Jewish Encyclopedia J A DESCRIPTIVE RECORD OF THE HISTORY, RELIGION, LITERATURE, AND CUS- TOMS OF THE JEWISH PEOPLE FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRESENT DAY Prepared by More than Four Hundred Scholars and Specialists UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE FOLLOWING EDITORIAL BOARD Cynus Apune, PuLD. (Departments of Post. Mancus Jastuow, Px.D. (Departmentof the Talwad). Biblical Antiquities; the Jeter 9p Aomori). Gormnaro Drorsex, Pu.D. (Department ‘of History from 1498 to 1902) Kaveman Kone, Pu.D. (Departments of Theology Lows Ginzneno, PuD. (Department of — ed Piilosophy). Rabbiniad Literature Farpeeick px Sota MENDES, PiuD. (Chiff of te Rican Gorriten., PHD. (Deparéments of "Bureau of Translation ; Revitng Editor) ‘Gsary from Esra to 14g) Hany 9 Hcry fram are fo 19 FF reroorn Sincen, PacD. (Departnent of Modern Biography rom 1730 0 1901)- JoserH JAcous, BA. (Departments of the "jes England aid Antivopolgy; Reve. ChavevoRD H. Tox, D.Dy LED. (Departments of Monnis Jas Row, JR. PHD. (Department ofthe Bible). Ging Editor). Hebrew Philology and Hellenistic Literature). ISAAC _K. FUNK, D.D., LLD. FRANK H, VIZETELLY (Chairman ofthe Board Seoreary ofthe Board ISIDORE SINGER, Ph.D. Projector and Managing Editor ASSISTED BY AMERICAN AND FOREIGN BOARDS OF CONSULTING EDITORS COMPLETE IN TWELVE VOLUMES EMBELLISHED WITH MORE THAN TWO THOUSAND ILLUSTRATIONS NEW YORK AND LONDON FUNK AND WAGNALLS COMPANY mMpccccr STADTBIBLIOTHER i on a FRANKFURT AM MAIN.STAD? YLIOTHES FRANKFURT AM MADTOPEN LETTER TO THE PATRON-SUBSCRIBERS OF THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA [FROM DR. ISIDORE SINGER, PROJECTOR AND MANAGING EDITOR] ‘At the beginning of the year 1898, when I proposed the publication of THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA to the FUNK & WAGNALIS ComPANY, the magnitude and originality of the enterprise appealed to them strongly; but when they realized the enormous difficulties such a pioneer work necessarily presented, they felt some measure of dismay. However, as they were loath to forego the honor of publishing so great a literary undertaking if it were at all feasible, they felt their way cautiously, and were soon convinced that the entire Jewish public of America and Great Britain looked upon the ENcycLoPEDTA not san ordinary, every-day publication, but as a great Judeo-national work, to further the distribution of which was felt to be a duty and a privilege. The leaders of Israel throughout the civilized world openly encouraged the publishers to make the venture. After the publication of the first prospectus, scores of prominent Jewish writers offered their services as propagandists for the work; the editors of the Jewish papers, and almost every one of the two hundred American rabbis from New York to San Francisco and from ‘Montreal to New Orleans, received the representatives of Tie Jewssi ENCYCLOPEDIA as missionaries of a cause that deserved their energetic support; and the FUNK & WaG- NALIS COMPANY accordingly resolved to make this undertaking another magnum opus of their publishing-house, In the first announcement, issued August, 1898, the expense of producing the entire work, to comprise twelve volumes in all, was estimated at $100,000. Moro than this amount has already been spent in the preliminary work and in the production of the first volume; and the FUNK & WAGNALIS Company believe that considerably more than $500,000 will be required to render this undertaking worthy of the great causes of Truth and Justice which I am convinced it is destined to serve. ‘An encyclopedia of this magnitude could be produced only as a subscription work on the instalment plan; and to bring it to a successful completion the publishers rely upon the continued cooperation of the Patron-subscribers, to whom they now extend their thanks for the interest and support so freely given. More than half of the Patrons are Jews of foreign origin, and have but recently arrived in America, When the representa- tives of the FuNK & WaGNALts Company, in order to avoid any misunderstanding, explained to these eager supporters of Jewish lore the legal aspects of the engagement into which they had entered, their answer was invariably to this effect: “Every Jew considers his word a solemn pledge; and twice solemn does he consider his pledge if it be given to a non-Jew, especially if, as in the present case, the non-Jew serves the cause of Israel. ‘Every Jewish subscriber would consider it as a chillul ha-Shem (profanation of the Holy Name] to place in the way of the Christian publishers of a Jewish work the slightest obstruction to the carrying out of the obligation signed by him.” T, as a Jew, know this to be the attitude of my coreligionists; but, having assumed the responsibility of inducing a firm of Christian publishers to enter a field of literature com- paratively new to them, and to venture upon such a costly enterprise, I felt bound to furnish them with the strongest: guaranties I could command, My expectations were more than realized, A great many of the Patron-subscribers of the work—bankers, merchants, and other business men—volunteered their services to advertise the work among their personal friends. One of the first subscribers, a rich manufacturer of Baltimore, wrote: “There are twenty thousand well-to-do Jews in the United States who can afford to buy your book and will do so if properly approached and by the right person. I deem it a dutyand a privilege to introduce the ENc¥cLoPEDIA whenever and wherever I have the oppor- tunity to doso, If every one of your Patron-subseribers will take it on himself to secure, through his personal efforts, only two additional supporters for your enterprise, then your work will have laid the foundation of a Jewish library in twenty thousand Jewish families, and the old love for Jewish learning will have been awakened throughout our land.” One Friday afternoon DR. Ea G. Hrescu, of Chicago, that foremost representative of the American Jewish pulpit, called at the editorial rooms. The large assemblage of scholars, translators, revisers, typewriters, and proof-readers who were assiduously work- ing in order to tell the world of Israel’s glorious record, “to show in one vast, imposing array what sublime teachings Judaism has promulgated, what a thrilling history has been that of our ancient people, and how numerous and varied have been the talents of itssons and daughters,” manifestly impressed the rabbi of Sinai'Temple, In reply to my inquiry as to the probable number of subscriptions that Tar Jewish Ecyctorepra might receive in Chicago, Dr. Hrrsom replied solemnly: “Sir, I guarantee five hundred in my own congregation. Send me your agents; I will provide them with personal letters of introduction to each of my friends; and wherever your agent fails to obtain a subserip- tion I will accompany him, for to my mind this work of yours is what we call a veri- table Kiddush ha-Shem [glorification of God] ; and every Jew who knows what this term implies will feel in duty bound to do his part toward carrying to completion a work begun in such a disinterested spirit.” It is impossible to tell in detail the many proofs received of the sincerity of the sup- port tendered in the course of the last three years—such support as led the Fux & WaGNALIS Company to believe that they could rely with confidence on material assist- ance from Anglo-American Israel to complete this undertaking successfully. ‘An illustration, however, of the appreciation of the educational value of the ENcycto- Pepra I must mention, for the instance is charaeteristically Jewish, and redounds to the honor of Jewish idealism. ‘Two years agoa subscription blank—written in Hebrew char- acters and signed by a well-to-do Russian merchant—was received from Philadelphia. It was endorsed as follows: Although I don’t know the English language and will, there- fore, not be able to read this book myself, nevertheless I will buy and pay for it, for wish my children raised in the love of the holy Torah of the Lord.” And this Russian immigrant in his naive style truly penned the conviction of the leading Jewish and non- Jewish thinkers of our day concerning the great importance of this ENcyororEp1 for the future development of Israel. ISRAEL ZANGWILL, the widely known Anglo-Jewish novelist and art critic, writes: “Tt is curions that a century greedy of all knowledge, anxious to explore every nook and cranny of history, should have neglected the story of Jewish life and thought, espe- cially as that story is essentially of the center, however it may have got crushed into the background of the world’s thought. But the century, repentant in its dying hour, is, making splendid amends by the inception of Tue Jewisa ENcyctorepra. Christian- ity will learn from it to understand Judaism and to respect Jews. Jews will learn from it to derstand and respect themselves. ‘The publication of Tar Jew1sH ENcycto: PEDIA is an historical event, which is bound to have far-reaching effects both on Judaism and Christianity.” Similar thoughts are expressed on the Christian side, ‘Thus, the late Prov. Max Mixxer, of Oxford University, wrote: “I and many more want to know a great deal more of the origin and the historical development of the Jewish race than is known at present. ‘To my mind the differences between the Jewish and the Christian religion seem to be very small as far as essentials are concerned, and a thorough knowledge of the eauses that made Jews and Christians differ from each other, such as THE JEwisH ENCYCLOPEDIA is sure to supply, will, I trust, serve to bring the two more closely together in the future. Both Jews and Christians consider themselves the chosen peopleof God. Why should they not consider themselves as brothers, worshiping the same ‘Father and bearing with each other as brothers ought to do?” ‘We Jews have nothing to lose, but much to gain, by this encyclopedic work. Justice, once set on foot, will spread in our favor as did cruelty against us, for justice no less than eruelty is contagious. Despite the discord and strife that still divide nations, creeds, and classes in these days of universal enlightenment, it can not be denied that a deeper longing for the truth is making itself felt throughout the world, and a fuller recognition of the rights and claims of humanity is being granted to-day to each race and individual. Fanaticism is giving way to fairness; the hostile attitude of former days is being transformed into one of friendly intercourse. Justice and truth—the foun- dations of the throne of Israel’s God—are becoming more and more the pillars of the world’s tribunal. But in order fully to attain the end which the Projector, Publishers, and Editorial Board have sought from the outset, and which has been so eloquently set forth by scores of Christian and Jewish thinkers, it will not be sufficient simply for this ENoyoro- PEDIA to become a household book in every Jewish family; it must become the spiritual property of the civilized world at large. ‘Pur Jewish ENCYCLOPEDIA will collect, sift, and analyze the vast material accumu- Jated by more than forty generations of Jewish and Christian scholars; in it the whole range of human knowledge accessible to us at the present hour will be exploited in order to throw full light on the past and to enable us eventually to foretell somewhat of the future of the Jewish race, Tb will be more than a mere compilation of twelve volumes, aggregating 8,000 pages and including 2,000 illustrations. It is destined to inaugurate, on the one hand, an epoch of revival within Jewish literature itself, and, on the other, to advance in great’ measure the literature of the world in so far as the knowledge of Jewish matters is concerned. I hope that before the twelfth volume of the work shall have been placed on the shelves of the forty thousand public and private libraries now extant in the world, the governments of Burope and high-minded Mmeenases of the United States will have come to the conclusion that no curriculum of a university can be com- plete without including a series of lectures on the literature and history of the Jews. Tn ‘a word, to render the Science of Judaism universititsftihig was the first and principal impulse of my efforts, This ENcyoLopEpra once firmly established as an indispensable instrument of scientific instruction, not only in the libraries referred to, but also in the studies of the hundreds of thousands of Catholic and Protestant clergymen, professors and teachers, lecturers and journalists, lawyers and physicians, the full truth about Judaism and the Jews will begin to spread steadily from the pulpits of cathedrals and churehes, from the professors’ and masters’ platforms, and through the columns of thou sands of magazines and newspapers, to the millions of those to whom the framers of public opinion address themselves day by day. It is somewhat embarrassing to plead one’s own eause; may I, therefore, be allowed. to present to our Patron-subscribers, to whose zealous support I owe the realization of the ideal of my life, the peroration of a sermon delivered March 16, 1901, by the rabbi of Temple Emanu-El, New York: “The success of the technical and financial sides of Tae Jewisn ENcvoLOPEDIA is assured. It remains now to give its educational value the largest possible scope. Every Jewish home must possess a copy; but that will not be sufficient in order that Israel and humanity may gain the greatest possible benefit therefrom. This ENCYCLOPEDIA should be universally accessible in the smallest city and village of America and Europe, so that wherever any discussion arises concerning a point pertaining to Judaism and Israel this work will be at hand for consultation. “T propose, therefore, that Jews of means buy copies of this ENcycLorEpra, not only for themselves, but also for distribution among the libraries in those cities and villages that lack the necessary funds to purchase copies. No better investment can be made inbehalf of Israel and Judaism, When every library is thus equipped there will be no more justification or excuse for misrepresenting Judaism and Israel in press or pulpit or on the rostrum. The facts will be readily available, and low indeed must be the mind that will refuse to learn the truth when it is within easy reach. “T trust my words will be heeded. I trust many will esteem it an honor and a privi- lege to make such a donation to some library. Mk. ANDREW CaRNnere has set a noble example to the world in establishing about two hundred libraries in Europe and America, Let the Jews emulate his example, at least to the extent of placing in every school, church, or public library a copy of Tae JewisH ENcycLoPEDrA, and thus contribute to the propagation of the truth, to the glory of Israel, and to the welfare of humanity.” And now, after having briefly related my efforts and expressed my hopes, I wish to tender my hearty thanks to those who extended to me their personal support, their adviee, and their moral encouragement while the work was still in its preliminary stage: Hon, Jacon H. Scurrr; How. Oscar 8. STRAUS, late ambassador to Turkey; Jupce Mayer Sunzpercer, of Philadelphia; ExaNuet LeHMAN; Leoxarp LEwisonn; Monrraz EELINGER, editor of “The Menorah”; Dr. HERMANN BAAR, late superintendent of the Hebrew Orphan Asylum, and Moses Orrrnaer, trustee of the Jewish Theological Semi. nary. My thanks are respectfully tendered likewise to all our ParRoxs—for PatRoxs they are indeed, and their names deserve to appear on the Roll of Honor appended to the first volume of the ENcycrorep1s. This imposing list, wherein the names of Catholic and Protestant archbishops, English nobles, presidents of American univer- sities, and American statesmen are side by side with those of small Jewish storekeepers and dealers who landed but a few years ago on these shores as fugitives from persecution, is an historic list, and as such it will go down to posterity reproduced in the chronicles of Israel in future generations. Such a harmonious association for a'common purpose, for the great ideal of “Justice to the Jew,” formulated so eloquently a couple of years ago by an American Christian clergyman, was possible only on the free soil of America, ‘Although still early in the undertaking, this Jewrst ENoyCLOPEDIA has already initiated a notable spiritual movement: the Renaissance of the Science of Judaism in our country. One rabbi after the other mounts the steps of his pulpit on the Sabbath, and, in ng to this great work that you as Patron-subscribers haye made possible— for without your help this enterprise could not have been undertaken—tells his congre: gation of the grandeur of Israel’s literature, of its great scholars and artists, and kindles the fire of enthusiasm in the hearts of Jewish youth. Young Israel is being taught to consider this ENCYCLOPEDIA a household book, to coneeive for it a portion of the same reverence as his ancestors paid to the Talmud, with which, indeed, for vastness and breadth and influence to be wrought on coming generations, it has already been com- pared by one of the most eminent American rabbis, a professor of Rabbinical literature ‘at one of our universities. ‘American and English Judaism seems destined to take the lead in the fortunes of Israel in the twentieth century. To have contributed to this great and beneficent evolu tion in the history of the People of the Book through this work, will afford much satis: faction to the FUNK & WaGNatis Company and to myself. ‘The Company will con- tinue to bear the burden of financial administration and technical supervision required to carry on the work. As to the rest, the book is the book of modern Israel; it is the national property of the tribe of Judah. Jewish scholars preside over its literary form, and the Jewish merchait and clerk are destined to become the financial mainstay of this vast undertaking, which is not only a great monument of the glorious past of Israel, but shall be also a mighty bulwark for its future. IstorE Sinerr, Px.D., Projector and Managing Editor of The Jewish Encyclopedia. New Your, May 15, 1901.ARK OF THE LAWTHE Jewish Encyclopedia A DESCRIPTIVE RECORD OF THE HISTORY, RELIGION, LITERATURE, AND CUS- TOMS OF THE JEWISH PEOPLE FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRESENT DAY Prepared by More than Four Hundred Scholars and Specialists Crgus Apues, PuLD. (Deporiments of Past. Mancus Jastaow, PH.D. (Deparimentof the Talmud). ‘iblieal Antigua; the Teas of drt. ‘periment » Corryan Davtscu, PH.D, (Department of History from 1492 t0 1901). Kavrmann Kouten, PHD. (Departments of Theology Lovis Ginzperc, Pu.D. (Department of 84 Philosophy). Rabbinical Literature). Fanpenick De Sora Menpes, PaD. (Chief of the Riciaxo Gorrtent, PHD. (Departments of" Bureau of Translation; Reviving Baltor). Wistory Grom Esra te rggee Blsory of ary fen Es ie FOYT owoxy sym, Ya. (Dewitt JosePH Jacons, B.A. (Departments of the egraphy from 1750 10 1901)- "Yous of England and Anthropoogys Reet CxawerorD HW. Tox, D:D, LLD. (Departments of Morais Jastnow, Jn, PH.D. (Departmentofthe Bible). ‘ing Bator) Hebrew Philology and Hellenistic Literature). ISAAC K. FUNK, DD. LLD. FRANK H. VIZETELLY (Chairman of the Board ‘Seerctary ofthe Board ISIDORE SINGER, Ph.D. Profeotor and Managing Editor ASSISTED BY AMERICAN AND FOREIGN BOARDS OF CONSULTING EDITORS (sun Pacey) VOLUME I AACH—APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE NEW YORK AND LONDON FUNK AND WAGNALLS COMPANY mpcecccrCorvarcH, 1901, BY FUNK & WAGNALLS COMPANY AN rights of translation reserved ‘Regltered at Statloers' Hall, London, England (Printed in the United States of America) STADTBIBLIOTHES PRANKFURT AM MALYLITERARY DIRECTORATE EDITORIAL BOARD CYRUS ADLER, Ph.D. (Departments of Postibtieal Antipattics; the Jews of America.) rosient ofthe Aurican Jewish Historical Society ; Librarian, Smithsonian Instuntion, Washington, D.C GOTTHARD DEUTSCH, Ph.D. (Departinent of History from 102 to 1201.) Professor of Jewish History, Hebrow Union College, Cincinnath ‘hilo; Eaitor of "Deborah." LOUIS GINZBERG, Ph.D. (Depnutivent of Radbintead Literature.) ‘New York; Author of " Die Haggada vei den Kircbenvitern RICHARD GOTTHEIL, Ph.D. (Departments of History fram Bera to 12; History of Poste Talniuate Literature.) Professor of Semitic Eanruages, Columba University, New York ‘Chet ofthe Oriental Department, New York Public Library: ‘Presdent of tue Federation of Ameriean