stiffeners and may be fully fixed atthe ends. Plates with an aspect ratio less than two to one are designed with tabular data, The maximum bending moment for plates with simply supported or fixed edges is given by: Myx = po? b (15) where a and bare the shorter and longer plate dimensions respectively Pris the average normal pressure «vis given in Tables 1 and 2 hitpiknww ogni. si-iprazelESDEPImastorgtSc0200 Km etasta01s ESDEP LECTURE NOTE W615) bafio [2 ll4 [6 [is 0 Bo 40 so (a._[0.048 [0,063 [0,075 [0,086 ]0,095],108 [0,119 0,123 ]0,125 Table 1 a for plates with simply supported edges bia [0 2s [Ls urs 0 Pas fa _[0,0513][0,0605 [0.0757 [0,0817 [0.0829] 0.0833 Table 2 o for plates with fixed edges ‘Tabulated data isnot available forthe analysis of trapezoidal plates and so the hopper wall is analysed as an idealised rectangular plate. The dimensions may be calculated from formule given in Figure 10. 2a/d has) 4 ia) ay Ll (b) a= 282 (ay +m) a Bla; ta} bo= ne 2282-0) : Blayea) Figure 10. Idealised shape of trapezoidal plate : [4] Both of the methods described lead to conservative designs due to the assumed plate geometry and boundary conditions. Higher accuracy can be achieved using numerical techniques, such asthe finite element method, to analyse the interaction of the various plate members lane loads sujecteé to in-plane and out-of. 42.2 Plate Instability Buckling is unlikely to control the design ofthe wall thickness of plates analysed using small deflection theory. Thus a conservative stability analysis is usually adopted and the critical elastic buckling load is calculated assuming that the loads are acting inthe plane of the plate. The elastic critical buekling load can be ealeulated from the following equation: k gE va_(‘] a8) hitpiknww ogni. si-iprazelESDEPImastorgtSc0200 Km 1621asta01s ESDEP LECTURE NOTE W615) The plate is assumed to be simply supported on al four edges and subject to a uniform or linearly increasing load. If necessary, the buckling, resistance of a flat plate can be calculated allowing for additional strength due to lateral pressure ftom the stored material and post buckling strength [5] 42.3 Stiffener design A typical stiffened arrangement is shown in Figure 9. It consists primarily of vertical stiffeners but with horizontal stiffeners at the ‘ansition and at the top of the bin. Vertical stiffeners inthe vertical walled section are simply designed to carry horizontal and vertical wall ffiction loads from the adjoining wall plates. Stiffeners in the hopper are designed as beams with end reactions and loads normal to the wall from the stored material as shown in Figure 11. Tension forees along the beam may also need to be considered. ht ~ Pot Pho Pha ho Figure 11 Bin loads and reactions ‘The horizontal stiffener atthe top ofthe bin is designed to carry the reaction at A from the horizontal loads on the vertical wall. Horizontal loads include those from the stored material and the wind loads Hopper loads are usually carried by a ring beam atthe transition. The ring beam has to carry the hopper weight and distribute the bin loads to the supports, At the stat of filling the ring beam acts as a compression frame, It resists inward forces from the suspended hopper, As filling continues, the compressive forces are offset by tension from the lateral pressure exerted by the stored material ia the bin, Figure 11 shows the load resultant, The ring beam force is found by taking moments about point O. Lf, ay. 2a 2h by Ali 2 tee test Be et a gos they thot ta gt ae F * an ‘Paz and pya ate the horizontal components of pressure calculated normal to the hopper wall using Equation (9). The sing beam may also Irave to carry loads from the following: + Vertical load from wall friction in the bin, + Axial compressive forces that arise from in-plane bending ofthe wall plates. ‘+ Axial tension due to forces from adjacent walls, + Torsion due to eecentrcity of any ofthe above forces. 4.24 Support structure ‘The support structure for small bins is usually terminated at the ring beam. The walls of the structure above carry all the loads from the bin. This form of support is common in citeular bins but in squate bins the supports are usually continued from the tansition ring beam to the top ofthe structure. Their function is to carry the vertical loads inthe bin and provide resistance to buckling. A small ring beam is often positioned atthe cop ofthe bin to give additional restraint against horizontal forces. The support structure is braced to provide stability against externally applied lateral forces or non-symmotrical internal forces. 