Zionists, JOSEPH JACOBS, B.A. (Departments of the Jews af England and Anturopotony: Revising Faitor.) lorieatSoclety of England; Paelandy” ee ormeniy President ofthe Jevish Hl ‘Autor of Jews of anzer MARCUS JASTROW, Ph.D. (Department of the Tato.) Rabbi Emeritus of the Congregation Rodet Shalom, Pailadet Dia, Pay Author of * Dictionary o€ the falinud.” MORRIS JASTROW, Jr., Ph.D. (Dewartment of the Bi.) ‘Professor of Sette Langues and Librarian inthe University fof Pennspivanis, Philadelphia, Pa: Author of "Relig {on of th Babylonians and Assyrians," ef. KAUFMANN KOHLER, Ph.D. (Departments of Theology aout Phitosophan) Rabbi of Temple Beth-El, New York; President ofthe Board of Sessa Ministers, New York. FREDERICK DE SOLA MENDES, Ph.D. (Chief of the Bureau of Trandation; Revising Eattor Rabbi of the West End Synagomue, New Yorks Vice President ‘of Board of Jewish Ministers, New York. ISIDORE SINGER, Ph.D. MaSAGis@ EDITOR. (Department of Modern Biography fram 1740 to 1901) CRAWFORD HOWELL TOY, D.D., LL.D. (Departments of Hohrow Phitlogy ana Hellenistic Literature.) rofestor of Hebrews in Harvard University, Cambridge, ass. “Author of The Religion of Israel,” * Judaism and christianity,” ee. (Chasrman of the Boar.) ‘aitonin Cet of the SraxDanp DICHONARY OF THX EXGLISIE TANGvace, ete. FRANK H. VIZETELLY. (Seeretary of the Boar.) Associate Paitor of * The Columbien Enepelopedi StaSbann Dicriosany Baltorial 8 | | 1. K. FUNK, D.D., LL.D. | | | | * and on £8 AMERICAN BOARD OF CONSULTING EDITORS BERNARD DRACHMAN, Ph.D., [Rabbi ofthe Oougresation Zicuron Ephraim, Dean of te Jesh "Theological Seminars, New York B, FELSENTHAL, Ph.D., Rabbi Emeritus of Zion Congregation, Chicago: Author of A Practiea! Gramma ofthe Hebrew Language.” GUSTAV GOTTHEIL, Ph.D., rabbi Emerita of Petuple Eunann-kl, New York, EMIL G. HIRSCH, Ph-D., LL.D., Rabb of Ghieazo Sinat Congregation, Chicago, I; Professor of ‘Rabbinieal Literature and Philosophy, University of ‘Chicago: Bator of tho * Teform Advocate. HENRY HYVERNAT, D.D., end of the Depurtinent of Senitle and Egyptian Literatures ‘catolie Caiversity of Amerie, Washington, D.C J. FREDERIC McCURDY, Ph.D., LL.D, Professor of Oriental Languages, Eniversity Cotlege, Toronto Canada; Autbor of "History, Propheey. and the Monaients"™ H, PEREIRA MENDES, M.D., ‘Rabbi of he Shearith Israel Congregation (Spanish and Porta. Tree), New York; Presldentof the Advisory Board of ‘Ministers of te Jewiah Thoologial Semmary. MOSES MIELZINER, Ph.D., D.D., | Profesor of Talmidic Literature, Hebrew Union College, Cine finnati Objo¢ Author of "Introduction to the Talmud.” GEORGE F. MOORE, M.A.,-D.D., | Professor of Hebe Language and Literature and President of | PM fonover Theological Seminary, Andover, Nass: AutBor ‘of a Comentary on the Book of Judges, ete. | DAVID PHILIPSON, D.D., | uvot of te Congregation Bene tet: Professor of Homies | MO pebrew Union Colle, Cincinnati, Ohio; President of ‘Hebrews Sabbath Soo! Union of Ameria | GRA MAURICE PRIOR, BD. PLD, | rte of Some Lanmapes and Tete, lve of ag Dz Auber al “The ionamens aod ie oi Testamentvi HERMAN ROSENTHAL, (Curr oF THE Russiax SHOTION OF Tis Junwisn ExeveLo- In change of Sluvonte Deparanctt, Now York Pubic Libra. JOSEPH SILVERMAN, D.D., Prosident of Central Conference of Amerlean Rabbis Rabbl of "Temple Eman, New York LITERARY DIRECTORATE JACOB VOORSANGER, D.D., Rabbi of the Congregation Emanu-El, San Franetseo, Cl fessor of Seinitie Languages ana Literature, U ‘verity of California, Berkel EDWARD J. WHEELER, M.A., aitor of "The Literary Digest” New York. FOREIGN BOARD OF CONSULTING EDITORS ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A., Cooditor of the Jewish Quarteriy Review"; Author of “Jew ‘sh Life In the Middle ages." ete.: Senor Tutor n Jews College, London, England. W. BACHER, PL.D., Profesor ia tho Jewish ‘Theological Seminary, Budapest, Hungary M. BRANN, Ph.D., Professor in the Jewish Theological Seminary, Breslau, Gere ‘many’ Raltorof ” Nonatsscbrift sir Gesebiehte und ‘Wiksensohaft des Judentbuns.” H. BRODY, Ph.D., Rabbi, Nachod, Bonemia, austria Coeditor of “Zelteebite fOr ‘Hebralcehe Bibllographie.” ABRAHAM DANON, ‘Principal of the Jewish ‘Theological Seminars, Constantinople, "Turkey. HARTWIG DERENBOURG, Ph.D., Professor of Literary Arubie atthe Speclal Echool of Oriel ‘Languages, Paris, France. 8, M. DUBNOW, Author of “Istoriga Yorroyer.” Odessa, Russa MICHAEL FRIEDLANDER, Ph.D., Principal ot Jews" College, London, England; Author of “The Jewish Religion," ete, IGNAZ GOLDZIHER, Ph.D., Professor of Semitic Piology, Unversity of Budapest, Hungary. ‘M. GUDEMANN, Ph.D., (Chief Rabbi of Vienna, Austria, BARON DAVID GUNZBURG, S% Petersban Rs A. HARKAVY, Ph.D, Cutt of tn Hebrews Depariont of te peri Pub ibary Peers st ZADOC KAHN, Chet Ravot of France; Honorary President of the alice Tarde Universes otter ofthe Legon of Honor Pars, rane M, KAYSERLING, Ph.D., Rabbi, Budapest, tummy: Corresponding’ Member of the Royal eademyot Mistry Mari, Spat. MORITZ LAZARUS, Ph.D., Professor Emeritus of Psyebology, University of Berlin; Merao, “Austria, { ANATOLE LEROY-BEAULIEU, Member of the French Institute Profesor at the Free Schoo! of Politial Science, Pais, France; Autor of "Isral ches tes Nations.” ISRAEL LEVI, Profesor in the Jewish Theological Seminary; Baltor of ““Mtorue dos Etudes Juives," Paris, Pate. EUDE LOLLI, D.D., COniet Rabbi of Padua Profesor of Hebrew at the University, Padua, aly IMMANUEL LOW, Ph.D., (Chiot Rabblot Szegodin, Hungary Author of “Die Aramtsenen ‘Paanaennamen.” 8. H. MARGULIES, Ph.D., Principal ofthe Jewish Theological Seminary; Chiet Rabb of Florence, aly. H. OORT, D.D., Profestor of Hebrew Language nd Archeology at the Stato Universit, Leyden, Holland, anpii PIETRO PERREAU, Yomery Libavien of tbe ao Bec Puta, Parma, a MARTIN PHILIPPSON, Ph.D., Formerly Professor of History at the Universities of Boum and Brussels: President of the Deutsebasehe ‘Gemteindebund, Berl, Germany. SAMUEL POZNANSKI, Ph.D., ‘abl in Warsave, Rusia SOLOMON SCHECHTER, M.A., Litt.D., Professor of Hebrew, University College, London, England: ‘Reader in Rabbinic, University of Cambridge: “Author of "Stade in Jnana.” E. SCHWARZFELD, Ph.D., Seeretary-Generat of the Jewish Colonzation Assocation, Paris, France LUDWIG STEIN, Ph.D., Professor of Philosophy, University of Born, Switzerland; Faitor ‘of *Arelit fir Geschichte der Phitsopbio,” ete. HERMANN L. STRACK, Ph.D., Professor of Old Testament Exegesis and Semitic Languages, University of Berlin, Germany. CHARLES TAYLOR, D.D., LLD., aster of St. John's Collone, Cambridge, England; Baltor of “Sayings ofthe Jewish Fathers” eePREFACE nected with most of the important movements in the history of the human race. ‘The greab monotheistic religions are based upon the Jewish Bible; medieval philosophy and science are inseparably associated with the Jews as intermediators; and jn modern times there has been hardly a phase of human thought and aetivity in which the participation of Jews may not be discerned, While they have thus played a prominent part in the development of human thought and social progress throughout the centuries, there has been no faithful record of their multifarious activity. Tus Jewisit Bycycrorep1, is intended to supply such a record, utilizing for this purpose all the resources of modern science and scholarship. It endeavors to give, in systematized, comprehensive, and yet snecinct form, a full and accurate account of the history and literature, the social and intellectual life, of the Jewish people—of their ethical and religious views, their customs, rites, and traditions in all ages and in all lands, It also offers detailed biographical information concerning representatives of the Jewish race who have achieved distinction in any of the walks of life. It will accordingly cast light upon the successive phases of Judaism, furnish precise information concerning the activities of the Jews in all branches of human endeavor, register their influence upon the manifold development of human intelligence, and deseribe their mutual relations to surrounding creeds and peoples. ‘The need of such a work is sufficiently obvious. Jewish history is unique and there- fore particularly liable to be misunderstood. ‘The Jews are closely attached to their national traditions, and yet, in their dispersion, are cosmopolitan, both as to their con- ceptions of world-duty and their participation in the general advancement of mankind. ‘To exhibit both sides of their character has been one of the objects of THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA. ‘The history of the Jewish people has an absorbing interest for all who are concerned in the development of humanity, Connected in turn with the principal empires of antiquity, and clinging faithfully to their own ideals, the Jews developed a legal system which proved in course of time their bulwark of safety against the destruction, through external forces, of their national life. The Roman code, in its Christian development, assigned an exceptional position to the Jews; and it becomes one of the most interesting problems for the student of Enropean constitutions to reconeile the status thus allotted to the Jew with the constitutional principles of the various Christian states, ‘The struggle of the Jew to emancipate hiniself from this peculiar position has made him an efficient ally in the heroie endeavors of modern peoples toward the assertion of human rights. ‘Throughout all the divergences produced by different social environments and intel- lectual influences, the Jews have in every generation conserved the twofold character referred to above: as representatives of a nation, they have kept alive their Hebrew traditions; and, as cosmopolitans, they have taken part in the social and intellectual life of almost all cultured nations. In the period when Jewish and Hellénic thought came O'= to their long history and their wide dispersion, the Jews have been con-PREFACE into mutual contact in Alexandria, they originated new currents of philosophic specula- tion. ‘They then joined with the Arabs in the molding of the new faith, Islam, and of the entire Arabian-Spanish civilization. In the Europe of the Middle Ages, the process by which the science of Greece reached the schools of Bologna, Paris, and Oxford ean be made clear only by taking account of the part played by Jewish translators and teachers, Scholastic philosophy was also influenced by such great medieval Jewish thinkers as Tbn Gabirol and Maimonides, while the epoch-making thought of Spinoza can be understood only by reference to his Jewish predecessors. In modern times the genius of the Jews has asserted its claim to intellectual leadership through men like Mendelssohn, Heine, Lassalle, and Disraeli, The twofold spirit of Judaism is displayed even through the medium of the Yiddish dialect, that modern representative of the Judwo-German of the Middle Ages. Preserved in this dialect, Jewish legends, customs, and superstitions, all of which still retain the traces of their connection with the various lands wherein the Tews have dwelt, serve to elucidate many an obsenre feature of general folk-lore and ethnic superstition. In the development of the Jewish faith and religious literature the same processes of internal growth and of modification through environment have incessantly gone on. The Bible, that perennial source of all great religious movements in western civilization, has been interpreted by the Jews from their own peculiar point of view; but their tradi- tions on the whole represent the spirit of progress rather than the blind worship of the letter. ‘The Biblical characters as they lived in Jewish traditions differed greatly from the presentation in the Seripture record. ‘These traditions are embodied in the Rabbin- ical literature, with its corresponding Hellenic counterparts, those numerous Apocrypha which form the connecting links between the Old Testament and the New, between the Bible and the Talmud on the one hand and the patristic literature and the Koran on the other. Drawing upon these traditions, the Jews have gradually formulated their inter- pretation of the Law and an elaborate system of religious belief—in a word, Jewish the- ology. So, too, the Jewish system of ethies has numerous points of contact with the ethical and philosophical systems of all other peoples. ‘The Jews have been important factors in commerce through all the ages; the Egypt of the Ptolemies, the Rome of the emperors, the Babylonia of the Sassanid rulers, and the Europe of Charlemagne felt and acknowledged the gain to commerce wrought by their international connections and affiliations. In all the great marts of European commerce they were pioneers of trade until, with the rise of the great merchant-gilds, they were in some degree ousted from this sphere and confined to lower pursuits, It becomes thus a matter of supreme interest to follow the Jews through all their wander- ings, to observe how their religious, social, and philanthropic activities were variously developed wherever they dwelt. To give a faithful record of all this abundant and strenuous activity is the proper purpose of a Jewish encyclopedia. Hitherto the difficulties in the way of such an adequate and impartial presentation have been insuperable, Deep-rooted prejudices have prevented any sympathetic interest in Judaism on the part of Christian theologians, or in Christianity on the part of the rabbis. ‘These theological antipathies have now abated, and both sides are better prepared to receive the truth, Tt is only within the last half-century, too, that any serious attempts have been made to render accessible the original sonrees of Jewish history scattered thronghout the libraries of Europe. As regards Jewish literature, the works, produced in many ages and languages, exist in so many instances in manuscript-sourees not yet investigated, in archives or in genizot, that Jewish scholars can hardly be said to com- mand a full knowledge of their own literature, The investigation of the sociological conditions and the anthropology of the Jewish people is even now only in its initial stages.PREFACE ix In all directions, the facts of Jewish theology, history, life, and literature remain in a Jarge measure hidden from the world, even from Jews themselves. With the publication of THe Juwism ENCYCLOPEDIA aserious attempt is made for the first time to systematize and render generally accessible the knowledge thus far obtained. ‘That this has now become possible is due to a series of labors carried on throughout the whole of the nineteenth century and representing the efforts of three generations of Jewish scholars, mainly in Germany. An attempt was made, indeed, in the sixteenth century by Azariah de? Rossi toward a critical study of Jewish history and theology. But his work remained without influence until the first half of the nineteenth century, when Krochmal, Rapoport, and Zunz devoted their wide erudition and critical ingenuity to the investigation of the Jewish life and thought of the past. Their efforts were emulated by a number of scholars who have elueidated almost all sides of Jewish activity. ‘The researches of I. M. Jost, H. Graetz, and M. Kayserling, and their followers, have Jaid a firm foundation for the main outlines of Jewish history, as the labors of Z. Frankel, A. Geiger, and J. Derenbourg paved the way for investigation into the various domains of Jewish literature. ‘The painstaking labors of that Nestor of Jew- ish bibliography, Moritz Steinschmeider—still happily with us—have made it possible to ascertain the full range of Jewish literary activity as recorded both in books and in manuscripts, ‘THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA now enters upon the field covered by the labors of these and other scholars, too numerous to mention, many of whom have lent their efforts toward its production and have been seconded by eminent coworkers from the ranks of Christian erities. ‘With the material now available it is possible to present a tolerably full account of Jews and Judaism. At the same time the world’s interest in Jews is perhaps keener than ever hefore, Recent events, to which more direct reference need not be made, have aroused the world’s curiosity as to the history and condition of a people which has been able to accomplish so much under such adverse conditions. ‘Tae JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA aims to satisfy this curiosity. Among the Jews themselves there is an increasing interest in these subjects in the present eritical period in their development. Old bonds of tradi- tion are being broken, and the attention of the Jewish people is necessarily brought to bear upon their distinetive position in the modern world, which can be understood only in the light of historical research. ‘The subject-matter of this ENcycropepra naturally falls into three main divisions, which have been subdivided into departments, each under the control of an editor directly responsible for the accuracy and thoroughness of the articles embraced in his department. ‘These are: (1) History, Biography, Sociology, and Folk-love; (2) Liter- ature, with its departments treating of Biblical, Hellenistic, Talmudieal, Rabbinical, Medieval, and Neo-Hebraic Literatnres, and including Jurisprudence, Philology, and Bibliography; (3) Theology and Philosophy. I. HISTORY, BIOGRAPHY, AND SOCIOLOGY. From the time of Josephus and the author of First Maccabees down to the nin teenth century Judaism did not produce a historian worthy of the name, What medic yal times brought forth in this branch of literature were mostly crude chronicles, full of miraculous stories. Nor were the chronicles of the seventeenth and eighteenth cen- turies much better. ‘But the interest displayed by Christian scholars of the seventeenth century in Rab- Dinical literature had the effect of direeting attention to the history of the Jews. Jacques Basnage de Bemtval, a French Protestant clergyman (1653-1723), has the merit ofx PREFACE, : having done pioneer work with his “Histoire de In Religion des Juifs” (5 vols., Rotter- dam, 1707-11). ‘The pioneer of modern Jewish history is Isaac Mareus Jost (1793-1860). His “ All- gemeine Geschichte des Juedischen Volkes,” and “Neuere Geschichte der Isracliten,” in spite of their shortcomings due to the lack of preparatory studies, were real histo graphie achievements, while his “Geschichte des Judenthuns und seiner Sekten” remains a standard work to the present day. Next to Jost is to’ be mentioned Selig (Paulus) Cassel (1821-92), whose article on Jewish history in the “Allgemeine Ency- clopiidie der Wissenschaften und Kiinste” of Erseh and Gruber (vol. xxvii.) may justly be called a memorable work. Both of these, however, were overshadowed by H. Graetz (1817-91), whose “Geschichte der Juden,” in eleven volumes, although in- adequate in many details, owing mainly to the absence of sufficient preparatory investi- gations, is still the only comprehensive and indispensable work on the subject. Since the appearance of Graetz’s history, a great deal of eritieal researeh has been carried on by a number of younger scholars, the results of which have been published in mono- graphs and magazines, The labors of Isidore Loeb, D. Kaufmann, and A. Harkavy in this field deserve special mention. Tus Jnwisn Evcycrorepra, by stimulating research in detail, will have paved the way for the future writer of a universal Jewish history based on thoronghgoing seientifie investigation, ‘The historical matter in this work is presented according to a system which may be indicated as follows: The history of all communities of any importance is given in detail; this information is summarized in connection with the various divisions of the different countries containing Jewish communities; lastly, a general sketch with cross- references to these subdivisions has been provided for each country. In addition to this, numerous general topies have been dealt with in their relations to the Jews, such as the Papacy, the Crusades, the Inquisition, Protestantism, ete, Stange as it may seem, there is no country that possesses an adequate history of its Jews, though of Iate years considerable activity has been shown in collecting material for such histories. ‘There exists no comprehensive history of the Jews of Germany, Austria, France, Holland, England, Italy, Poland, or the United States, or even of such political divisions as Bohemia, Moravia, and Galicia, or of congregations of sweh historic importance as those of Amsterdam, Frankfort-on-the-Main, London, Prague, or Wilna. ‘Phe entire field of the history, sociology, economies, and statisties of the Jews in America has hitherto been left almost uncultivated. ‘There has, for example, been no attempt to present a comprehensive account concerning the foundation of Jewsin the earliest Jewish communities, either in North or South America or in the America. West Indies. ‘The developmental stages through which Judaism has passed in America, although of extreme interest, not only in themselves, but as promising to react upon the shaping of Judaisin over all the world, have received but little attention, In THe Jewrst Encycrorepra the facts concerning Jews and Juda- ism in the New World are for the first time adequately presented. ‘There is no section of Jewish history that has been more meagerly treated than that pertaining to the Jews of Russia. Graetz in his work devotes very little space to Russia, Poland, and Lithuania, a defeet remedied to some extent in the Hebrew translation of his history, by 8. P. Rabbinowit, with notes by A. Harkavy. In the reform period of Emperor Alexander IE. the government archives were partially thrown open, so that scholars like Harkavy, Orshanski, Fuenn, and Bershadski were enabled to furnish valuable material for the early history of the Russian Jews. Dubnow has contributed largely to the history of the Hasidim, the Frankists, and the old Jewish communities. In 1900 the first volume of the “Regesti i Nadpisi” (documents, epitaphs, and extractsPREFACE, xi from old writers) was published by the Society for the Promotion of Culture among the Jews of Russia; it covers the period from 70 to 1674. The 662 documents collected by Bershadski and published by the same society in 1882, under the title of “Russko- Yevreiski Archiv,” contain material relating to the Jews in Lithuania from 1388 to 1569, Very little has been written about the development of the Russian Jews in the second half of the nineteenth century, although many of them have distin- yews guished themselves in the industries and professions, finance, railroad: in Russia. building, science, literature, and the fine arts. About 1,500 topics dealing with the Jews in Russia will be found ineladed in ‘THe Jews ENoyero- pupra, the greater part figuring for the first time in an Bnglish work, and the infor- mation being drawn in large measure from the most recent collections of Russian sources. Of all branches of the science of Judaism, biography, and especially modern biog- raphy, has been most neglected. ‘The whole Jewish biographical literature of the nine- teenth century, general and individual, of any scientific value, would form only a very moderate collection. In the great biographical dictionaries of a general character, like ‘those of Bayle, Moreri, Ladvocat, Michaud, and Hoefer, the “ Allgemeine Deutsche Bio- graphie,” ete., Jews were almost entirely omitted. Only in the last two or three editions ‘of such comprehensive encyclopedias as those of Meyer and of Brockhaus has Jewish biography received some attention, but the natural limitations of these books do not admit of detailed treatment. ‘Toa greater degree the want has been supplied by “La Grande Encyclopédie” and the “Dictionary of National Biography.” Bub were one to take all national, local, and professional biographical dictionaries of the world together, one would find in them but a very small proportion of the Jewish biographies that appear in this JEWISH ENcycrorepra. ‘There are biographical dictionaries of dead and of living divines and benefactors of the various Christian churches, but there js not a single systematically compiled collection of the biographies of the thousands of yabbis and Hebrew scholars, educators, and philanthropists who have worked promi- nently in the various countries of the world, and have contributed by their deeds to the spiritual and moral uplifting, as well as to the material welfare, of the Jewish people. ‘Tre Jewisu Excycxorenra is an endeavor to supply this deficiency. ‘While the present work has studiously sought to avoid exaggerating the merits of the more distinguished subjects of its biographical sketches, it has felt bound, on the other hand, to give due prominence to those less known men and women who have played an honorable part in Jewish life, and whose names should be redeemed from undeserved oblivion, ‘Tue JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA will thus offer an alphabetically arranged register, as complete as possible, of all Jews and Jewesses who, however unequal their merits, have a claim to recognition, Under no cireumstances, however, have personal or other motives been permitted to lower the standard of inclusion adopted for the ENCYCLOPEDIA. ‘A word must be said touching two features pertaining particularly to the bio- graphical department of a Jewish eneyelopedia, Tt is often difficult in the case of writers, artists, and others, to determine positively whether they belong to the Jewish race, owing to the fact that social conditions may have impelled them to conceal their origin, ‘To settle such delieate questions it has frequently been necessary to consult all manner of records, public and private, and even to ask for information from the persons themselves. While every care has been taken to insure accuracy in this regard, it is possible that in a few instances persons have been included who have no elaim to a place in a Jewish encyclopedi ‘kn even more delicate problem that presented itself at the very outset was the attitude to be observed by the EXCYCLOPEDIA in regard to those Jews who, while born \il PREFACE within the Jewish community, have, for one reason or another, abandoned it, As the present work deals with the Jews asa race, it was found impossible to exclude those who were of that race, whatever their religious affiliations may have been. It would be natural to Jook in a Jewish encyclopedia for such names as Heinrich Heine, Ludwig Borne, Theodor Benfey, Lord Beaconsfield, Emin Pasha: to mention only afew. Even those who have Jewish blood only on one side of their parentage—as Sir John Adolphus, Panl Heyse, and Georg Ebers—have been included, In treating of those Jews whose activities have lain outside of distinetively Jewish spheres, it has been deemed sufficient to give short sketches of their lives with a simple indication of what their contributions have been to their particular fields of labor. Only oceasionally, and for reasons of weight, has a departure been made from this policy. A. summary of the contributions thus made to the various sciences will be found under the respective headings. IL LITERATURE. How to deal with the vast amount of literary material that offered itself to the pages of a Jewish encyclopedia was a serious problem. While the Old ‘Testament is the foundation of Jewish literature in all its aspects, as well as of Jewish life and thought, information on Biblical subjects is so readily accessible elsewhere that it did nob seem desirable to develop the treatment of purely Biblical topies in these pages to the length which would be demanded in a work whose scope was confined to the Bible alone. In particular, it was considered unnecessary to compete with the “Dictionary of the Bible,” prepared under the direction of Dr. Hastings, or with the “ Eneyclopwedia Bibliea” of Pro- fessor Cheyne, both published simultaneously with this ENcyctorepis. While all sides of Biblical research are represented in these pages, they ave treated concisely Bible. and, in many eases, with little reference to disputed points. With regard, however, to two special aspects of Biblical subjects, it has seemed desirable to treat the Scriptures on somewhat novel principles. Among Jews, as among Christians, there exists a wide diversity of opinion as to the character of the revelation of the Old Testament. There are those who hold to the literal inspiration, while others reject this view and are of the opinion that the circumstances under which the various texts were produced can be ascertained by what is known as the Higher Criticism. It seemed appropriate in the more important Biblical articles to distinguish sharply between these two points of view, and to give in separate paragraphs the actual data of the Maso- retie text and the critical views regarding them. Again, there exists nowhere a full and adequate account of the various rabbinical developments of Bible exegesis— which would be of especial value to the Christian theologian and Bible exegete—and it was evidently desirable in a Jewish encyclopedia to devote considerable attention to this aspect of Biblical knowledge. The plan was adopted of treating the more impor- tant Biblical articles under the three heads of («) Biblical Data, giving, without com- ment or separation of “sources,” the statements of the text; (b) Rabbinical Literature, giving the interpretation placed upon Biblical facts by the Talmud, Midrash, and later Jewish literature; (¢) Critical View, stating concisely the opinions held by the so-called Higher Criticism as to the sources and validity of the Biblical statements, As kindred to the rabbinical treatment of Bible traditions, it has been thought well to ada occasionally (@ astatement of the phases under which they appear in the Koran and traditions of Islam generally. It is here proper to point out that, inasmuch as the treatment of Biblical passages is mainly from the Jewish point of view, the chapter and verse divisions of the HebrewPREFACE xiit text have, asa rule, been adhered to in citations, while any diserepancies between them and those of the Authorized Version have been duly noted, In thus keeping abreast of the times in Biblical matters, Tas Jewisn Eycycro- PEDIA aims to acquaint the student with the results of modern research in many fields that are altogether new and bristling with interesting discoveries, ‘This feature of the work extends over the fields of Assyriology, Egyptology, and archeological investigation in Palestine, the inexhaustible treasures of which are constantly casting unexpected light on every branch of Biblical history and archeology. ‘The soil of Africa has within the last thirty years enriched our knowledge of the life of the Jews of Egypt, and many apocryphal works tnearthed there form a valuable link in connecting the Old Testament with the New, and the Biblical with the Rabbinical literature. ‘The nineteenth century witnessed a great advance in the investigation of Hellenistic literature. ‘The forms and syntactical constructions of the Hellenistic dialect have been set forth in dictionaries and grammars, so as greatly to facilitate the study of the documents. Valuable critical and exegetical works have shed light upon such topies as the texts of the Sep- Hellenistic tuagint, of Aquila, and of Theodotion. ‘Two new editions of Josephus have Literature. appeared, and the sources of his history have been investigated. ‘The dates and origins of the apocryphal and pseudepigraphic books have been approxi mately determined. Around Philo of Alexandria, a whole literature has grown up, and the true nature of his thought has been fairly well established. ‘The result has been to determine with some definiteness the relation of the Hellenistic literature to the Jewish and Greek thought of the period, and its position in the general intellectual development of the age which produced Christianity. In these investigations Jewish scholars have taken a distinguished part. Tt has been the aim of THE JEWISH ENcycLopEDIA to pre- sent in the most thorough manner the results achieved by eritical investigation in the domain of Hellenistic literature, Of all Hellenistic productions of Jewish interest critical accounts and eritical discussions are given, and the necessity of apprehending the ideas contained in them as products of their times, and of tracing their origin and devel- ‘opment and their influence on contemporary and on later life, has constantly been kept view. The New Testament, as representing the rise of a new religion, stands in a separate category of its own; yet from one point of view it may be regarded as a Hel- Ienistie work—some of its authors having been Jews who wrote in Greek and more or less under the influence of Greek thought—and therefore its literature properly finds a place in the ENCYCLOPEDIA. ‘The Talmud is a world of its own, awaiting the attention of the modern reader. Tn its encyclopedic compass it comprises all the variety of thought and opinion, of doctrine and seience, accumulated by the Jewish people in the course of move than Talmud. seven centuries, and formulated for the most part by their teachers. Full of the loftiest spiritual truth and of fantastic imagery, of close and learned legal disquisition and of extravagant exegesis, of earnest doctrine and of minute casu- istry, of accurate knowledge and of popular conceptions, it invites the world of to-day to a closer acquaintance with its voluminous contents, Tum Jewis ENcycLorepra has allotted to the subject of the Talmud an amount of space commensurate with its impor- tance. Besides the rabbinical treatment of Biblical topies referred to, the Talmudic department includes those two great divisions known as the Halakah and the Haggadah, the one representing the development of the law, civil, criminal, and ceremonial; the other, the growth, progressive and reactionary, of the ethical principles of the Torah. ‘The legal topies are treated from a strietly objective point of view, irrespective of their application, or even applicability, to owr own days and conditions, but with incidental comparisons with Greek and Roman or with modern Jew, such as may be of interest toxiv PREFACE + the student of comparative jurisprudence and of social economy. ‘The Haggadah, on the other hand, attaining its fullest development in its treatment of the Biblical text, is therefore frequently included in the second paragraph of the Biblical articles. While in other directions its utterances bear more directly upon matters of theology, much remains both in legend and in proverbial wisdom which is discussed under the appro- priate heads. The rabbis of Talmudic times—the Tannaim and Amoraim—those innumerable transmitters of tradition and creators of new laws, receive ample treatment in the pages of the ExcverorEpra, Not a few of them mark epochs in the development and growth of the halakie material, while others are interesting from their personal history or from the representative pictures of their times which their lives and teachings afford. Most of them being at the sune time teachers and preachers, their biographies would be incom- plete without specimens of their homiletie and ethical utterances. ‘Those familiar with the labyrinthine structure of the Talmndim and Midrashim as far as arrangement of sub- jects and chronological order are concerned, and with the chaotic state of the text, par- ticularly with regard to proper names, need not be told that the difficulties in identifying men and times are sometimes insurmountable, and much must be left to conjecture, in spite of the efforts made both in early ages and in recent days. ‘The composition not only of well-known haggadie and halakie collections, but also of the single treatises of the ‘Mishnah, will be separately treated. ‘The work of Zunz, Buber, and Epstein in the provinces of Haggadah, and that of Frankel, Briill, and Weiss in Halakah, have ren- dered it possible to give a history of Talmudic literature. What the Bible had been for the Talmud, the Talmud itself became for the later Rab- binical literature, which, based on the Talmnd, applied itself to the further development of the Halakah and the Haggadah, Although this Rabbinical literature extends over a period of 1,400 years, and represents the only genuinely Jewish writings of that period, it is the least understood, not to say the most misunderstood, depart- Rabbinical ment of Jewish literature. ‘The present ENcyctorepra affords for the first Literature. time a survey of the growth of the Halakah and the Haggadah in post-Tal- mudic times (500-1900). During that period, the civil and religious laws of the Jews, although based upon the Talmnd, underwent many a change, while the Haggadah developed new motives and broadened its foundations, until it differed essen- tially in character from the Haggadah of the Talmudie times. ‘Two new branches were developed: the dispersion of the Jews in this period thronghout the civilized world pro- duced the responsa literature; and the exelusion of the German-Polish Jews from all share in general culture produced casuistry. A subject that has received due considera- tion is the period of the Geonim (500-1000), which, though not spiritually productive, powerfully influenced rabbinical Judaism. An attempt has been made to fill the hitherto existing gap in literary history in regard to the activity of the Arabie-Spanish school (1000-1500) in the labyrinth of the Talmud, and equal consideration has been bestowed upon the French, German, and Italian Talmndists of the same period, to whom is largely due our knowledge of the ‘Talmud, and through whose initiative the Jewish spirit was diverted to new lines of activity and kept alive, when it was denied every other mode of asserting itself. Ade- quate attention has been given to the Rabbinical literature of the past four centuries, which have been chiefly characterized by the casuistic works of the German and Polish ‘Talmndists, and the critical treatment of the Talmud in recent times finds full expres- sion in these pages. Jews have written in almost all languages that have # literature, and the ENcy- CLOPEDIA has taken account of this literary activity in its broadest range. ‘The vastPREFACE xy majority of productions of Jewish interest are, however, written in Hebrew and the allied tongues, and greater attention has naturally been paid to this section of Jewish literature. While the BNcycLopEp1A does not attempt to give a complete bibliography of this extensive subject, it is hoped that there will be found under the various authors’ names an account of almost all works of importance written in Hebrew. After the destruction of the national life of the Jews, nearly their whole energy was directed toward the inner life and found expression in their literature. ‘Their produetive- ness in this respect was remarkable, and is testified to by the large collec- History of tions of Hebrew manuseripts and books which are to be found in private and Literature. in public libraries. When printing was invented they eagerly seized upon the new art, as it gave them a further means of spreading within their own ranks a knowledge of their literature. The history of Jewish books and Jewish book- making from the technical point of view is one of great interest and has, up to the pres- ent time, hardly received systematic treatment. For the history of their own literature the Jews did little during the Middle Ages, and even when they did work along these lines the motive was in most eases other than purely literary. Such works, for example, as the “Seder Tannaim we-Amoraim,” and the well-known Letters” or “Responsa” by Sherira Gaon on the composition of the ‘Talmudic literature, were not written with the purpose of giving a history of literature, but of proving the validity of tradition, In modern times Christian scholars were among the first to attempt a comprehensive view of the contents of Jewish literature, though important bio-bibliographical works were compiled by Conforte, Heilprin, and Azulai. Hottinger (died 1667) gave this literature a place in his “Bibliotheca Orientalis,” and Otho (1672) sought to describe in the form of an encyclopedia the work and times of the teachers of the Mishnab. ‘The most ambitious work of this kind was the “Bibliotheca Magna Rabbiniea” of Bartolocei (died 1687), together with the additions of Imbonati (1694), which was followed up by the colossal work of Johann Christian Wolf (1683-1789). ‘That these attempts failed was due to the fact that the time was not ripe for any such comprehensive presentation, as ‘the preliminary work in detail was still to be done. Order was first wrought in this chaos when the modern spirit of research had engendered what is now known as “the science of Judaism.” Zunz’s great work, “Die Gottesdienstlichen Vortriige” (1832), was the first attempt to give