4.3 Design of Circular Bins 43.1 Introduction ‘The wall thickness of circular bins is selected after checks to prevent yielding due to circumferential tension forces and buckling. The wall thickness of most bins is governed by buckling although hoop tension controls the design of very shallow bins. Most cylindrical bins have nly two stiffeners, one atthe transition and one atthe top of the vertical walled section. Additional stiffeners may be used to resist wind hitpiknww ogni. si-iprazelESDEPImastorgtSc0200 Km 1921asta01s ESDEP LECTURE NOTE W615) loads. Conical hoppers are usually unsiffened, ‘This section deseribes the basic design procedure and discusses the design of critical components. The main elements of design are: Preliminary sizing of bin and hopper walls, Bin wall buckling, Stiffener design considering the influence on wall stresses and buckling Support design considering the influence on wall stresses and buckling, Recent research has investigated the limitations of simplified design rules and highlighted areas of design which may require careful consideration, These areas include high localised stresses around bin supports and boundaries, and the influence of unsymmetrical loads on wall stress. For very large bins a detailed finite element analysis ofthe structure is recommended, For most bin designs this may not be possible due to economic restrictions and so the design is carried out using simplified procedures. In many cases these procedures do not model the bin behaviour accurately and careful design is required to prevent failure. 43.2 Cylinder wall stress ‘The circumgerential wall stresses in bins less than 5 m diameter can be first estimated simply but conservatively using the symmetrical pressure distribution alternative tothe patch load discussed in Section 3.2.2 and the membrane theory of shells. Membrane theory assumes tha the bin wall is subject to tensile forces only, The ‘hoop’ tension should be calculated at the bottom ofthe cylinder as follows: ty = Phot (18) The resulting wall thickness may have to be increased to ensure adequate connection strength, corrosion and wear resistance and to prevent buckling, Joint efficieney factors for welded connections are given in Lecture 15C.1.) Membrane theory is only accurate forthe predication of wal stresses away from discontinuities such as changes in wall thickness, supports and stiffeners. Particular precautions are required depending upon the type of support, These precautions are discussed in Sections 4.3.4 10 43.6. 43.3 Wall buckling The most common failure mode of cylindrical steel bins is the buckling ofthe bin wall under axial compression. Axial compression may be due to combined loads of wall friction, roof loads and loads from attached equipment. The elastic buckling stress ofa bin wall is influenced by the following: ‘magnitude and shape of wall imperfections; distribution of the wall friction load; magnitude of intemal pressure; clastic properties of the stored material; bin suppors. Buckling can be prevented using simple hand calculation methods provided that the bin walls, supports and connections are detailed carefully to prevent significant out-of plane displacements, Many methods have been proposed for the calculation of the critical elastic buckling stress and they are reviewed by Rotter [13]. A simple and conservative approach isto adopt the classical elastic critical stress multiplied by an empirical safety factor E fee= 70,605 1 (19) where = 015 ‘The influence of lateral pressure is ignored and the shell is assumed to be uniformly axially compressed. Equation (19) may be used safely provided thatthe load distribution is uniform (i.e, the conservative pressure distribution in Furocode | is used) and the supports are designed to prevent significant out-of-plane stresses and deflections in the shell. The following points should be considered when designing cylindrical bin walls to prevent buckling, + Bins can be designed less conservatively using the patch pressure distribution. The patch load results in an unsymmetrical pressure distribution around te bin wall corresponding to rapid circumferential changes in stress, A rigorous shell analysis of the bin wall is required as simple band calculation methods are not available for an accurate analysis + Further economy may result from utilising the inereased strength of the bin wall due to lateral pressure from the stored material “Hoop tension resulting from lateral pressure reduces the imperfection sensitivity of buckling under axial compression and incres the buckling strength. Methods have been developed to include the influence of internal pressure on the buckling strength [15] Designers have been reluctant to use the rules because ofthe high umber of buckling failures of steel ins and the need to ensure thatthe stationery layer of stored material adjacent tothe bin wall has adequate