an accurate account of the development of one branch of this Jiterature, the homiletic. He followed this up with histories of the religious poetry and of the literary productions connected with the Synagogue; and in 1836, a few years after Zunz's first book, a Christian scholar, Franz, Delitzsch, in his “Zur Geschichte dev Jitdi- schen Poesie,” wrote a history of Jewish poetry which, even at this date, has not been superseded. Steinschneider’s remarkable attempt at a comprehensive history of Jewish literature, first published (1850) in Ersch and Gruber’s “Allgemeine Encyclopiidie der ‘Wissenschaften und Kiinste,” and translated into English (London, 1857) and Hebrew (Warsaw, 1900), has as yet found no imitator, though special departments have received careful treatment at various hands. Neubauer’s exhaustive volumes on the history of Jewish literature in France during the fourteenth century have at least placed all the material for that period at our disposal, and Steinschneider’s “Hebriiische Uebersetzungen des Mittelalters” has brought together a mass of material on the special activity of the Jews in transmitting the science of antiquity to western Europe. Tn addition to the above publications, attempts have been made at a more comprehensive popular pres- entation in the compendium of David Cassel (1879), in Karpeles’ “Geschichte der ‘Jiidischen Literatur” (1886), and in Winter and Wiinsche’s “Jiidische Literatur,” the Jast of which is rather a collection of extracts than a history. Making use of all thisxvi PREFACE - material, Tan Jnwist ENcycLOPEDIA has endeavored to present a faithful picture of what the Jews have done, not only for their own special literature, but also for the great literatures of the world in the various countries in which they have had their abode, Due attention has also been paid to the varied aetivity of the Jewish press. ‘Hebrew philology possesses peculiar interest. ‘The history of the Hebrew alphabet, in its origin and changes, shows the relation of the Jews in the most ancient times to their Semitic neighbors, while its development follows certain lines of cleavage Hovrew Which indicate actual divisions among the Jewish people. Certain pecu- Philology: liarities of grammar and vocabulary, when traced historically to their source, determine whether the Jews developed their language solely on thei ‘own national lines or whether they borrowed from other nations, of their own or of dif ferent stock. ‘These points are brought out in the ENcYcLOPEDIA under various general heads. Among the Jews Hebrew philology followed two distinct lines of development. ‘Phe one was purely from within; for the desire to preserve the text of the Bible intact, for future generations, gave rise to the school of Masoretes, who laid the foundation upon which future scholars built. ‘The other starts from without and is due to the influence of the Arabs, to whom the science of philology was (as Steinschneider has said) what the Talmud was to the Jews. Under this influence and commencing with Saadia, a long line of grammarians and philologists appears, extending not ouly through Europe but into Africa and even into Persia. Of course, an encyclopedia like the present can not confine itself to the philological work done by the Jews themselves. The ENcycLopepIA contains articles upon the chief non-Jewish Hebrew philologists, whether they were influenced by Jewish writers as were Reuchlin and his followers, or were not so influenced, as is the case with most of the modern school, Gesenius, Ewald, Stade, and others, ‘This is all the more necessary as during the nineteenth century Jews themselves took but a small part in the philological study of their ancient tongue. The reverse, however, is true of the post-Biblical Hebrew. While in the Middle Ages only one dictionary of the Talmudic language was produced, the “Aruk” of Nathan ben Jehiel, in recent times and upon the basis of this splendid work, a band of Jewish scholars have made this subject peculiarly their own. ‘A great deal of attention is paid in this work to Jewish bibliography. From Barto- Jocei to Steinschneider and his pupils, there is a vast amount of unclassified biblio- graphical material. ‘The ENcvctopepra furnishes, for the first time, the Jewish Bib- ancient and the modern literature of many thousand topies in alphabetical liograpby: order; and thus includes, besides complete dictionaries of the Bible, of the ‘Talmud, and of the history and literature of the Jewish people, some approach to a handbook of Hebrew bibliography classified as to subjects, at least. Containing, as it does, however, the contributions of so many collaborators, this work has done its best to introduce some degree of uniformity in the methods of citation employed by the various scholars of different countries. ‘With regard to proper names, it was found impossible in the present state of Hebrew bibliography to follow a consistent plan; the reader will understand this if he considers the fact that until the eighteenth century the Jews in many countries had no family names. The best-known forms of the names have been selected (to facilitate reference), but in all cases the variant forms have been indieated. It has not been thought wise to follow exclusively either Zednor’s system, asshown in his masterly “Catalogue of Hebrew Books inthe British Museum,” nor that of Steinschneider, in that magnum opus of Hebrew bibliography, the “Bodleian Catalogue”; instead, what seemed to be the best features of the entire bibliographical literature have been combined. ‘Valuable information may be found concerning the most important Jewish librariesPREFACE, xvit (past and present), as well as the Jewish departments of the public libraries of America and of Europe. Summary histories of the chief Jewish presses are introduced, together with technical details of the typographic art as applied to Hebrew. Among the numer- ous illustrations which enrich this department of the ENcycLorepra are faesimiles of fragments of the oldest and most interesting Hebrew manuseripts in the world. I THEOLOGY AND PHILOSOPHY. ‘The broad subject of theology, including the Jewish religious philosophy of the Middle Ages, has never yet received systematic treatment at the hands of Jews, ‘Thus far very little has been done either in the way of expounding from a philosophical point of view the various subjects pertaining to Jewish belief and doctrine, or of present- ing them historically in their successive phases as they developed from their origins in Scripture and tradition, and as they were influenced by other creeds and beliefs. Ouly a few sporadic attempts have been made in our age to bring the religious ideas and moral teachings of Rabbinical Judaism into anything like systematic form, We may instance Zacharias Frankel, Solomon Munk, Leopold Loew, J. Hamburger, 8. Schechter, David ‘Kaufmann, M. Lazarus, and 8. Bernfeld as having made valuable contributions in this direction. Tt was only the practical side of religion—the Law in all its ramifications, the rites and observances—which was systematically codified and summarized by the medieval authorities. The doctrinal side of Judaism, with its theological and ethical problems, was never treated with that clearness and thoroughness or with that many-sidedness and objectivity which historical research in our modern sense of the word demands. Even the great philosophers of the Middle Ages who molded Jewish thought for centuries approached their themes only with the view of proving or supporting their own specific doctrines, and omitted all questions that did not come within the scope of their argument. Consequently, many topics had to be formulated for treatment in Tis JEWISH EXCYCLO- PEpra, and many of them were suggested by the theological works of non-Jewish writers. Desiring to present both the doctrines and the practises of Judaism in that scientific spirit which seeks nothing but the truth, and this in the light of historical develop- ment, THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA, in its theological department, takes full cognizance of the pre-Talmudie sources, the Hellenistic and New Testament literature, and, in addition to the copious Rabbinical literature, treats of the successive stages of Jewish philosophy and Cabala, The various sects (including the Samaritans and Karaites), , rationalism and mysticism, conservative and progressive Judaism, are discussed fully and impartially. The mutual relations of Jewish and non-Jewish creeds and philosophical systems and the attitude of Judaism to the social and ethical problems of the day reeeive due consideration. Among the services which Tue JEwisH ENcycLorepts has undertaken to render to the general reader is that of enlightening him with regard to characteristic terms (famil- iar enough perhaps to the Jew) pertaining to Jewish folk-lore and to ancient and mod- ern customs and superstitions, and (what will be a distinctive feature) of acquainting ! him with the important parts of the Jewish liturgy, its general history and ‘Anthro. its music. It is hoped that nothing of interest concerning the character pology. and life of the Jew has been omitted. ‘There remains a class of topies relating to the Jews, such as their claims to purity of race, their special aptitudes, their liability to disease, ete., which may be included under the general term of anthropology. Very little research has hitherto been devoted to this subject, and it is in this ExcycLopepra that, for the first time, the attempt is made to systematize the existing information regarding the anthropometryHin fieptlig dea: gee {oben Grundfagen- lity diorig An ‘Schuppen aud)- fo ummerttid): find, bof fie® midyt- mul dann entdedt werden, ivenn mon. den Gifdh in elt ‘Buch oder angeles GefGH gelegt ats Sore dea 83, 2. Bal Fife Maron f. Apron. Ye Has, gefalines Bieh, TY; defen Genus unterfage dae-mofai : (Deut, 14, 2A.) den Afracliten, erlaubt jedoc),. 8 ,,bem in deinen Thoren fic, fonach die Nugung de8 ages. — Rach, dee. vom Sudenthumnaufgenommene AufFaffumg, evince. fia) jones Berbot nicht. auf wiki. gefalfenes, fordern: suc fut alls nig vermage, deB vorgefctebenen. Datefdynittes geeblachetes. Bir obec Geflagel (Milena Chulin 2, 4. Bel, Sctadtung),. wogegen:eigentlch=ftine Fends8 Yas, (7170), alB ohnehin ungeniefkar nicht unter dem _gefegtchen Berbot % bagriffon soied zoel bierbet bie im dee Heil. Seprife gegebene Befugnis, 8: einem t Feemden fehenFen. ju. Fonnen, wicht auguwenden iff (AXdoda fara 67 b.), — (Levit. be 22, 8: und Cyed. Af, BA.) ied ber Genus gefallenen und serriffenen Biehis. < mute pee Deke term insbefondere (mithin nicht offen Sfeaetiten) verboten (gt: du | Gye. 4,.44,)5 allein exftere Stelle wird u, A, dabin-ettlare, dab dore mehe: bas ' Berunceinigente foleen Genuffes, Gefonderé fie die Priefek, weldje geOfere Ue- f= fache haben, (id) erin gue alten, Bervorgehoben its tle aunt die Worte nim nid babued uneein ju werden” andeutins Gjedit aber fapdnft da8 Bevbot: ors ebnnlid) dorurm den Deiefteen ein, damit Lestire, .grvshnt den Gefhigtlopfern ben Kopf abgutneipen: (wie Levit, 1, 15. vorgeltieieben. {F) niche enba bt den Seethum gerathen, ihnen als Vrietern ‘fie ausnahmsrveife den Genus umgefehiagy= feten Biehes guattet (Menach, 45a). — Aud verumreinigte das Beriibeen und. Tedgen des. Aafes, woriioer vgl. Reinhett. |. De. B. Beer. MAbbreviaturen im. Hebviifchen befiehen vorgiighid in Anfangeduafear ben (DN wr, Rolde Teboth), aus Raumbfonamie,. Furcht mt. a: Urfadhen, Alter us Gneflehung. dee A. fo tie dee Teemen dof ift nody febe unfichee"), Sn der Bibel hat mani 2, bishee niche naddgeviefen. Die bibtife Nammendeutting dat feetidy bon Gharatice einer fo. au fogen miinblicen: 2-3. B. 09 8 pont) (Gen. 47, 4.), Spatere Lalmuviften: fuehen-nad) ibrer Wife. den Gee Draud) der Ue in dee Bibel nachyunveifen (Sabb. 105a,). uw. beweifen’ damit nue bie Unbetanne(dhaft: mit.bem stern Urforing u. die Serrhoft derfelben’ gu iheee Beit, Us fpiclander mideafehifher Big if Son « Cfea’s apnlihe Deutung. von ve we Snag) Seon bie Griedentannten, (gnueTo> ord) bie Geidwuindfreiber(onuedoyongor). “Blige, (238 v,) bidete dife Rune aus und Mico vervollRindiate fe. Skad thin wonnte man,-dit- % (wotae).fpiter: notae. tironianae:(t2hee nad) Ginigen pp ay) und alphabetum tironianum: (593 5px). Dit Sun §ieS ars notaria, von ben Sd ‘etn notarii (jen fe Sota 7, 9. Sota 35, Nyrwy Sdlem. gc, SH, und dabee tie UX. (Signum) notaricum,. in See. Mifdna’ gréeifct', motarkeant™ GpMwD), vwitvend.8f Gemara das edt gtiedifGe yoo) Hat me . 2) Gltlge! wae dee urtpeiingtidie usfprud) ge. ofe %.- Simea’s -(Sabs; 105.) fo it vefleGen: unb bie Deutung von par aN nae. Snitoten ext GigentGum bee enten’ Ste Sodjanan,: Sehuba. bi Modena (Leb Gas Aejeh Hes 1 Sey Ramengebung als mnemotenils, 2 SAMPLE PAGE OF THE STHINSCHNEIDER AND CASSEL ENCYCLO aifhatenden Setmben’” gu fenfen ober. dem Auslinbet~: gu verfaufen,, gftattee soe aE?PREFACE xix and vital statistics of the Jews, and to present a view of their social and economic condition. It has been one of the special aims of the Excycnorepra to bring together as full a body of illustrative material as possible. Many topies of a historical or archeological character lend themselves to illustration through the reproduction of the remains of antiquity or of ecclesiastical art. Objects connected with the Jewish syna- Ilustrations. gogue service and Jewish modes of worship will be found fully illustrated. ‘Prominent Jewish personages are portrayed, the chief monuments of Jewish architecture are represented by pietures of such synagogues as are remarkable archi- tecturally or historically, and the department of literature is enriched with illustrations of the externals of book-lore.’ ‘This feature of the work, which was placed in charge of Mr. JosEPH Jacozs, will, it is believed, prove of great educational value in every Jewish household. In determining the plan and proportions of the present undertaking, the Editorial Board has labored under the special difficulties that attach to pioneer work. No suecess- ful attempt has heretofore been made to gather under one alphabetical arrangement all the innumerable topics of interest to Jews as Jews. Apart from the Bible, the Former only department which has as yet been put in encyclopedic form is that of Attempts. Rabbinic Literature, for which there exist encyclopedias, one—the pny’ na (Pahad Yizhak)—eompiled by Isiae Lampronti in the seventeenth century in Hebrew, and one prepared in modern times by J. Hamburger, the “RealeneyKlopiidie fiir Bibel und Talmud,” in German, Each of these produetions labors under the disad- vantage of being the work of oneman, Of the more comprehensive eneyclopedia planned by Rapoport, poo yy (‘Erek Millin), only the first letter appeared in 1852. The plan of 4 publication somewhat on the same lines as the present was drawn up by Steinschneider in conjunction with Cassel as far back as 1844, in the “Literaturblatt des Orients,” but the project did not proceed beyond the prospectus (a specimen page from which is shown on the opposite page) and a preliminary list of subjects. Dr. L. Philippson in 1869 and Professor Graetz, in 1887 also threw out suggestions for a Jewish encyclopedia, but nothing came of them, ‘The present undertaking is the realization of an ideal to which Dr. IstpoRE SINGER has devoted his energies for the last ten years. After several years spent in enlisting the interest of European scholars in the enterprise, he found that it was only in America that he could obtain both that material aid and practical scholarly cooperation necessary to carry out the scheme on the large seale which he had planned. Thanks ‘The Present t0 the enterprise and liberality of the FuNe & WacNarts Company, Work. which generously seconded the energetic initiative of Dr. SrvcEr, the cooperation of the undersigned staff of editors, together with that of the consulting boards, both American and foreign, was rendered possible. ‘The preliminary work was done in the winter of 1898-99, by DR. SINGER, PRoFEssoR GorrHerL, and Dr. KonLer. ‘These were soon joined by DR. Cyrus ApiER, of Washington, D. 0.; Dr. G. Deutscu, of Cincinnati; Dr. Marcus Jastrow and Pror. Morris JAsTRow, JR., of Philadelphia; and PRor. GrorcE F, Moors, of Andover. Organization of the work was effected by theso gentlemen at meetings held in New York, March 1 and 6, and July 12, 1899, Dr. I. K. Funk, of the Fuk & WaGatrs Company, presiding, and the plan of operation submitted by the firm was adopted by them. To these was added later Mx. JoserH JAcons, of London, as well as Dr. Louis GinzberG and DR. F. DE Sora Mrnprs, both of New York city. Prorsson Moons, having assumed additional duties as president of the Andover Theological Seminary, found himself obliged to withdraw, and Pror. O. H. Toy was elected in his place in Jannary, 1900.xx . PREFACE ‘The carrying out of the project on so large a seale presented peculiar difficulties. To reduce the work of nearly 400 contributors, writing in various tongues, to anything like uniformity was itself a task of great magnitude, and necessitated the establish- ment of a complete bureau of translation and revision, ‘The selection of the topics suitable for insertion in such an eneyclopedia involved labor extending over twelve months, and resulted in a trial index of over 25,000 captions. The determination of tho appropriate space to which each of these subjects was entitled was no easy task in the absence of any previous attempt inthe same direction. ‘The problem of the trans- literation of Hebrew and Arabie words has been very perplexing for the members of the Editorial Board. While they would have preferred to adhere strictly to the somewhat elaborate method current among most Semitic scholars, the repellent effect of strange characters, accentual marks, and superscript letters deterred them from using it ina work intended as much for the general public as for scholarly use, ‘There were nransiit- also typographic difficulties in the way of using the more elaborate scheme, eration. ‘The board trusts that the system pursued here, which is, in the main, that proposed by the Geneva Congress of Orientalists, and adopted by the Royal Asiatic Society of England, the Société Asiatique of Paris, and the American Oriental Society, will suffice to recall to the Jewish scholar the original Hebrew, while indicating to the layman as close an approximation to the proper pronunciation as possible. Even here, however, having to deal with contributions emanating from scholars using different schemes of transliteration, they can not hope to have succeeded altogether in avoiding lack of uniformity. Ib may perhaps be well to emphasize the fact that names occurring in the Bible have been throughout kept in the form familiar from the King James Version of 1611. While acknowledging the possibility—nay, the certainty—of errors and omissions a work so comprehensive and so full of minute details as the present work is, the edi- tors consider themselves justified in asserting that no pains have been spared to secure acenracy and thoroughness. Bach article has been subjected to a most elaborate system of revision and verification, extending in each ease to no less than twelve different proc- esses. PRor. WILHELM BacueR, of the Budapest Seminary; Rev. DR. F. pp Sora MENDES, Mx. Louis HEILPRIS, and other scholars, in addition to the departmental editors, have read through all the proof-sheets with this special end in view. Tt remains only to give due acknowledgment to the many institutions and friends, other than contributors, who have rendered services to the ENcyctorrpra. The Hon. MAYER SULZBERGER, of Philadelphia, has loaned many valuable and ‘Acknowl- rare works for the purposes of verification and illustration. Much is edgments. due to the New YorK Punric Lirary, particularly to its direetor, Dr. J. 8. BILLines, to MR, CHARLES Bywrrrcaarn, chief of the Readers’ department, and to Mk. A. 8. FRETDUS, chief of the Jewish department, for special privileges accorded and assistance rendered; to the Unrrep Srares NavionaL MUsEux, SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, which has placed at the disposal of the ENcycro- PEDIA photographs of many objects of Jewish worship preserved in the department of Oriental Antiquities; to the CoLvarers UNIVERSITY LipraRy; to the American Jewish press for repeated notices; and to the proprietors of the “JrwisH CxRonroLe” (Lon- don), for having placed the files of their journal at the disposal of the ENoycLoPEDiA. M. Vicourovx’s “Dictionnaire de la Bible,” now in process of publication, has been of especial value in suggesting the latest sources of Biblical illustration, Pictorial material has been loaned by, among others, MR. J. D, BISENSTEIN, Mr. Franx Hass, Mr. Anoip Bruner, Prov. R. GorrHert, and the PALESTINE ExPLoration FUND, for which the editors and publishers beg to return their acknowledgments,PREFACE xxi ‘The Editorial Board desires especially to thank the Rev. Dr. I. K. Fuxx for the unfailing tact and matchless generosity with which he has met all their wishes and smoothed away many difficulties. Pioneer work as this has been, the need of encourage- ment fo perseverance under adverse conditions was repeatedly felt by all concerned, and this encouragement has been continuously extended to us by our respected chief. Our thanks for courteous consideration are also eminently due to Mr. A. W. WAGNArIs, vice-president of the Funk & WAGNALLS Company; to MR. R. J. Cuppmy, its treasurer and general manager, for his organizing skill; to Mr. Epwarp J. WHEpLER, literary editor of the Company and member of the American Board of Consulting Editors of this work; and to Mx, WiLIAM NeIsEL, chief of the manufacturing department, and his assistant, MR. ARCHIBALD Rem. MR. Herman RoseNtwat, to whom the important section of the history and literature of the Jews in Russia has been entrusted, has faith- fully discharged his difficult task. We are indebted for much valuable cooperation and watehful care to the restless energy of FRANK H, VizerELy, the Secretary of the Editorial Board, to whom was entrasted the general office supervision of this work in all its stages, and whose execu- tive ability, practical knowledge, and experience have been most useful. MR. Isaac Broyns, by his thorough knowledge of Arabic, has been of the greatest service to the work; while Mr. Areerr Porrer, formerly of “The Forum,” as chief of the sub- editorial staff of the Ecycrorxp1a, has rendered intelligent and attentive service in the preparation of the eopy for the press. Mk. Moses BEER, who has been connected with the work almost from the beginning, has been of great, assistance to the office-staif in various departments, and especially in verifying the Hebrew. Hearty thanks are aue also to all the members of the office-staff—translators, revisers, proof-readers, and others—for their faithful, painstaking service in their respective departments. ‘The editors have felt a special sense of responsibility with regard to this work, in which for the first time the claims to recognition of a whole race and its ancient religion are put forth in a form approaching completeness. ‘They have had to consider sus- ceptibilities among Jews and others, and have been especially solieitous that noth- ing should be set down which could hurt the feelings of the most sensitive. They consider it especially appropriate that a work of this kind should appear in America, where each man’s creed is judged by his deeds, without reference to any preconceived opinion. It seemed to them peculiarly appropriate under these cireumstances that Tie JwisH EXcyctorspra should appear under the auspices of a publishing house none of ‘whose members is connected with the history or tenets of the people it is designed to portray. Placing before the reading public of the world the history of the Jew in its fullest seope, with an exhaustiveness whieh has never been attempted before—without concealing facts or resorting to apology—THE JewrsH ENCYCLOPEDIA hopes to con- tribute no unimportant share to a just estimate of the Jew. Cyrus ADLER, Marcus JAstRow, GorrnaRD DEUTSCH, Morris JasTRow, JR., Lours GixzBERG, Kaurmany Komier, Richard GorrHeEr., FREDERICK DE SOLA MENDES, JosePH JACOBS, CRAwFoRD H. Toy, IsipoRE SINGER. New Yorn, May 1, 1901.SYNOPSIS OF THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA I. History, Biography, and Sociology. 1. History of the Jews, as based on the Biblical accounts and on the Discoveries in Assyria, Baby- lonia, Egypt, Palestine, and Persia; later phases according to the narratives of Greek and Roman authors; the Talmudic sources; modern local researches; Documents found in archives, etc. 2. General Historical Movements influencing Jewish history; such as the Crusades, the Black Death, Persecutions, Expulsions, Blood Accusation, Inquisition, Discovery of America, Reformation, the Emancipation, anti-Semitic and Zionistie movements. 8. Jowish Settlements and Congregations in the Old World and the New. 4, Jewish Societies, Religious, Literary, Philanthropic, ete., which have become an important feature in the life of the modern Jew: Fraternities and Sisterhoods, Alliance Israélite Universelle, Anglo- ‘Jewish Association, Central Conference of American Rabbis, Deutsch-Isruclitischer Gemeindebund, ete. 5. Documents having special significance with regard to the Jewsand their history; such as decrees, edicts, bulls, ete. G. Civilization (Culturgesthichte) of the Jews, including Customs, Education, Art. ‘The part taken by the Jews in the development and advancement of civilization, in ancient, medieval, and modern times; in the arts and sciences; in statesmanship and politics, jurisprudence, sociology, and economics, 7. Historical Geography and Archeology of Palestine and other countries intimately connected with Jewish history. 8. Biography of Biblical Characters and Post-Biblical Personages: Medieval and modern mon of eminence; scholars; teachers; theologians; men of letters; artists; statesmen; soldiers; inventors; philanthropists; founders of important branches of commerce and industr 9. Distinguished Jewish Families: Their history and genealogy 10. Accounts of Prominent Non-Jews: Kings, Popes, Statesmen, Men of Letters who have exercised influence upon Jewish histor 11. Anthropology, Biostatics, Measuroments; Morbidity of Jews with special reference to their Iia- bility to, or immunity from, particular diseases; question of purity of race. 12. Sociology: Statistics of Jewish communities; occupations of Jews; number of Artisans and Agriculturists; social condition and Criminology. 18. Folk-lore; Superstitions; Customs; Folk-Medicine; Legends and Fables. II. Literature. 1. The Old Testament: History of the Canon; Masoral; history of Bible exegesis among Jews and Christians from Talmudical times; translations of the Bible; Bible concordances and dictionaries; Biblical chronology. 2. Hellenistic Literature: Apocrypha, Apocalyptic and Pseudepigraphic Literature; New Testa. ‘ment in $0 far as it concerns Judaism, 8, Talmud and Midrash: Critical analysis of each treatise; Talmudical jurisprudence compared. with Greek and Roman codes and modern law. 4, Rabbinical Literature: Commentaries and supercommentaries of Talmud and Midrash; codes of Law; Responsa, Casuisties. 5. Literature of the Middle Ages and Modern Times: Belles-Lettres; secular poetry of the ‘medieval and modern ages: relation of Neo-Hebraic literature to the literature of the world, 6. Historical and Geographical Literature: Travels, etc. 7. Translations by Jews in the Middle Ages and in recent times. 8. Dialect-Literature: Ladino, Judwo-German, and Yiddish 9. Periodical Literature; annuals; quarterlies; monthly, weekly, and daily papers; almanacs. 10. Hebrew Philology ; history and principles of Hebrew Grammar aud Lexicography;; prosody. 11, Hebrew Bibliography; Paleography; Typogmphy; Catalogues: History of Jewish libraries; History of Hebrew book-trade.xxiv SYNOPSIS OF THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 12, History of Jewish Learning and Education ; the Academies; elementary Schools (jedarim); History of the Yeshibalis and modem Rabbinical seminaries, III, Theology and Philosophy. 1, Doctrines of Judaism in their development from Biblical times, Angelology; Demonology: Eschatology; Creeds; Attributes of Deity; Free Will and Providence; Problem of Evil; Sin and Atone. ment, ete. 2, Relation of Judaism to Christianity, Islam, and other religions; Conversion and Apostasy ; Apologetic and Polemic literature. 8. Jewish Religious Life in home and synagogue: Sacrifices; Festivals; Priesthood; Temple; Customs; Ceremonies; Ritual Observances. 4, Synagogue Liturgy, Poetry, and Musio; History of Reform Movement in Europe and Ameria, 5. Jewish Sects: Pharisees; Sadducees; Hssenes; Therapeute; Samaritans; Karaites; Sabbatarians; Hasidim; Fraukists; and minor sects; Messianic movements. 6. Jowish Philosophy: Alexandrian School; Religious Philosophy in the Middle Ages; Cabalas Systems of Jewish philosophers. 7. Jewish Ethics in its historic development; Altruism and Hedonism; Motives and Standard; Ideals; Ethical Wills, ‘8. Homiletical Literature and history of moder pulpit eloquence.SYSTEMS OF TRANSLITERATION AND OF CITATION OF PROPER NAMES* A.—Rules for the Transliteration of Hebrew and Aramaic. 1. All important names which occur in the Bible are cited as found in the authorized King James version ; ¢.g., Moses, not Mosheh ; Isaac, not Yizhak; Saul, not Sha'ul or Shaiil; Solomon, not Shelomoh, etc. 2, Names that have gained currency in English books on Jewish subjects, or that have become familiar to English readers, are always retained and cross-references given, though the topic be treated under the form transliterated according to the system tabulated below. 8. Hebrew subject-headings are transcribed according to the scheme of transliteration ; cross-refer- ences are made as in the case of personal names. 4, ‘The following system of transliteration has been used for Hebrew and Aramaic Not noted at the beginning or the end of aword ; otherwise or by dieresis; .g., Meir or Meir. b 9 a h 4aeu 2 wo B with dagesh, p wh without dagesh, f ve ve nt pk ar Nore: The presence of dagesh lene is not noted except in the case of pe. Dagesh forte is indi- cated by doubling the letter. 5, The vowels have been transcribed as follows ‘Kamer, hatut is represented by 0. =e e ze so i au ‘The so-called “‘ Continental” pronunciation of the English vowels is implied. 6. The Hebrew article is transcribed as ha, followed by a hyphen, without doubling the following letter, [Not hak-Kohen or hak-Cohen, nor Rosh ha-shshanah.] eb et ch oa Se Se je we 2. Only the three vowels—a, i, u—are representes = aora B.—Rules for the Transliteration of Arabic. ‘All Arabio names and words except such as have become familiar to English readers in another form, as Mohammed, Koran, mosque, ave transliterated according. to the following system : &o wn wil oh oe ah) wr sy J! em ~ wort No account has been taken of the imdlah; i has not bean written ¢, nor u written 0, Fi all other matters of orthography the spelling preferred by the Sraxpanp Dictioxanr bas been followedaxvi_ SYSTEMS OF TRANSLITERATION AND OF CITATION OF PROPER NAMES 4, The Arabic article is invariably written al; no account being taken of the assimilation of the 1 to the following letter; e.g., Abu al-Salt, not Abwl-Salt; Nafts al-Daulah, not Nafis ad-Dawlah, ‘The article is joined by a hyphen to the following word. 4, At the end of words the feminine termination is written ah ; but, when followed by a genitive, at ; eg, Risilah dhat al-Kursiyy, but Hvat al-aslak, 5. No account is taken of the overhanging vowels which distinguish the cases; e.g., ‘Amr, not ‘Amma or ‘Amrun; Yataknb, not Ya'akibun; or in a title, Kitab al-amandat wal-itikadat. C.—Rules for the Transliteration of Russian. All Russian names and words, except such as have become familiar to English readers in another form, as Czar, Alewander, deciatine, Moscow, are transliterated according to the following system : Aa a He n Im, sheh BO d 00 ° be mute Ba » In P Bia v Tr h,v,org Pp r bp halfmute Ta a Ce 8 Bb ve Be eand ye Tr t Do e verlag, Re eh vy uw Dw yu 38 5 oo o fla ve Un é Xx kh 06 F Ar k Ty & Vr @ dx u Ud ch Hit a Mu m Wm sh Rules for the Citation of Proper Names, Personal and Otherwise. 1, Whenever possible, an author is cited under his most specific name; e.g., Moses Nigrin under Nigrin; Moses Zacuto under Zacuto; Moses Rieti under Rieti; all the Kimbis (or Kamhis) under Kimfi; Israel ben Joseph Drohobiczer under Drohobiczer. Cross-references are freoly made from any other form to the most specific one ; ¢.g., to Moses Vidal from Moses Narbont ; to Solomon Nathan Vidai from Menahem Meiré; to Samuel Kansi from Samuel Astrue Dascola ; to Jedaish Penini, from both Bedersi and En Bonet; to John of Avignon from Moses de Roquensaure, 2, When a person is not referred to as above, he is cited under his own personal name followed by. his official or other title; or, where he has borne no such title, by “of” followed by the place of his birth or residence; ¢.g., Johanan ha-Sandlar ; Samuel ha-Nagid ; Judah ha-Hasid; Gershom of Metz, Isaae of Corbeil. 8, Names containing the word d’, de, da, di, or van, von, y, are arranged under the letter of the name following this word; eg., de Pomis under Pomis, de Barrios under Barrios, Jacob @Mlescas under Mleseas. 4, In arranging the alphabetical order of personal names the words ben, da, de, di, dbn,* of, have not ‘been taken into account, ‘These names thus follow the order of the next succeeding capital letter: Abraham of Augsburg Abraham de Balmes Abraham ben Benjamin Aaron Abraham of Avila, ‘Abraham ben Baruch Abraham ben Benjamin Ze'eb ‘Abraham ben Azriel Abraham of Beja Abraham Benvenisto 5, In order to facilitate reference, complete groups of all persons bearing such common names as Aaron, Abraham, Jacob, are given in small type in a group immediately under the first key-word. * Wien Taw has come to be aspecite part of & name, as Yaw Baw, euch name is treated init alphabetical place under “1.”LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS [Satevident abbreviations, particularly those used in the bibliography, are not included here.) a. bot, Pigs BR NLA deft watnan AR Beka fad aan BE Baa iG" Algoelan Zeting te Jodentname Ae Fer si Soe Aufelcan Youth Minories Socety Bip Joe Sei Tecan ourae of Semi Languages “Apoelypee ol RESIS comes ee a ths atm cArctives brain Bet ie Testament -Retvonech Veron ‘honor bar ‘Habit CBabslontan Talmad) asic Ai Bab (pacer, Aguada der Babponsehen Amorker Bacher, ‘Kg. Pal. Basher, Agnda der Paliistinensiachen Amor- achor, Ag, ‘Agua der Tannaiten Boe Bruel BEB IB Batra erat) eee o.oo Before the Carstian er Bex ‘ecorot (Talmud) Bensiagc: Aish’. bonsloger Hourloch Arehtoogle Berar Chatad) ss i Bins Sages re west phenetc cc tghai Ege BOW Mega taoad Dray teh | BM aheho hr aac Geeehte atten ve. Camels (Sa of Solomon Cats ies so Bante abba y Se Te BIE per hip Cucyeand Bleek { Cheyne and Black, EneyClopie Biblca ‘Chronicles cnt Chrenieles ‘Corpus Ineeriptonom Attearam ‘Corpus Ine Korps he ‘Colsians ‘Corinthians ‘Denteronomiet ‘Danis! ‘ets rata) ‘etteooaly Rabbah Boolesastes ‘Roelestates Rabbab ‘ieslsustcus = ‘heypot Talmaa) SS iagaegeoplta anion Engen ‘intan Caines) Fase TOUS nate ata age it lei He baten “OU 'Rxodas Rabbah Bade oo Rael HSE ii gid, Fate bitoteeaJodsen it, Ges” [pane Geneichte dow Kerserthome Galatians jatgete™ quaigeneeluchnit far Wie ‘tnuchaft und Leben \emars ‘Genesis ‘Genesis Rabbah ‘Gesehiehte “Geeethus, Grammar Gesentng, hears ‘Ginsborg’s Macoretico Critical Baition of Generis, Ge Gevealue, Th, Ginsburg De. | "he iro ibe Girone Glin (abinud) ee a Peng enener opts Fir Binet ve omic ah Beith cima) ea om ‘sink Teslace Tetrode Touenken voor de Taken in Neder Secabs, Inguiy into tho Soaress of $} Sacob, Sones. Toh ary = Jahrbuch fr die Geechichte der Juden und “der Judenthane gastron, Dietonsry of the ‘Tergumnim, Tal. Sastrow, Diet... | adh and Sideushim Selon, B.S he Mira ‘evs Gig 22° Tewisn Chronicle, London, ig: touah snl Sel of Boland ew. Quart tev. Few Gravy ese an Jee: gy Ree sean Wot Loon Fa eee ate a he Jews SOSRRED BY ezee, Dei Fuioe Ieee Cot soeepnan, Cones Apioern Fr on ost oR ApusletJor' lerneltiache Amnalen ‘Tustin, Dia ei Sactn, Dialogns eum Tryphone Judo i ayseling, Biblioteca Eapaiola-Portaguezs- Sedan tas esa fan ‘Reddusbit (Fumnud) asin (Fan ‘sini Catan) Tameatation ‘ientdons naboen Levies ‘Levis Rabbah {evs chaiehes Weeteach ae ESA oo 7 ES ane io cy oe ad) Bored Ratan (Tal Megat Tir Geschichte und Wissen- wnatedee dudes illen Bragmenta Historcoram Greco-LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xxviii Nghe Ox. |Neiaen, talogus Botany Hetzer Sot Hehe ks, | “Slama esbiney, Ge. Nata, Géoprphi du Talaad Raw’ #, Rumbecs aad Sia, ‘padi Ses ichisit Oserseiehe Woehexschrit Shale aa) Oi Teamest dale False Bplorton Pond Bengt tad) eshlto, Petts esifta Radoa Peatfta desRab Kaban “Paitppians ‘Birks Rabbt Biezer rovers “Paine abbior Rab (before names) }Rahmer's Jaisches Literator Blatt Boru Ariaigne rue Bibligue SRovue des tages Julves ‘Herne Semitigne ‘och be Shans (Talmud) Howat 8.B.0. Bano] Chrome ibe, ed baa aap) PO Sia. ese nee E i [ARRESTS au anon Schrader, KB. Shab. Saul cre heb Shoo i ra Sieh Sic lah ‘Shegaiia (Faimad} Sia of Se ely ign tthe Semtee ‘Stade’s Zeltachriqy| Side’ Eetschah fie Ge Alticstament- | cliche Wissenschatt, {stein fr, Catalogue of the Hebrew «of Books in Brien Moveam | {steinetneier, HebaeheBibigrapie ‘Stoinschnoider, Hebrilsche Uebereetrongen ‘Sakkah (Talmud) ‘Hebe Bibl Steimechneidr tebe Ueber sue sander the word Ais of the Society of Biblicn ‘Rreheogy *Paeanelaton “"fubul Yom (Talmud) aa) ‘Uaers rele Uitiadesbaen “Wesaio Taman ‘Yor isa agua) ‘bor Dor we-Dorshaw vin, “faueiache” und Thaleche Wines, Biblgches Realworterbuch “Wistar of Solomon Wit Misiorheea Hebran ‘Wiener Zeltscitt for alo Kunde dea ‘Mongentandee' "Yadagia,(Palsud) a Yedamot rama inn! Getusaem Talmud) ‘atsenntt dat Detachen Morgenltod itches Geaneentt nei Zeny, Gaalue of te obew Books of “Tooke afus. |» tho Beton Sosoum alt Angyrs---.-Zatschrl for Aseyloogle ‘a eaieeh. "" elisbritt dea Deatechen Palsstina-Vereins Jai tibe i. eigen tor HebraieheBibiographio Zio 6° Fie Getammetesebriten Bona, GV... Zune, Goteodienstiche Vor Za, esi trtargenhlete det Syaagoqaion ech gas ition Pape ‘itus des Synagogalen Gottes Zana, §.PossussveQlts Synagonsle Posie den Mittalters : Fam Zur Genehlchve und Literate Nore 1o THE READER. Subjects on which further information is afforded elsewhere in this work are indicated by the ‘use of capitals and small capitals in the text; as, ABBA Anika ; PoMBEDITA; VOCALIZATION.AAG. ABD. A.Bu. AE. Boba. A. te. ALE. A.Lo... AM... AP. A.S.W.R, A.W.B.. BB. B.D. CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME I Cyrus Adler, Ph.D., ‘President of the American Jowish torial Society: Librarian Smithsonian Tnsltation, ‘Washington, D. 0. Amélie André Gedaleo, ‘Paris, France. A.B, Dobeovage (deceased). ‘Adolf Bichler, Ph.D., Professor Jewisa Thociogtesl Seminary, Vie ‘enna, Austra -Abraham Danom, PPrinefpal, Jewish heologteal Seminary, Con ‘stantinople, Turkey. fi, (J.] Frefmann, Ph.D. ‘Librarian of the Hebrew Department Stadt- Diblotiek, Frankforton-the-Main, Germany. Alfred Feilchonfela, Ph.D., ‘Principal ofthe Reaisebule, Flirt, Germany. Adolf Frankl-Griin, Ph.D., Rabbi in Kromsier, Austria. A. Harkavy, Ph.D., ‘ibrarian of fe Hebrew Department the petal Pablle Library St. Petersburg, Russi A. Newman, D.D., LL.D., ‘Protessor of Hebrew nud Coymate Languages find Old Testament Rxexesis, MoMaster Tl verity, Toronto, Canada, A. Kaminka, Ph.D., ‘vienna, austria. \Alfrea Lévy, (Chief abbot Lyon, France. A. Levin, Ph.D., ‘abhi, Fretburg-in-preseau, Germany. Albert L. Leubuscher, New Yor. A. Loewenthal, Ph-D., ‘ants, Tarnowitz, Germany. Axel Moth, LL.B., ‘New York Publi Library, New York. .. Albert Porter, ‘Formerly Associate Editor of “The Forum,” Now York. Alexander S. Chessin, “Associate Professor fn Mathematics at Johns Hopkins Univesity, Baltimore, a Abram 8. Wolf Rosenbach, “Attorney at Lave, Plladelphi Pa. \A. W, Brunner, “arainect, New York. Benuel H, Brumberg, ‘New York. Bernard Drachman, Ph.D., ‘Rabbi of the Congregation Zichron Epbrita, Dean of the Jevwish Theological Seminary, New York, De .. DG. E, DIF. DW. EE. BL. E. Sch. Folsenthal, Ph.D. Rabbi Emeritus of Zion Congregation, Cheago. Charles ©. Torrey, Ph.D., Profesor of Semitic Languages, Yale Unt versity, Now Haven, Conn. _.Chazles Foster Kent, Ph.D., ‘Profesor of Biblical Literature and History, ‘Yale University, New Haven, Conn. ; Author of “A History of the Hebrew People,” etc. -Chaztes J. Mendelsohn, Plladepia, Pa. Caspar Levias, M.A. Instructor in Exegestsand Talmudic Arama, ‘brew Union College Cincinnati, Obto Lieut.