thickness. ln eccentricaly discharged bins, te lateral support cannot be guaranteed over the entire wall and so there may not be any inerease in buckling strengt + Cylindrical walls are not normally stiffened with vertical stiffeners. The physical size of local buckles is small and so longitudinal stiffeners would need to be closely spaced to prevent buckling. Circumferential stiffeners serve no useful purpose in resisting buckling under axial compression. + The critical buckling stress is reduced by surface imperfections. The number and size of imperfections is influenced by the fabrication hitpiknww ogni. si-iprazelESDEPImastorgtSc0200 Km wreasta01s ESDEP LECTURE NOTE W615) process, Apparently identical cylinders fabricated using different processes may have very different buckling strengths. The critical stress should be reduced for bins with large imperfections, The ECCS recomendations (15) give rules for the strength reduction ddepending upon the type and size of imperfection, ‘+ Where bolted construction is used on bins and the plates are lapped together, the buckling strength is reduced below the value for butt Jointed construction. Circumferential joints lead to eccentricities in the ine of axial thrust resulting in destabilizing axisymmetric Ueflections, compressive circumferential membrane stresses and local bending stresses. ‘+ Column supports can induce high bending stresses in the bin wall, They can influence stresses up to a distance equal to many times the diameter from the support. The problem can be alleviated by extending the columns tothe full height ofthe bin (the columns can then carry the roof loads directly). I the columns ate not continued tothe top ofthe bin, a shell bending analysis could be used to ddetermine the stresses induced inthe shell wall and associated ring beams and stiffeners. Buckling from Wind Londs The ECCS [15] and BS 2654 [16] give recommendations for the design of eylinders to resist external pressure. Generally, restraint to the top of the bin is provided either by a fixed roof or a stiffener atthe top ofthe cylinder. In large bins, it may be economical to stiffen the shecting of circular bins. Stiffening generally increases the resistance to wind buckling, but not to circumferential tension or meridional compression, except locally. Circumferential stiffeners should be placed on the outside ofa bin to avoid flow restrictions. Steel bins are more suscepiile to wind buckling during construction than in service because restraint is provided by the roof and ring beam in service. 434 Bottom and hopper High stresses occur near the base ofa bin wal i itis rigidly connected to a flat floor. They may be reduced by detailing a suitable movement joint or by design of the bin wall to prevent overstress, Flat bottoms should be designed to carry the vertical pressure calculated from Equation (8). Conical hoppers are designed as membrane structures in tension, For the calculation of the hopper wal thickness and connection detailing, itis necessary to calculate the meridional tensile stress and the circumferential hoop slress. The meridional tension, ty, is calculated from the resultant ofthe vertical discharge pressure py at the transition and the combined weight of the material in the hopper and the hopper wall, W. tt yg Dees GI_@ Dares @I_ A) (20) The hoop tension f is ealeulated from the pressure normal to the hopper wall during discharge and is equal to: Pr 4-08 any The effects of mechanical discharge aids or column supports on the hopper wall stress should be considered. Again reliable hand methods forthe ealeulation of stresses due to column supports are not available and so an accurate predietion is only possible using a finite element analysis. 43.5 Transition ring beam ‘The transition between the cylinder and the cone may be made using a variety of connection details (some are shown in Figure 12), The hopper applies an inward and downward force on the transition which induces a circumferential compression in the ring beam. The ting ‘beam should be checked to prevent plastic collapse and buckling, It is a usual practice to design continuously supported rings to resist che horizontal components of the hopper meridional tension ty. This may be reduced to allow for hop tension from the horizontal pressure in the eylinder, The ring beam may also have to carry vertical loads for column supports, hitpiknww ogni. si-iprazelESDEPImastorgtSc0200 Km a1asta01s ESDEP LECTURE NOTE W615) Figure 12 Typical transition ting beam details A summary of forees on the ring beam is as follows: vertical load from wall friction in the eylinder; ‘outward load from horizontal pressure in the cylinder; ‘membrane forces from the hopper; torsion due to eccentricity of any of ‘upward load ftom the supports the above Forces; ‘These forves resul in axial compression from net outward and inward forces: shear and bending between support columns; local shell bending: torsion due to eccentricity of shell and column loads, Circumferential compressive stresses in the ring beam atthe transition of the mass flow hoppers is relieved by the kick load. Due to "uncertainty of the exact magnitude of the kick load, the beneficial effects should not be used in design, For many ring beam details, part ofthe hopper and the cylinder walls are effective in carrying the ring beam forces and should be des accordingly. For skirt supported bins, the shell provides sufficient strength and a ring beam is not usually required. 43.6 Supports Different types of bin support are shown in Figure 13. Column supported bins result in a complicated stress pattem in the bin wall around the column, The stress pattern i less complicated wen the columns are continued to the top of the in, Increased stresses in the shel wall can be reduced by sensible design of the columa support. The distance of the coluran from the bin wall should be kept to a minimum and. loads from the column supports can be distributed by stiffeners. hitpiknww ogni. si-iprazelESDEPImastorgtSc0200 Km r921asta01s ESDEP LECTURE NOTE W615) : Fiaure 13. Typical column supports In the case of small-diameter bins and bunkers (J < 7m), the metal walls may extend down to the foundation and support the entire steture, 43.7 Connections Sheeting may he connected by welding or bolting. When bolted connections are used, designers should be aware o strength of the bin wall due to lap joints. Connections are designed to carry the metidional and circumferential ste the hopper as described above, 5. CONCLUDING SUMMARY the reduced buckling es in the eylinder and Eurocode 1 gives simplified rules for the ealeulation of loads and the structural design of common bin types. Non-uniform loading needs to be carefully considered in design. Non-cireular bins are heavily stiffened structures designed to cary loads in bending. In general, they are designed conservatively, ‘The design of circular bins is usually governed by the buckling ofthe bin wal Circular and non-circular bins may be designed conservatively using simple hand calculation methods, Supports, connections, stiffeners and fitings should be detailed to minimise out-of-plane stresses and deflections. 6. REFERENCES u focode 1: "Basis of design and actions on structures, Part 4, Actions in silos and tanks”, ENV 1991 IN (in press). [2] British Materials Handling Board, “Silos - Draft design code", 1987, [3] Eurocode 3: "Design of steel structures": Part 4, Tanks, Silos and Pipelines, CEN (in preparation) [4] National Coal Board, "The design of coal preparation plants”, UK National Coal Board Code of Practice, 1970 [5] Gaylord, E. Hand Gaylord, C. N., "Design of steel bins for storage of bulk solids", Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, 1984. [6] Reimbert, M. and Reimbert, A, "Silos: Theory and practice", Trans Tech Publications, 1987. [7] Troitsky, M.S. 25, ‘On the structural analysis of rectangular steel bins", Powder and Bulk Solids Technology, Vol 4, No. 4, 1980, pp 19- [8] Trahair, N. 8, ct al, "Structural design of steel bins for bulk solids", Australian Institute of Steel Construction, 1983, [9] The University of Sydney, "Design of steel bins for the storage of bulk solid Postgraduate professional development course, 1985. [10] Lambert, F. W., "The theory and practical design of bunkers", The British Construction Steclwork Association Limited, 1968. [11] Safarian, $. S. and Harris, E.C., "Handbook of concrete engineering - Silos and Bunkers", Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., New York, 1974, [12] Wozniak, S., "Silo design’ in Structural Engineers Handbook. [13] Rotter, J. M. etal, "A survey of recent buckling research on stel silos”. Stel structures - recent research advances and their hitpiknww ogni. si-iprazelESDEPImastorgtSc0200 Km 201asta01s ESDEP LECTURE NOTE [WG15) applications to design, ed M. Pavlovic, Elsevier applied science, London, 1986, [14] Building Research Establishment, "Dust Explosions", BRE TIL. 613, 1984, [15] European Convention of Construetional Steelwork (CCS), European recommendations for steel construction: Buckling of shells, 4th ed, [16] BS 2654: 1989, "Manufecture of vertical steel welded non-reftigerated storage tanks with but-welded shells for the petroleum. industry”, British Standards Institution, London, 1989. [17] Burocode 1: "Basis of design and actions on structures, Part 2, Wind loads on buildings", ENV 1991-2-1, CEN (in preparation). Previous |Next | Contents hitpiknww ogni. si-iprazelESDEPImastorgtSc0200 Km ave