-Col. Claude R. Condor, LL.D. YFormeniy ‘Superintendent of the Survey of Palestine by Palestine Exploration Fund. Gotthard Deutsch, Ph.D., rofestor of Jewish History, Hebrew Unlon Collage, Cincinnati, Onio; Baitor of “Deb+ rah Baron David von Ginzburg, ‘St Petersburg, Russa, David Gordon Lyon, Ph.D., Professor of Ola Testament Bxejess and Sean ‘tle Languages, Curator of the Semitie Mae seum, Harvard Ualversty, Cambridge, Mass, -D. I. Freedman, B.A. ‘Rabbi in Perth, Western Austra David Philipson, D.D., TRabbi of the Condregation B'ne Israel; Pro- fessor of Homileties, Hebrew Union College, ‘ineinnati Obie. David Werner Amram, LL.B., “Auoruey at Lav, Philadeiphity Pa cot "the Jevrah Law of Divoree.” Emil G, Hirsch, Ph.D., LL.D., Rabbi of Chieago Sinai Gotgration, Ciesgo, Il Professor of Habolnfeal Literatare and Philosophy ia the University ot Chicago. Bl Hazan, COnlet Rabit of Alesandri, Beypt Budo Lolli, ‘Chiet RabU of Padua; Professor ot Hebrew at the University, Pada, tly. Elkan N. Adler, Soletor, London, Balan. Erik Stave, Ph.D., "Professor of Theology at the University of ‘Upsata, Sweden. mil Sobiizer, Ph-D., Professor of New Testament Exeesis at the University of Gottingen, Germany; Author of “Geschichte des Volkes Israel im Zeitalter ‘obrist” ete. ° ‘Authorxxx CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME 1 ¥, Bu........Frants Buhl, Ph.D., ‘H, Hir,,..., Hartwig Hirschfeld, Ph.D., Professor ot Semitic Philology at the Copene ‘Professor in Jews’ College London, England; Juigen University, Copenhagen, Denmark: ‘Baitor and ‘Translator of the arabic text of Author of "Geograpbie des Alten Palestina,” ‘Fudan ba-Levi's * Ouzar.” F.C, G....., Frederick ©. Conybeare, M.A., HH. M........ Henry Malter, Ph.D., Late Fellow of University College, Oxtord, Assistant Profesor Hebrew Union College, England; Author of "The Dreytos Case.” ‘Cincinnati, Ohio. " F. deS.M,.,Frederick de Sola Mendes, PL.D., HL. P.M... Pereira Mendes, M.D, [Rabbi of the West Bod Synagogue, New York ‘Viee-President of Board of Jewish Minster, New York, ‘rank H, Knowlton, M.S., Ph.D. Assistant Curator of Botany, Smithsonian Ya- station, Washington, D.C. Frank E. Vizetelly, “Associato Raitor of the “Columbian Cyolo- peain,” and on StaxpARp Diewoxany Bale ‘torial Sta, ete. -Prancis L. Cohen, Rabbi, orongh New Synagogue, London, England; Coeditor of “Votes of Prayer and Prise.” --Flaminio Servi, ‘Chief Rabbi of Caste-Monterrato, Italy; Bale tor of “11 VessileIsrelitio.” Franklin 8. Wilson, M.A. @.. -Richard Gottheil, Ph.D., ‘Profesor of Somide Languages, Columbia ‘University, New York; Chief of the Oriental Department, New York Pablie Library; Pree George A. Barton, Ph.D., “Assorate Professor in Bibileal Literature and Semitic Languages at Bryn Mawr College, Bryn Mawr, Pa - Doss. A. Danziger, ‘New York . K.....George Alexander Kohut, Formerly Rabbt in Dallas, Texas, L.....Gergon B. Lovi, "Plladolphia, Pa -George 8. Hellman, M.A., ‘New York, .......G. Herbert Cone, Attorney at Lary Albany, N.Y x. FEV. FL. FS. W. GAB 2 2a ae Hoh Hb > aa. Giuseppe Jare, (Chiot Rabbi ot Ferrara, Italy. GL. Goodman Lipkind, B.A., ‘Habti in London, Engind, os. Gabriel Schwarz, Ph.D., Tabb of Carstadt, Austria, G. Sa........G. Sacerdote, Ph.D., ‘benim, Germany. HE B........H, Brody, Ph.D, ‘ate Nacho, Bema Astras Coe of * atc Hetriche cgrat.” - |Bosbert Betedenwald, Ph.D, omen superinendnt of Department ot atuerp Liry ot cong Wasting ton, Ds ry Seereary Ameen Jesh I tora ty Poy HG. Bnelow, DD, ‘sos Rate se, oul, 5. Hoary Hy ernst, DD.y ead of te Depart of Seite and Epi Literatur, eaole Univesity ot {owrian Wain, HG. ELE. TRabbl of the Spanish and Portaguese Cone ‘reqntion, Now York: President of the Ad sory Board of Ministers of the Jewish eo- logiea Seminary. .-Herman Rosenthal, ‘Ciet of tho Stayonie ‘Department of the New York Publie Library. ‘Henrietta Szold, ‘Secretary of te Publention Commitee of tae “Jevesh Publleation Society af Amerion, Hermann Vogelstein, Ph.D., "Rabbi in Konigsbong, Germany ;Joiut Author wid Paul Rieger of tue "History of the Jews in Rome” Israel Abrahams, M.A., ‘Covaitor of the “Jewish Quarterly Review"; Author of "Jewish Zite tn the Miaale ages.” ‘ete; Senior Tutor of Jews College, London. ‘sano Bloch, ‘Chet Rabo Nanes, France. :}1sane Brovaé, Etudes: Late Librarian of ltianee isradtive le, Paris; Author ot “Retexions sur ‘Tsrael Davidson, A.M, New York. Israel Lévi, Professor inthe Jewish Theologtesl Seminary, Paris, Pranee; Raltor of "Revue des Srudes sles” I, M, Casanowicz, Ph.D., U.S. National Museum, Washington, D. 0 Author of “Paronomasia in the Old Testar Ira Maurice Price, B.D., Ph.D., Profesor of Semi Languages abd Litera ‘ure in the University of Chicago Te; Author cof "The Monuments and the Old Testament,” Joseph Jacobs, B.A., Formerly President of tue Jewish Histarfeat Society of England; Corresponding Berber of the Rosal Academy of History, Madrid: ‘Auibor of “Jows of Angovin England,” ete, “Morris Jastrow, Jr., Ph.D:, Profesor of Semitie Lansuazes and Librarian in the University of Pennsylvania, Philadel- pia, Pa: Author of "Religion of the Baby: Jonians and Assyrians," ete. -.Marous Jastrow, Ph.D., ‘Rabbit Bimeritas of the Congregation Rodet Shalom, Philadelphia, Pas Author of “Die- ‘onary of the Talmud.” J. ALH.....J..A. Hourwich, Ph.D., (hier of the Trunstating Stam, Us 8 Consus Bureau, Washington, D.C. 3B Same as I. B. (avove).CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME I xxxt -Bresiaa, Germany; Editor of *sMonatssetritt J. F. McG.,.J. Frederic MoCurdy, Ph.D., LE-D., {ir Geschichte und Wissenaobatt des Jude FB nTaeaven Bigart, Be 8... sncdudwig Stein, PRD., Soowarsenera of the Allanee tele Toten of Fosphy at the Unter ot Tater, Pais Paes, Der, smizenandy Billo of "Aer fr = hie dr Plephle ee. J. Sy}. Ohotaner, Ph.D. cain Pano” Nowetor Goege amet, Bnet re BO. BeeT.O. Reis, PLD. Ginna Of. ‘New York. ‘M.A. Michael Adler, B.A., J. D.R......d. D. Eisenstein, | Rabbi of Hammersmith Synagogue, London, New Yor. Prana 3.D.P......John Dyneley Prince, Ph.D., | ™.B. -Moses Beer, recor of amie Tangy New Yor | Now Yor. tavern. Bros Brann, Ph.D.y TeBosvessese Same as A. F (above). | ‘professor in the Jewish Theological Semoary, | Professor of Oriental Languages in the Unie eae ‘ersity College, Toronto Canada: Author of | ae py... Moves Buttonwleser, Ph.D, “istry, Propheey, and the Monuments.” -MonesButtonwleser, PhDs 3.6. J. Guttmann, Pa.D., ‘Vaton Conege, Clnelnnat, Obio. Rabb in Breslau, Germany; Author of “Die | yf >,........M. Dupare, ‘Philosophie des Solomo ibn Gabiro." eee tes Julius Klein, MM, F.......1Michael Friedlinder, Ph.D, ‘Lato Chie Revos of Presburg, Hungary. Principal, Jews’ College, London, Engtands J.Lo. . Levi, Ph.D. ‘runsator of Maimonides “Gui tthe Per ‘abot i Alzey, Germany. plexel,” ee. 5.1. 8......Joseph L. Sossnitz, M, Ga....... Moses Gaster, Ph.D., ‘aka of the Spans and Portuguese Jems, ‘London, England. M, Grinwald, Ph.D., ‘abhi in New York. 3.B.P......John B, Boters, D.D., Rector of St Michael's Church, New Yorks | Ms Gr. Xtthor of SStopunor Explorations and Ad ‘Rabo in Hamburg, Germany. senturos on toe Bapbaien?™ BM I.E Mase T. Kohler, Mikey LEAD.» Be Bicc see ofame a 8. (below). “Auarwey al Taw; Recording Stretary ofthe co ‘American Jewish Historical Society,’ New 5.8.R......JacobS. Raisin, a ease eee ce 1M. B........ Morita Kayserling, Ph.D. 5. Sto.....-.Joseph Stolz, Ph.D., Rabbi, Budapest, Hungary: ‘Rabbi in Chiengo, 1 seblente der Jaden tn Portugal” 3. Vi .---Sacob Voorsanger, D.D., Espafola Portugueza Judaic,” eo, Raboi of the Congestion tmamek son | ME Bs-.-~ Laas Landsbers, Ph.D, Francfseo, Calg. Professor of Semitic Lane | BE: Lai... { Mox Tamncowenss FLD {guages and Titeratare in the University of ee California, Berkeley, Cal ML... Mask Lidabarskey, Ph.D., 3. Vevssseceds Vredenburg, BEA, Privat-Docent of Semitic Piology atthe Dat- vers, Kish Germany; Author of “Hand- Rabbi in Amsterdam, Holland. i of seis eat Tnuen dor Nordsemlsehen Epigraph. ‘Wabbl in Paris, France. M, L. M.,..Max EL. Margolis, Ph.D., “Assistant Profesor of Semitlc Languages im a Kaufmann Kobler, Ph.D. ‘the University of California, Berkeley, Cl ‘Rabbi of Temple Beth-H1, Now York; Presi ‘ent of Board of Jewish Ministers, New York Moses Mielziner, Ph.D., D.D., ‘Profesor of Talnule Literature and Acting H. Bata Budde, Ph.D. rote tama i rotenor of ld Teaament Eres atte Frain Heir Dion Clue, Ozma, he Blac Upwey ee HP BE Thelberser, —,, ‘ato Sela Bema eens BeBe os Tudwie Blan, PhD, etna Oo ‘otebara te Jew beng Sonia, | af ....-Mfotse Schwab, Ph.D,» Doawpese Nanay “Learn ure tone Depron at be Peon aor otbes airtas tt ‘othe Nausea noe ase Serre Ivette Jermain 1. @. ss Route Ginabers, PhD, ME. Si. sliberstein, PhD, oe ge raber ee ern om ura Weiner: anny. ‘irehenvatern,” et, ‘Max Weisz, Ph.D., LN. D......Lewis N, Dembitz, Rabbi in Hodapest, Hungary. ‘Attorney at Lav, Loulsile, Ky.s Author of Philipp Bloch, Ph.D., ‘Jewish Servis in Synagogue and Home.” ‘Rabbl in Posen, Genin. |xxxii CONTRIBUTORS TO "VOLUME I BW. Paul Wondland, Ph.D, 5.3, Mondclschn, Ph.D. Sein Gemnays aor of “Pmt rt nnn, 3. si 8. M, D.....8, M, Dubnow, B Whos preter wiernit, tomey ata, ote asi, “niboref ele on “Aga” i ts ytune, ey New Yor. ‘Rabbi in Amsterdam, Holland. BBs Reboooe Kohut, Crawford Howell Toy, D.D., LL-D. ‘Now Tork Predentot he New Fork Secton Proto ef Here i rye iver, ihe Gone ev omen Camligge, Massy Author af "The Relon RRR Bee orton yuan Coin” ‘Lecturer on History, fiole des Hautes ftudes, | T. 8.........Lobias Shanfarber, Ph.D., ao Tat of Anse Marah Coareeton, Ch ‘R. W. R.....Robert W. Rogers, D.D., Ph.D., cago, 1 ‘Professor of Hebrew and Old Testament Exe- | V- ©... . Victor Castiglione, fee Dre Theol! Sear, Mion, rotesn, Tn, stra SS We Beso W. Bacher, Ph.D, SusssesesTaldove Singer, Ph.D, Maxactve Born, ‘oteoor tts Josh ThelogilSeinary, S.A. B,...Samuel Augustus Binion, 2.D., Eutoat tenga Author of “Die Agata ‘ort tera nt ay ™ aaa Woo Wiliam Milwitaky, ‘8. A. E......8. A. Hirsch, Ph.D., Late of Harvard University Library, Cam- Protesorin dows Cole London, Eaeand. pete 8. Bess sSammel Boeck, Ph.D.» ee coat abo in List Genauny- a ‘8. Ho, S. Horovitz, Ph.D., ‘W. M. M....W. Max Miiller, Ph.D, Professor at Jewish Theological Seminary, Professor of Mible Exegesis in the Reformed Broan, Goroany scp Theol Semioay, Puade 8. cs 8 Kaboy pla Tabb fa Nines France W.8..0..--William Salant, M.D, $8 fs. Rrauss, PaD., New York Author of article on“ Afriea” inthis volume. Professor Normal College, Bidapest, Hungary; “Author of * Griesbgote und Lateiniehe Lehn. ‘warter im Talmud.” WS. G..... William 8. Gotthetl, M.D., Consulting Physic tt eva Iaraet Hospital: Visting Paysiclan Lebanon Hospital, ete, New York,LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME 1 N. B.—In the following list subjects likely to be sought for under various headings are repeated under each, Traditional asoriptions are denoted by quotation-marks. “Aaron, Son of the Devil”... %Aaron’s House” at Lincoln Aaron's Rod ‘AD, Bye of Ninth of .. — Ninth Day of... —— — synagogue Service on. ‘Abana River, Damascus, ‘Abarbanel Library in Jerusalem. ‘Abendana Family Seal. . ‘Aboab, Isaac da Fouseea, Hakam at Amsterdam, “+ Abodah” Music, . Bo Abraham, Bernard, en ‘Abraham de Cologna, Italian Member of Napoleon's Sanhe “Abraham Offering Tsaac , : “Abraham's House” at Hebron, Abraham's Oak” in 1847. — in 1997... Abramowitsch, 8. J. ‘Abravanel Coat of Arms, ‘Abravanel, Isuae, Statesman and Author Abraxas, Gnostic Gem, Obverse and Reverso. ‘Absalom Caught in a ‘Tree. a “Absalom's Tomb” — Showing Position near Wall of Jerusalem, ., ‘Abyss, the Assyrian (Tiamat) . : ‘Acacia Tree, Flowering Branch and Seed-Pod ‘Accents, Hebrew, Mlustrated by Psalm ox. 1-4 ‘Aceldama, in the Valley of Hinnom..... ‘Acosta, Uriel, Signature of. ‘Acre, Modern’ City of, ‘Acsddy, Ignatz, Hungarian Historian, “Aaam and Eve”... Adam Kadmon ......... ‘Adam-Salomon, French Sculptor ..... Addax Antelope (Addax Nasomaculatus 12120, 180 = 188 Site 188. + 134 144 ers 2158 164 167 2170 12 11 plate Betiveen 606-007 “Addir Hu,” Music of... So veeeeesese 187, 188 ‘Adler, Hernan, Chief Rabbi of British Empire +. 195 2197 — Liebman, Rabbi... — Nathan Mareus, Chi +198 “Adonai, Adonai,” Music of... 2202 “Adonai Bekol Shofar” Music 2 208 “Adonai Melek,” Music of = 204 “Adon ‘Olam, Music of...... 206, 207 Adoration, Egyptian Mode of... : = 210 —— Mohammedan Form of . = 210 + 216 Adullam, Site of Ancient... [LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS "IN VOLUME I Afka, Ancient Aphek...........- = O04 ‘Agricultural Colonies: see Conoxies. | ‘Agricultural Implement (Mfodern Sickle) - 268 ‘Agrippa L., Coin of, Celebrating Treaty with aT 1, Goin of, Showing Royal Umbrella, .... 271 =I, Coin of, 10th Year ........ a IL, Coin of, 11th Year . te 2 212 UL, Copper Coin of, 14th Yeas, Under Vespasian air) Cota of, 20 Yor, with Senta} Cfoneoe 222 Aguilar, Baron a, on Starvation Farm... 2 Th Grave, Authoress, 2215 “ Ababah Rabbab,? Fragment from a Prayer-Book Containing... 1 plate facing 280-281 nue: Albino Vas wih Name of Xeras In Pusan, Sly “Assyrian, Cuneiform, and Bar. tian Hieroglyphics, . wees « Abot Kelannah,” Masie of - ‘Albriman in Form of @ Dragon. Aix-la-Chapelle, Synagogue at... ‘Ajalon: General View of Yalo, Palestine Adana” Musio of. : Alciba ben Joseph, Rudo Drawing of . ‘Alatsi, Samuel, Italian Deputy... “Albany (N. ¥.) Synagogue.......... ‘Alohemy, Apparatus Used in. — Maria Hebren, Inventor of the Bain-Marie, © Alena,” Musie of. . o Alexander I. of Russia, Abrabamson’s Medal Commemorating the Bmaneipation of the Jews by —Tannees, Coins of voeeeeeneee a ; — the Great, Coin with Aramaic Tnseription ‘Alexandra, Salome, Coin of. ‘Alexandria, Map of, Showing Jewish Quarter Altasi, Isaac,” Traditional Portrait Algerian Jowoss, Costume of : “Algiers: Jowish Quarter After the Riots of 1608. Synagogue During the Riots of 1898, “Al ha-Rishonim,” Music of, 641 Het,” Masio of : Alliance Israélite Universelie, Oficial Device. — see Tunis (Apprentices' Farm-School). ‘Aimanao, Hebrew, Pablished in London, 1818 ‘Almanai, Joseph, Bibliophile ‘Almomar soo “Cuain or Moses”; Brommves ; Jmmusateat; Zaneuvow, ‘Almosnino, Solomon, Secretary of Sephardic Community, London, : 485 Aloe: 1. Plant Showing Method of Growth ; 2. Flower-Stali; 8. Leaf ‘Alpha and Omega on Antique Finger-Ring Alphabet, Origin and Development of Old Hebrew, Samaritan, Manusoript, and Cursive to also Seats). a Altar, Assyrian . — of Incense Restored — of the Temple Restored, — Portable Persian Fire- ‘Alt-Ofen Synagogue... Altona, Charter Given to the Jews of Altona by ing Christian of Denmark . Portuguese Cemetery. : ‘Amador de los Rios, José, Spanish Hilstorlan of the Jews ‘Amber, Showing Embedded Flies, Spiders, and Beetles American Jewish Publication Society, Official Device .... ‘Ammon: Ruins of Roman Theater on ‘Amon, the Egyptian God. Amorites ,.. ‘Amraphel: sec Hasnionsnt, Austerdam, Ashkenazie Congregation, Official Device,LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME 1 Xxx¥ Pace Amsterdam, Ashkenazic Synagogue Peeeentereererenrss BAL — Portuguese Cemetery... Bid —— Portuguese Congregation Seal. 6B — seo Avoan, Isaac pa Foxszoa — Sephardic Synagogue . er) — — Interior 64a —— — showing Position on Canal 553 ‘Amulet for Proteotion Against Lilith: «pla between 548-549 — for Protection in Childbirth plate between 548-649 — for Snceess in Business..... ; ; cess 518 — Gotten Hand, for Proveetion Against the “vii Bye™ ‘plate between 548-649 = Mizwah with the Sixty-seventh Psalm in the Shape of Menorah Surrounded by Magical Formulas plate between 548-549 _— Silver Medallion with "wy on Obyerse and “David's Shield,” Enclosing Fleur-de-Lis, on Reverse plate between 548-549 —— with Formula Insoribed Around Menorah .........+ cossesese late befieen 548-549 = with Inverted Pyramidal Inscription Aster the Style of Abracadabra . + plate between 548-549 — with Permutations of “y, mit, and myn. plate between 548549 — with Shield of Davia, ne) ‘Anathoth, View of Modem. - + 502 ‘Ancona, Alessandro d’, Ttalian Historian . ord ‘Andernach, Jewish Bath at.. 5 2. OT ‘Angel, Moses, Hend Master of Jews” Hee School, London + 688, ‘Anglo-Jewish Exhibition, Plan of. 603 “Antim Zemirot,” Music of « 608 ‘Animals: seo Avpax; Arts; Ass; Busnj Boaatn; Cony Doo} Drowspary; Fox; Gazeute; Goar; Haun; Honse; Hawa; Inex; Jackan; Leorarn; Lnvconrx; Ltox ; Ox; Poxcurixe; Super .. late Detween 006-607 Anklets... - 609 “Anna Bekorent,? 610 Anointing an Egyptian King, out Antelope: see also Awiars.. 619 ‘Antigonus, Copper Coins of «628 Antiochus IL, Silver Coin o! 633, ——IIL,, Silver Coin of ....... = 683, ——IV., Epiphanes, Silver Coi : 34 ——IV., Bpiphanes, Tetradrachm of, = O84 — V., Silver Coin of........ + 085, — VIL, Silver Coin o: 636, — IX, Silver Coin of, ...... 036, Antokolski, Mark, Russian Sculptor . 053, Antokolski’s Bust of Mephistopheles, 653, —— Statue of Death of Socrates ee —— Statue of Ivan the Terrible, 54 Antonia Fortress, Ruins of. + 655, Antoninus Pius ..... aT Ants. oe ois, “Antwerp Synagogue... 059, “Apes Led and Carvied as Tribute. hte, “Arak-el-Emir, Inscription in Cavern at 43, Architecture: see AtwEwaR ; SrNAGoaUE. ‘Argentine Republie: see Crna CoLoxy Mavntcto, Administration Building; ‘Mavmoro, Group at. Ark of the Law... . or frontisptece Ass (Asinus Hemippus), “plate between 600-607 ‘Bain-Marie as Used by Alchemists S sees 881 Bath: Entrance to Jewish Bath at Andemnach eeonn03 sTT —— Interior of Jewish Bath at Andernach . orT Bear (Ursus Syriacus) .... fae ‘plate beticeen 006-607 Bene Healt: Inscription on Family Vault + MS : 187 “Bimherah,” Music of...xxxvi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME I Boundary Stone: Inseription at Gezer. weees dd “Breath of Life, Receiving the”, sessees 1h Bubale (Bubalis Boselaphus)..... ‘plate detween 606-607 Buffalo (N, Y.) Synagogue. - 500 Cabala: see Anas Kapxos. Cemetery: see Autoxa; Ansrexpan; Cuarsaat Savane; Newronn. Ceremonial: see Av, Nixtu Day or; Prostnantox, “Chair of Moses” in Synagogue at Kal-Fung-Fa, China, . nae - 431 Chatham Square Cemetery, New York... Chicago, Sinai Temple. . Clara Colony Children on Horseback, Starting for School - Goat of Arms: see Amexpaxs SEAL} Aunavarst Coar ov Anus, Coins: see Acuivea T.; Acnipra IL; ALEXANDER THE Gear; AtExaxpRa; ANTIOcHUS TI; ANTI cous IIL; Axtocnvs IV.; Awtiocuus V.; Awrrocus VIL; Axtioomus IX.; Axtroonus Erirnaxes; Horop Axtipas; Nuno, Revour acarssr; SHEKEL oP Simo Maccannus. Colonies: see Mavaicio; Meruiian; Panxstins, Mar op; Resonorst; Risuox 1x-Ziox ; Woopmixe, N.J.; Zixnos Ya‘ agos, Cony (Procavia Syriaca), Costume: see ALcERIAN JEWESS; As plate between 606-607 Cursive Writing, seseeeee 50 . 458 Device: see Antiaxce Isafuite Ustvensntue; Aaznioan Jewisn Pupuicariox Society; Amstan- DAM ASHKBNAZIO CONGREGATION. Dog (Greyhound) (Canis Familiarts Grajus) - plate Between 606-607 Dromedary (Camelus Dromedartus) . — teveses Plate between 606-607 Emancipation of Russian Jews, Medal Commemorating. 1s Ethnology : see Axonires. Eve of Ninth Day of Ab, Fields, as Divided in Modern Palestine......... Florence, Aluemar of Synagogue a... Fox (Vulpes Niloticus) Gazelle (Gazella Dorcas) Gezer, Inscription on Boundary Stone of City of Goat (Capra Mambrica)... - Pata Datween 808-807 444 Hammurabi (Amraphel?), Bfigy of. Hananyabu bar Achbor, Seal with Name’ of , Hare (Lepus gyptiacus) ....... Hebrew Accents, Wustrated by Psalm ox. 1-4 Hebrew Square Alphabet, Development of, 450 Herod Antipas, Copper Coin of, 639 Horse (Hguus Caballus). late ietveen 606-607 “House of Aaron” at Lincoln. Ww “House of Abraham” According to ‘Tradition. 84 ‘Hyena (Hyena Striata), . plate between 006-607 - plate Betieeen 606-007 468 441 Thex (Capra Baten Incense, Altar of. Inscription on Column Discovered near Amwas : see Anax ri-Rann; Bese Hain; Insonspriox ox Couvun, xzo.j Jupan ta Scnpa; Kurn Brat Sxxicooue ; Smerax Zrox; Stz0axe Taseriptions: Cola of the Revolt gaint Nero 8-67) — Hebrew — Plate Showing Form of Letiers in.......... Tackal (Canis Aureus), Ps Jerusalem, Almemar of Ashkenazie Synagogu Judah the Seribe, Inscription on Tomb of. Kofr Biri‘m Synagogue Inseription,LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME I xxxvil Leopard (Felis Leopardus) «Plate between 608-807 Leucoryx (Ory Leucoryz) . plate between 000-007 Library, Abarbanel ee pal 27| “Life, Receiving the Breath of”. ve. Tk Lilith, Amulets for Protection Agai ~ plate betieen 648-649 Lion (Felis Leo)... 5 +a bone 00-607 Luah or Almanac, Published in London, 1818. . : - 428 ‘Man, Temptation of, Supposed Assyrian Representation ....... 1m >Manusoript Hebrew Writing. .. pence - 452 Maps: see Auexanpnza; CoLosres. “Maria Hebriea,” Inventor of the “Bain-Marie”. 330 ‘Mauricio, Argentine Colony, Administration Buildings. 243 — Group of Colonists a mB. — Russo-Jewish Colony....... 242 509 Moasolewm of Seligman Family, Cypresa His, ¥. 4... wnat Stern Family, Cypress Hills, N.Y. Medals: seo Auexasbun I.; Wesrruauta, Menorah: Amulet in Form of Branchod Candlestick, .. 1 500) _ sat eto 848-19 ‘Moyullah Colony in Palestine... 250, ‘Mikwah (Bath) at Andernach, 3IT ‘Mouse, Sacrificial. : 165 Music, “Abodan” vi. TTAT8 —"adair Hu”. sees 187, 188 — “Adonai, Adonai”. 202 —— “Adonai Bekol Shofar”. “Adonai Melek”........++ — Adon “Olu”, — “shot Kefannah” , —Antim Zemivot® -- Anna Bekorena” .. — of “Akdamut” Nero, Coppet Coin ofthe Revolt Agataat Newport (R. I), Synagogue... — Touro Cemetery... New York Cemetery soo Gnstmax Sqcans Crnureny j Mavsonzow ov Ssxroxa unos oF Srenx Famer. Now Yori, Shessith Tere! Synagogue, . — Temple BmanwEl....... ‘Ninth of Ab, Synagogue Servic rAMILY j MAUSO- 508 “Oak of Abraham” peered 93 Ornament: soe ALPHA AxD OxkGA; ANKLETS. Ox (Bos Taurus) earners plate between 606-607 Palestine, Map of Agricultural Colonies in. Pa perce ool] satfee also Aunaitan’s Hoosn; Avzanaa’s Oar} Apsazow’s ‘Toxn} Acacras Acztpama Aone; Avortas; Acniounronsn Inpiemesrs; Atoz ; Avxox ; Axamnotit; Fuetp Drvimsp ; Prowse anv Hoxixe ; Porreny Trave-Marc; Reonorn Coxosr ; Risuow 1b-Ziox Cozoxr ; Taensn- axe; Warer-Wuret ; Zixnox Ya‘ axon Cotoxy, Philadelphia, ‘Temple Keneseth Israel... aoe - 500 Plowing and Hoeing in Egypt... 264 Plowing in Palestine rise 208 Poreupine (Hystrix Cristata) 17 plate bttoen 608-007 Portraite: se0 Anost, Isaso ba Foxsuok} Anmanan, Bexwano; Apgar pe Covooxa; Annaxo- ‘winsen, § Joy Anmavaven, Tenuc; Abube, Himiax; ADLER, Ligpsaxe; Apuen, Narmax Marcus; Acviman, Baxox p’; Aouinan, Grace; Avatgr, SamvrL; Ausanzt, Jospri; At nosxixo, SoLostoN; AxaDOR DE Los Rios, José; ANcoNA, Auzssaxpno ’; AxTonorsict, MARK.xsxvili LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME I 441 210 ‘Pottery Trade-Mark Found at Lachish Prostration, Egyptian Mode of — Mohammedan Form of . +210 Rehoboth Colony in Palestine. ees 249 Riots in Algiers, Synagogue During. Seen + 883, Rishon le-Zion Colony in Palestine, “Rod of Aaron”, Russia: see Auexanven I; Zauuupow. Sacrifice of Isaac..,., Samaritan Alphabets, . fa Sculpture: see Axroxorskr, Srarurs BY. Seals with Ancient Hebrew Characters — 00 also Avespaxa Baurty Sean; ‘Acunor. ‘Sephardic Script... Shalam Zion, Epitaph of, ‘Sheep (Ovis Aries Dolichura), Shekel of Simon Maceabeus, See Siloam Aqueduct, Inscription on... Stars, Worshipers of the. Starvation Farm, Baron d?Aguilar’s. : ——— Synagogues: soe Arx-La-Cuarecee; Aunawy, N.Y.; AunOren; Austonpaat; Axtwanr; Burvaxo, N. ¥.; Cmieaco; New York, Suan Isnast; New Yous, Tewrue Evaxu-En; Nawronn, R. 1; Pamapeteuta, Temrrs Kexzserat smart. 447 feces 448, “-Blale betwen 000-007 ‘Temple: see Auta or tHe Texrte Restore. ‘Temptation of Man, Supposed Assyrian Representation of .. . 1 ‘Threshing in Palestine. ........ . 209 ‘Tiamat, the Assyrian Abyss. us 138 “Tomb of Absalom,” Tradi ‘Tombstone: see Juan THs Scxisb; Mavsoueuw. ‘Totem-Mouse..... | 420 ‘Tunis: Apprentices? Farm-Schodl |. United States: see Burrito; Curcago; New York; Newrort; Purapenymsa; Woonmise Covoxy (N. J.) ; s00 also CrseteRtEs ; Srxacoauss. - 284 ‘Vase, Alabaster, with Name of Xerxes, ‘Water-Wheel in Palestine .. Westphalia, Medal Commemorating Enfranchisement of Jews in. Woodbine Colony, New Jersey, Geneval View. . ——— Band at . —— — Schoolhouse. Worshipers of the Stars . ‘Yalo (Ajalon), Palestine, General View of . Zabludow, Russian Poland, Almemar of Synagogue at......... Zatkron Yatakob Colony, Adminlatration Balding of........ — Palestine, aTHE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA . A AGH: A small town in the circle of Constance, Baden, Germany, at one time belonging to the land maviate of Nellenburg. ‘The first mention of Jews jn Aach {s found in a document of the year 1518, in which the Jews of Geisingen are accused of having murdered a Christian child. In another document, ff the year 1522, reference is made toa debt due to fA Jewish tmidesman of ach from an inlnbitant of Bouren, In the archives of Carlsruie there are three ‘oouments dealing especially with the Jews of Aach uring the last half of the sixteenth century. Every ten years the Jews of Nellenburg were required tore- new thelr permits of residence in the landgraviate. The dest document shows that between the years 1560 and 1520 only tive Jewish families received such permits; and it ie expressly stated that they were Then entitled to all the rights enjoyed by the other cltizens of Aach; but no Jew was allowed to harbor more than five strangers in his house. The arrival ‘of any Jewish visitor lid to be announced to the Tandeogt and burgomaster; but no such stranger was allowed to trade with the people of Aach. ‘The second document is an ediet of Hmperor Ferdinand T, dated Aug. 1, 1559, whileh deals with the laws re- ‘garding usury. "The third document, dated at Inns- ‘rack, Oct, 10, 1583, renews the right of residence for six Jewish families of Aach. ‘The provisions of this act are much more severe than those included sn the dociment relating; to the period between the Years 1560 and 1570, referred to above. ‘The renewal df residence was ghintad for five years only; Jews ‘wore forbididen to deal in ayricultaral products, and they were no longer allowed to chant in the syna- gogue. ‘This difference in the treatmentof the Jews Df Ach was due to the attitude of Emperor Rudolph, TI. The landgraviate of Nellenburg was sold in 1645, ‘to’ Austria, and has belonged to Baden since 1810. Dipuiganarwy, Lowenstein, in Zot, fr di Geach dar der Beaten 8°98 i fe. 4 AACHEN. See Arcia-Cuareuuz, AARGAU: A canton in northern Switzerland, formerly the only one in which Jews were per- mitted to live. ‘The two townships Endingen and Lengnau, situated in the district of Baden and about three miles apart, formed for several centuries the Swiss ghetto, In the soventeenth century, or prob- ably at an earlier period, when the Jews were ban- ished from the confederation, several Jewish fami- ies were collected here under special protection as “Sehirm- und Schutzjuden.” ‘They were, however, forbidden to buy Jnnd or to own houses; and they ‘wore not permitied to live under the same roof with Christians. ‘The guif separating them from the Christians was further widened in 1071, when a special oath was Tormulated for ail Jews who appeared Renewals in the court of justice (see, Oxmn, of Charter. Jews). The Jews were also heavily shete trtoy Ret ihe authors, who ree heir charter every sixteen years, Yecelved pay for protection. The provost and the’ district clerk and his secretary reegived recognition money” and settlement dues”; and whenever the Jews passed trough'a loculity in the canton they paid a poiltas, In I712, when the Jews at Lenguau were pillized by the country people, the former had their charter re- newed for sixteen years, and again, at its recurrent expiration, in 1728, 1744, and 1760_—on the last oc- cesion even in spite of the subprovost's urgent de- Inands that they be banished, ‘The renewal of the eater to the Jews in 1760 was evanted only upon the express condition that * they should not multiply nor allow marriages between oor persons, and that all brides from without should ing with thema dowry of at least 600 gulden Dut there was te further zestrction that“ they could nelther acquire houses, nor practise usury, nor Duy featates, nor discount notes, Without. the permission of the authorities.” In 1782 a condition was added forbidding Christian and Jew tolive under the same oof ; but this was the lst time thatthe * Hebrexs,” 4s the Swiss were acoustomed to call the Jews, bad torenow thecharter.- Influenced by theresultsof the Revolution in France, several brond-minded Swiss statesmen gave thelr attention to the improvement of the prenrous psitionof the Jews, ‘Emancipa- who hid increased from thirty-five t0 tion one hundred and forty-seven families ‘Movement, (uring the interval between the years 1702-82. Tn the year 1799 all special tolls and imposts were abolished, aud in 1802 the polltax was. also abrognted. On Sept. 2 of the Zime year, duting' the French occupation, riot broke out at Endingen and Lengnau; the Jews! Avvellings were sacked, and they lost near}y all the possesstons in spite of General Ney's attempts t0 protect them. Wet this check could not stem the Hide of Jewish emancipation. By a law of May 5, 1809, the night of eltizenship was granted to Jews, and they were permitied to engage in trade and jcultare. The right of settlement, however, Still remained restricted to Bndingen and Lengnau until May 7, 1846, when. they were allowed to set- ein any portion’ of the canton of Aargau, ‘Ten Years later (Sept, 24, 1856) the federal council voted Them equal politial rights with other Swiss iti, zeus in that cauton, as well a8 entire freedom ofro ommerer; but in opposition ofthe Chitin pop SRlon prevented the decision from being: generally caned outs Tn i880 the goveramont of Aargan seriously con- sidered a bill granting fall enfranchisement to the ys the intention being to give thetn Enfran-_ ulfrie in alconnmunal and cantoval chisemont fightsland to constitute the comin SEES, HEE Legs ston ously opposed by the Chetan population, and Tad To eio ke disorders whlch threatened Jewish prop- Gege Nouritistandlag the violent opposition ot fhe rtoamamtane parts through ite pres, the gov erament Bil was cried Blny 15, 1906, by'a vote of {id 2, This law should have becouse operative on July of that years but the disstistneton hn. iy bedome goer throughout the canton, the we eas reported by a yoforesdurn. Jewish emaneipa Tom neg boca a federal affte and was submitted {or decision tothe federal council “The feral - orides in Judy, i800, granted te Swiss Jems the fullest rights of citiznse a rest due langcly 0 the Ettore of the Swiss Jewish.“ Kulturvercin® (Cult fre Society), founded ia 1952 and dissolved after an tristence OF twenty years, Full evil equality was Sbialued only Wien they reoeved the formal tights St eltteeuship, fem in. there own communities of Eadingen and Lengnau, A resolution of the “Grosse Rath” of ‘Kergaa, Stay, 1947 granted citizens nights tothe nembets of hie Jewish communities of showe places, ving them charters under the tates of New Ba: Singh and No Eengnan., Te prohibition gsi thoSfexran mode of slaughtering, which byt ple Tiseitum became the lar ofthe eeaton (see Srtre- EnLAND), Wore especially hard on the Jewish eon: Tunic of Angie ‘Tho civil, ineliectoal, and religious life of the Jews ia Aargau didered ele from that ia o¢her countries Fora long time the Swiss Religious Jows wore aot alowed! to bury thelr and — dead in Swiss soil, Their burial- General place was an islapd in the Rhine near Progress. Coblenz (Switzerland), which is. stil, called Judeniule, oF Jews’ Iste, ought for that purpose from the, community. of Waldshus, in Baden. It was only about the middio of the eighteenth century that they reecived. per mission to acquire a joint cemetery situated be- tween Endingen and Lengnau, whieh has been tn use ever since. The first synagogue was erected at Lengnau in 1755, it being the first on Swiss soll After the general expulsion: and nine years later the congregation of Budingen did the satisfaction of assembling in their own house of worship. After ‘lapse of ninety years beautifal synagogues were erected in both communities. In 1810 considerable fands were collected for the maintenance of com- inal schools, which were put on an equal footing with those of ‘the Christians in 1985 and subsidized by the goverment. ‘Originally one ‘abi. served poth communities ‘The frst one mentioned Loch Pinschow, is buried with his wife on Jews" Isle. He was succeeded by Jacob ben Isserle Sehvaich, Toward the end of the eighteenth century Raphael Ris, surnamed Raphael Hagenthal, was appointed rabbi of the two enmmunt ties. He died in 1818, and was succeeded by Isaac Luntschttz, sumamed Tsaao of Westhofen, who held the office but ono year. His successor was Raphael Ris" son, Abraham Ris, previously rabbi at Muhrin- gon, Attra lapseof thes years.a cont arse be- ‘een the two communities, which was settled by ‘THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 2 the governmont’s appointing Abraham Ris rabbi for ‘Endingen only and Wolf Dreifus for Lengnau. The ‘subsequent appointment of Leopold Dissen, ‘Wyletas mull of Endingen gave rise Tione:” je grave dimeusious ta the Genin: {ty hich oulminnted ais retirement from oflee,. TH govoroment issuod a decree 1858 Tegulating the appolutment and the duties of the rabbis, and in 1854 Julius Farst was elected rabbi of SRR, fof ua ura tae leet ab of deaeP eclhise fio comity touched ted A the cloco of 1864 the government appointed 3 Kayser.ine to the rabbinical office, which he held tHe 1940 Besides that of Endingen and Lengua, there ex feign the eavtou argu a Jewisle community at Baden with about 2,000 persons, who have a rabbi andaschool. A few families live at Aarau and Brem- fgarton. In" i976 there were 1808 Jews at Aargau Engelbert. "Since the Vent oF frce movement dns Sos nevored to thei, Fev lave setted sr sovernt cantons of the Swiss Confederation, Dighioonaruy. 9. €, Unie Sammlung U2. Gee, sy, der Saran its Ma ie hati die'tia cian Dio Judenfrage sor don Grosse Eecenitntin dargie Monatmchr/ SITS sae ETE Wise asa alae Ts an Pa at Noa ses Ot, sen ite Ca he AARON. Biblical Data: One of two brothers wit play a unique part in the history of the Hebrew peso Te was the elder son of Amram and Joche- bed of the tribe of Levi; Moses, the other son, being fires years younger, and Mintast, thelr sister, sev ral _yenrs older (Bx. i, 4), Aavon was the great- grandson of Levi (Ex. vi. 16-20) and represented the Priestly funcifons of his tribe, While Moses was Teceiving his education at the Egyptian court and during fis exile among the Midianites, Aaron and Iissster remained with thetr Kinsmen in the eastern borderland of Egypt, Here he gained a name for loquent and persuasive speech; 20 that when the fime came for the demand upon Pitanaont to release Tract from captivity, Aaron became his brother's aiubi, or spokesman, to his own people (x, iv. 10) dnd, after their unwillingness 10 hear, to Phaaoh himbelt (x. v. ) ‘haron's function included the duties of speaker and ipl pera detings wit The coir on half of Bfoses, who was always the central moving figure. The part played by Aaron in the events tint preceded the ‘Bxodus was, therefore, ainisterial, and not directive. He shared the mt- maculous powers of Moses, and performed “sizns” before. his people which impressed. them with a Deliet inthe reality of the divine mission of the brothers (Bx. iv. 15,10). At the command of Moses he stretched. out his rod in onder to bring on the first three plagues (Bx. vit, 19, vil, 1, 19)” Th the infliction of the remaining’ plagues he appears to have aeted merely as te attendant of Noses, whose outstretohed rod drew the divine wrath upon Pha- aol and his subjects (Ex. 3x. 23, x. 13,2). The potency of Aaron's od had already been demon- Strated by its vietory over the rods of the Byptian Inagielans, which {0 swallowed after all the rods Alike had een turned into serpents (Bx. vi. 9 ete). During the Journey in the wildemess Aaron is not always prominent or actives and he sometimes p= pears guilty of rebellious or treasonable conduct, His Function.8 ‘THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Aargau Aaron ‘At the battle with Amalek he 1 chosen with Hur ‘support th hand of Nokes that held the rod of Goa PERE it oz), When the revelation was Green fo Bisse et Stat, he headed the elders of EST wh nesempuniedafoses on tho way to tie Fanon yeah however was admitted ith his Hager to teeny prosence ofthe Lord, wile Aron dual Fup romaiged below to lok after the people THe ule Out ewan data th prolgng sh, Te peegicrend mates Pole arse ana Inigo of se uiviaywio had delivered them from Basie chy: seit 0) At teintercesion of Mone, ‘Alveh as anved fom the plague which smote the ete Deut fe 0 Bx. watt 05), although ft was peeprere ibe of Lew that tho work of puniive eoguance was committed (bx: Xxail 20 etn). At fie tine wien de ibe of Levi asset Becomes, apart for the priestly service, Aaron, Priest of was anointed and consecrated to the Israel. priesthood, arrayed in the robes of his Ute, and instructed fn its manifold dnties (Ex. xxvii and xxix). On the very day of iis consecration his sons, Nadab and. Abii, were onsumed by fre from the Lord for having offered fcense fn an unlawful manner (Lev. x.). This SORE ‘Aaron bore in silence ‘From the time of the sojourn at Sinai, where he ‘cue the anointed priest of Israel, Aaron ceased to bo the minfster of Moses, his place being taken Drosha. He is ‘mentioned. association with Mian’ in a Jealous complaint against the elusive claims of Moses as. the Lord's prophet. ‘The presumption of the yurmrers was rebuked, and AMiriam was smitten with leprosy. Aaron e ireated Moses to intereede for hier, at the same le confessing the sin and folly. that. prompted the uprising "Aaron helt was not struck With the plague on account of sneerdotal immunity; and Mirfine after seven days” quarantine, was healed find restored to favor (Nom, Sit), Iti noteworthy fhnt the prophet Micah. (vi, 4) mentions Moss, ‘avon, and Miriam as the Tenders of Israel after the yout (a judgment wholly in accord with tne tenor ofthe matives) Inthe present instance tis made lear by the express words of the oracle (Num. 3 65) Mose wae unig among men, a the on trith hom the bord spoke face to face. The failure qo recognize or concede this prerogative of thelr Irother vas the sin of Milam and Aaron... The-va- ity of the exclusive priesthood of the family of ‘Anton wasnttested after the il-fated rebellion of Ko- ‘tart, who was a first cousin of Aaron. Rebellion When the earth had opened and swal- ‘Of Korah. lowed up the leaders of the insurgents (Num. sri. 29-85), Briar, the son of Aaron, was commissioned to take charge of the feonsers of the dead priests And when the plague lind broken out among the people who had sympa. tized ‘with the rebels, Aaton, at the command of Moses, took his.censer and stood between the living and the dead till the plague was stayed (Num, xvi Top, svi 36-50, ALV.). Another memorable trans- fction Followed, ach of the tribal princes of Is- fuel took a rod and svrote his name ‘pon it. and the twelve rods were Inid up over might tn tht tent of meeting. On the morrow Auron's rod was found to ave huddled tnd bowsomed, and, dome pe imonds (Num. xvii, 8; seo Aarox's Ron). The mniracle proved merely the prerogative of the tribe of Leviy but now a formal distinetion was made fn perpetuity Between the faonily of Aaron and the otter Tovites, While all the Levites (and only Levites) were to be devoted to sacred services, the special charge of the sanctuary and the altar was committed to the Aaronites alone (Num. xvii. 1-7). ‘The scene of this enactment is unknowa, nor is the time mentioned, "Aaron, like Moses, was not permitted to enter Canaan with the successful invaders. “The reason alleged i tha the tw brothers showed impatience ‘at Meriban (Kadesh) in the last year of the desert pilgrimage ONum, xx. 12,19), when they, or rather HER oP that peopien” Pils Calne as oSatcea oS displaying a'want of deference to the Lord, since they ‘had been commanded to speak to the rock, ‘whiereas Moses struck it with the wonder working rod (Num. xx. 7-11), Of the death of Aaron we have two accounts, "The principal one gives a de failed statement to the effect that, oon after ihe above incident, Aaron, with his son Eleazar and Moses, ascended Mouxr Hon, ‘There Moses stripped hiim (Aaron) of his priestiy garments, and transferred them to Bleazar. Anton died on’ the summit of the moun tain, and the people mourned for him thirty days (Nui, xx, 22-20; compare xxxiil 88,90), ‘The other Account 1s found in Deut. x, 6, where Moses is re- Porto saying that Agron dei at Mospe and was buried ‘there. -Mosera is not on Mount Hor, since the itinerary in Num, xxxiil, 8187 records’ seven stages between Moseroth (Bfosera) and Mount Hor J. McC. —In Apocryphal and Rabbinical ‘Litera- tare: ‘The older prophets and. prophetical wri- ters beheld in their priests the representatives of religious form inferior to the prophetic trutl ‘men. without the spirit of God. and Typical lacking the will-power requisite to re- Signifiea- sist the multitude in its idolatrous pro ion, clivities. ‘Thus Aaron, the typical Dulest, ranks far below Moses:” he is Dut his mouthpiece’ andthe executor of the ‘will of God revealed through Moses, although itis polated out (Sift, Wa-yikra, £) that itis said ff {een times in the Pentatouch that “the Lord spoke to Moses and Aaron.” Under the influence of the priesthood which shaped the destinies of the nation Under Persian rule, a diferent ideal of the priest was formed, as 1s earned from Mal. it. 47; and the prevailing tendeney was to place Aaronon a footing Equal with Moses.” “At times Aaron, and at other times Moses, s mentioned first ia Seripture—this is foshow that they were of equal rank,” says Moka kb ; and Ecclesiastieus (Sirach), xv. 0-24 ex: Dressly tnfers this when introducing in his record BErenowned men the glowing deseription of Aaron's ministration, According to Tan. (ed. Buber, ii. 12), ‘Aaron's activity as a prophet, began earlier than that of Moses.” The writer of the Testaments of the Putsiarehs, bowever, hesitates to rank Moses the faithful, “him that speaks with God as with a father,” as equal with Aaron (Testament of Levi, viii, 17). The rabbis are still more emphatic thier praise of Aaron's vietues. ‘Thus Hel, who in Herod's time saw before him mainly a degenerate Class of priests, selfish and quarrelsome, held Aaron of old up asa miror, saying: “Bo of the diseiples ‘of Aaron, loving peace and pursuing Moses and peace: love your fellow creatures and ‘Aaron (raw themnigh unto the Law!” (Abot, Compared, 1,12) “his is further tustrated by tie tradition preserved in Abot de N. xi, Sank, 63, and elsewhere, according to which ‘Aaron was an ideal priest of the people, far more beloved for his kindly ways than was Moses. ‘While Moses was stern and uncompromising, brook: Death.Aaron, Aaron's Roa ing uo wrong, Aaron went about as pencemal Teconelling man ad wife when he saw them es- tranged, oa an with is neleibor when ‘hey quarreled, and winning ovil-doers back into the ight Yay by his friendly intercourse. The mourning of the people at Aaron's death was greater, therefore, than at that of Moses; for whereas, when Anron died the whole house of Isiucl wept, including, the women (Num, xx. 20), Moses was Dewailed by *the sons of Israel” only (Deut, xxxiv. 8). Even in the mi- King of the Golden Calf the rabbis tind extenua- ting clreumstances for Aaron (Sanh, 7a), Ts forti- tide and silent subuafssion to the will of God on the Toss of his two sons are referred to as an excellent eample tp men how to glorify God in te mist of reat_aiiction (Zeb, 1155; Josephus, * Ant.” ii 8 EF) Bspecially sigationnt are he words represented as being spoken by God after the princes of the ‘Twelve Tribes had brought their dedication offer- ings into the newly reaved Tabernacle: «Sey to thy Drother Aaron: Greater thon the giftsof the princes fe thy gift; for thou art called upon to Inde the Tight, and, while the snerifces shall Inst only as long. 8 the Temple lasts, thy light of the Law shall last forever (Tan., ed. Buber, 5nSyn3, 6). i fulsinent of tbe promine of peacefl ie, sym. bolized by the pouring of oil upon his lead’ (Lev. Tex, Mide. Teh. exxxili 1), Aaron's Death of death, as described in the Hazgadah, ‘Aaron, was of Wonderful tranquillity. Ae: companied by Moses, his brothes, and by Bleazar, his son, Aaroi went to the summit of Mouut Hor, where the rock suddenly opened be- fore him aud 'a beautiful eave Tit by’a lamp pre sented itself to his view. "Take off thy pHestly alment ind pace it upon thy’ son Bleazar!” sa Hoses; “and tien follow me.” “Aaron did’ as com- ‘manded; aud they entered the cave, where was p pared a bed around which angels’stood. “Go lie Gown upon thy bed, my brother,” Moses continned: find Aaron obeyed without a mrrmur. ‘Then hissoul departed asif by a kiss from God, ‘The eave closed behind Moses ag le left; and he went doven the hill ‘with Blegzar, with garments rent, and crying; “Alas, ‘Aaron, my brother! tou, te pillar of supplication of Tomiel!® When the Israelites cried in bewilder- Inent," Where fs Aaron?” angels were seen entryin, ‘Aaron's bier through the ait. A voige was then beard Saying? The law of truth was in his mouth, and in- fquity was not found on his lips: he walked with aesn mgtteousness, and brought many back from Sin” (Mal i 6,7). He died, necording to Seder ‘Olam Rix, RH. 2,90, and Josephus,” Ant." iv. 4, $7, on the fst of Ab, Josephus says also that “he died ‘while the multitude looked upon him.” ‘The pillar of cloud which proceeded in front of Tsrael’s camp Sisapeard at Haron det Se Seder “Ola, nd R, 1, 2-84). The seeming contradiction’ bo: inven Num, xx. 82 ot ay. and Deut, x. 6 is solved by the rabbis in the following manner : Aaron's death on Mount Hor was marked by the defeat of the people in a war with the king of Arad, in conse- {quence of which the Israelites fled, marching seven Sations backward to Mosera, where they performed the rites of mourning for Aaron; wherefore it issaid: "There fat Mosera} died Aavon.” Seo Mek., Besh- allah, Wayassa,j; Tan., Hulkat, 18; Yer. Sota, Vie, and Targ. Ver. Num. and Deut.on the above: mentioned passages, ‘The rabbis also dwell with special Inudation on ‘he brotherly ‘sentiment which united Aaron and Moses.” ‘When’ the latter was appointed ruler and ‘Aaron high priest, neither betrayed any Jealousy; instead they rejoiced in one another's greatness. ‘THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 4 ‘Whon Mose afghans to go 1 Pima Mite. Sigh a Seal Ee of him whom thon wilt send” (Ex, iv, 18), he was hing depee Ave or, fo posto’ lr he ayy ae (cet a sel sige Bata. we HOS a eae gE nal ee gee CRS Et a ge Son np tat nae whi Sa ope weevils young baths mee Se reid otha ede rte wid Ua inne aero Se ups os ae wh ath be the Lr Ca £0 Se Bee slates of har tng ASE SEARS 3 er Soak LOE ORS ai Fic ieee Batol io 2 a Reena in for bee teufel er ten itis said (Ps. Ixxxv. 10): “Morey and truth are met ise etc np hs ness eri Wbecottan an ag 21, and Aaron for peace, according to Rahat ety pon biot tone. ain tobeae Se Sek ahin ay geoe see SEF nc a bob SE, ie Sne peed art poh cane iil? en del ban Wa Sad et a tae a in a a aaa sin po tied octet Se Re a kaa fate he ne Scie etone Seta apd heal ek rad en a an sae te BMAP PRS cae ere ae doa eects fs Se sasha ase ben) ra dl ile dlnoue ele Mora i hc ee ce ee eluate as cane kt ‘Bibel wna Taina s. ¥- rr ——Critical View: It bos always been found Aifficult to construct a complete and consistent bio- graphical story from the Biblical details as outlined above. According to most modern eritics, the dift- ‘culties arise from the fact that these details éome from different sources, and that the sources themselves are of different dates and represent separate stages in the development of the Hebrew religion and ritual, ‘The Jabvistic document (usually cited as J) and the Plohistic (0) are held to have proceeded from the ninth or eighth century n.c.; while the Deute- ronomie (D) rellects the time of Josiah,-and the priestly document (P) the periods of the Exile and Bie Return, ”“The genealogy (Bs. vi )belongsto the priestly source (distinguished as P), while the details ave about evenly divided betwéen P and J (Fahvist) and E (Elohist) narratives, and one ac- count of Aaron's death appears in the Deuteronomic souree. It is found that what concerns Aaron's con: seeration to the priesthood and the acts of himself and his family in that office, as well as his relations to the tribe of Levi, proceed from the priestly source @), This embmeés most of what is said on these topies in Exodus (xxv.-x1.), Leviticus, and Num- hers. Now itis claimed thatfor historical purposes sharp dividing-line must be drawn between P (which, Jas for its alm to describe the rise and progress of the Auronic priesthood) and the earlier documents, ‘The explanation of the distinction takes account of the fact that Mosesand Aaron represent the genius and the mission of Israel as no other men do; the fone being the great lawsiver and prophet, the other5 ‘THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA the first and typical high priest, ‘Together they thus fepresent the inoral and religious Tanetions which Istac had to full. With tiie idea in ming, the Inter Biblical writers treated the eharketar und work of the two men representatvely, so that they pre- Seat not only a istorieal, but aa idealized, Moses and Aaron, {eis, moreover, sigulieant Hat, leaving Prasido, fairly consistent biography may be made Gut, tn this must be adhered taf the main; for P throughout isconstructiveand idealistic, using its hanative to indicate how the postexilan priestly system must have grown up 10 its ideal complete ness in the course of Ismael history. Much has been theorized by some exes, dending to show that ‘Karon the priest was a fgnient. devised 10. giv Walidity to the sncerdtal order. ven, however, If Sonne tuterpolarions inthe documents eater than {Prue to priestly hands, be esumed, There remains ‘bubstantial historien! basis of fact forthe eareer of ‘Aaron as the assistant and spokesman of Moses, a8 die deputy of his brother during the desere wan aerings and asthe chit priest. of is. people. mong other considerations, a. guaranty for the ounduess of the tradition su te reeord of personal Aetious is alfred by the fact that what is disad Yantageous to Aafon is told. aswell ag what is Tavonible, and diat he is sbowa, especially in the afar of tie calf-worship, t0 have been Tnfluenced bythe moral and spiritcal Limitations of his age thd environment. See also Pruzsts, PRIPSTHOOD, tte IF Me. AARON’S ROD.—Biblical Data: A rod wisieh, in the hands of Aaron, the high priest, was exlowed with miraculous power during the several plagues that preceded the Exodus. In this function the rod of Moses was equally potent. Upon two foceasions, however, the singular virtue of spon: fameons power when not in the grasp ofits posses sor, was exhibited by Asron’s Rod. At one time it swallowed the rods of the Egyptian magicians, and at another i blossomed and bore fruit in the ‘Tabernacle, as an evidence of the exclusive right to the priesthood of the tribe of Levi (see AARON). In ‘eommemoration of this decision it was commanded that the rod be put again “hefore the testimony ® (Num, xvii, 10), Alater tradition asserts (Heb. ix. 4) that the rod was Kept in the Ark of the Covenant "The main fact, however, is thus confirmed, that a rod was preserved in the Tabernacle as a relic of the institution of the Atronie priesthood, J.B, Mec. In Rabbinical Literature: ‘The Bible as- ‘Gribes similar miraculous powers to the Rod of Aaron ‘and to the staff of Moses (compare, for example, Ex, iy. 2et seq. and vii, 9). ‘The Hageadah goes a step further, and entirely identifies the Itod of Aaron with thatof Moses. ‘Thus the Midrash Yelamdenu (Yalls. on Ps. ex. § 809) states that ‘the stat witn when Jacob ereased the Jordan, fs sentient Spit chat whieh Juda gave fo daugiterinae, Tama Geen, eka Toe xxv {6 es ukewiap the holy Fed with (Sie Hoses rare (x. iv. 20 21}, th Wh avon per formed wonders before Pharsou (Fx. VIE 10) finaly, Davad sew the gant Gout’ (e eit io his descend onthe Davie Hinge used hae A Geepter anti ihe Gestation of the Temple, Wen fe miFict ous? alsippeared (230) When cho. Aton’ comes i wl be firey io jin fora seepior In tven ot hb tibory over the ‘That so wonderful a rod should hear external sign of its importance is easily to be understood. "Tt w. ‘made of Sapphire, welghed forty seabs (aseah=10.70 pounds), and bore the inseription 2°n83 wap 7S. Which i composed of the initials of the Hebrew namesof the Ten Plagues (Tan., Watt 8, ed. Buber) Aaron Batons Roa “Legend has still more to say concerning this rod. God created it in the twilight of the sixth day of Greation (Ab. v. 9, and. Mek., Beshalla, ed. Weiss, {iv 00), and delivored it to Adam when the latter was driven from paradise. After it had passed through the hands of Shem, Enoch, Abrahim, Isaac, and Jacob successively, #t eame’into the possession of Joseph. On Joseph's death the Egyptian nobles Stole some of his. belongings, and, among them, Jethro appropriated the stall.’ Jethro planted the Staff in his garden, when its marvelous virtue was ovealed by the fact that nobody eould withdraw it from the ground; even to touch It was fraught with Ganger to life. ‘This was because the Ineffable Name of God was engraved upon it. | When Moses entered ‘ethro's household he read the Name, and by means of it was able to draw up the rod, for which service Zipporah, Jethvo's daughter, was given to him ta murviage, Her father had sworn that she should Aaron's Rod. Crom the Serajoro Haat.) become the wife of the man who should be able to master the minieulous rod and of no other (Pirke REL. 40; Sefer ha-Yashar; Yak. Ex. 168. end). It must, however, be remarked that the ‘Mishbah (Ab. v. 9) as yet kuew noth: ing of the miraculous creation of Aa- ron’s Rod, which is first mentioned by ‘the Mekilia (. ¢.) and Sifre ou Deut, (Ber, xxsiti, 21; ed. Friedmann, p. 855), This sup: posed fact of the supernatural origin of the rod ex- plains the statement in the New Testament (Heb. ix. 4) and Tosef,, Yoma, ill. 7 (itis to be interpreted thus, according to B. B. 14a), that Aaron's Rod, together ‘with its blossoms and’ fruit, was preserved in the Ark. King Josiah, who foresaw the impending na- ‘ional catastrophe, conesaled the Ark and its con- tents (Tosef., Solan, 18a); and their whereabouts will remain tnknown until in the Messianfe age, the Prophet Eljah shall reveal them lek. cA ater Midrash (um. R. xviii. end) confuses tive legends of ‘the rod that blossomed with those of the rod that worked miracles, thus giving us contradictory state ments, ‘There exists a legend that Moses split a tree trunk into twelve portions, and gave one portion to each tribe, When the Rod of Aaron produced blos- soms, the Israelites eould not but acknowledge the significance of the token. ‘The account of the blos- Somning of Aaron's Rod contained in Clement's first Totter to the Corinthians (ep. 43) is quite in hagga. dic-midrashie style, and must probably be ascribed to Jewish or, move strictly speaking, Jewish-Hel Ienistic sources. According to that account, Moses placed upon each of the twelve stalls the corre- Sponding seal of the head of a tribe. ‘The doors of Haggadic fication.ASE RG Booksetter ‘the sanctuary were similarly sealed, to prevent, any fone from having access to the rods at might. ‘This Tegend of the rod as given by the Syrian Solomon in his" Book of the Bee" (* Aneodota Ox- Christian oniensia, Semitic Series,” vol. i. part ‘Modifi- {i,) has Christian characteristics. ‘Ac: cations. cording to it the staff isa fragment of the Tree of Knowledge, ancl was sticces- sively in the possession of Shem, of the three Patri- aehs, and of Judah, just as in the Jewish legend, From Judah it descended to Pharez, aucestorof David and of the Messiah. After Phare2’s death an angel carried it to the mountains of Moab and buried it there, where the pious Jethro found it. When Moses, at Jethro's request, went in seareh of it, the rod was droweht to him by au angel. With this start Aaron and Moses performed all the miracles related in Serip. ttre, noteworthy among which was the swallowing tp of ihe ouerworking vode of the Hay Posi, Joshua received it from Moses and made use of it in his wars (Josh. vill. 18); and Joshua, in turn, delivered it to Phinehas, who buried it in Jerusalem. ‘There it remained hidden until the birth of Jesus, wwhen the place of its concealment, was ro Yealed to Joseph, who took it with him on the jour- nev to Egypt. Judas Iscariot stole it from James, Brother of Jesus, who had received it from Joseph. At Jesus" crucifixion the Jews had no wood for the Imnsverse beam of the cross, so Judas_ produced the siail for that purpose ("Book of the Bee,” Syr. ed. pp. 50-38; Eng. ed., pp. 50-52), This typ ‘ogieal explanation of Moses! rod as the cross is not a novel one. Origen on Bxodus (chap. vil.) says: “This rod of Moses, with which he subdued the Egyptians, is the symbol of the cross of Jesus, who eoquered the world.” Christian legend has pr served the Jewish accounts of the rod of the Mes- siah and made conerete fact of the idea. Other Western legends concerning the connection of the cross and the rod may be found in Seymour, “The Cross,” 1898, p, 83. The tod, fs likewise, gloved in Moboramedan legend, which, as is usually the ease with the Bib- eal accounts of the Mohammedans, is plainly: de- rived from Jewish sources. The following passage ‘will serve as an illustration: Moses sung his stat upon the ground, and instant i wns ccpaged into serpet as huge asthe fares! camel He glared StiPharaoh wich dfe-dariog eyes, ahd fed is trons 0 the ‘etling, "Opening ts jaws, ecied alond, “It it pleased Ali Heould sot only stwallew up too throie with hee. and {oat are Here present but even thy palace and all hat ie tain ge Hay a prong ve sighs change fa (Gr Wall, “bitieshe Leenden Ger Mdsehinnes” pr 40, Prinkfort-on-theala, 15) nel AARON’S TOMB: ‘Tho burialplace of Aaron, which, acconting to Num. xx. 20-28, was Mount Hor. on the edge of the iand’of Biom.. A Tater tradition, evidently’ of Mohammedan origin, refers to this hill as the one near Petra, called the Hill of ‘Aaron, “On its summit Aaron's tomb ie still poiuted out,” This identification, however, docs not agree ‘with the itinerary of the'Hebrews trom Kadesh, as given in Num, Sexi, 97, 98, aB L. AARON: An amora mentioned twice in the phtees ie representa as Mitten Habra BEAN Of the rabbinical academy at Sura from 488 to 400 and one of the editors of the Babylonian Talmud, ‘with information concerning the Baraitot(annaitie tiaditions not embodied in the Mishnah) of which the latter was ignorant, LG. AARON ABAYOB. See Anton, AARON. THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 6 AARON ABBA HA-LEVI BEN JOHANAN: A prominent rabbi; born about the close of the six- teenth century; died in Lemberg, June 18, 1643. He was president of a rabbinical college in Lem: berg. His decisions are found in the responsa of Abraham Rapoport, Jool Stirkes, and Meir Lublin; the last-named especially speaks very highly of him. ‘While he hardly presentsan individual type, it may be sated that In one ease he eoudemns rgorisn fh he Law. [BIDLIOGRAPHY: Buber, Anshe Shem, p21, Cracow, 18 D, AARON ABRAHAM BEN BARUCH SIM- EON HA-LEVI: A cabalist, born in the first ‘quarter of the sixteenth century. He published a small cabalistic work, “Tggeret hia-TTe‘amim” (Letter ‘on tho Accents), about the middle of the century, in whieh each accent and its specific name are ex: plained as containing references to both the Ten ‘efirot and the people of Ismael. Upon this work Shabbethai Sheftel ben Akiba Hurwitz, cabalist and physician at Pragne, wrote in 1612 a volumi- nous commentary, “Shefa‘ Tal,” asserting in. the introduction (p. 48) that R. Aaron wns one of the greatest masters of the Cabala, and that. his work Contained the most profound seerets which he (Hur witz) wished to disclose, | But. in reality it contains only’ eabalistig trfles which attempt to show that the solution of the mystery of the ‘Ten Sefiot is in- dicated in the names of tie accents (te‘anvin), ‘Aaron Abraham b. Baruch is not identical with Aanoy oF Canpexa, DraLio¢Ran: Stenaeneer, Cat, Bod New. (94,0905; Now Thies" ial Fehrs MS. Nabe Bid, Tbs Mca Or Rosh oe AARON BEN ABRAHAM IBN HAYYIM. Seo Inx Havyn, Aaron vex ABRanay AARON BEN ABRAHAM BEN SAMUEL SCHLETISTADT. Sec Scuuurrsnapt, AAKox, nex Apnaraxt nex Sauer, AARON BEN ABRAHAM BEN VIDAL AREATL, Seo Zanrant, Aso DEN Annan AABON ALFANDARI, Soo Auraxpon, AARON BEN ASHER OF KARLIN (Rabbi Aaron IL of Karlin): One of the most_ famous rabbis of the ELasronx in northwestern Russia; born in 1802; died June 28, 1872. He had an immense number of followers, sind many thousands of them sed to visit him ananally, about the time of the Jewish New Year, as isthe customamong that sect ‘Notwithstanding his severity of manner and the not infrequent mudeness of iis bello, ho was highly esteemed by his adherents, He “reigned” in Rar- near Pinsk, in the government of Sfinsk, in sue- cession to his father and his grandfather, Aaron ben Jacob; but & few years before his death he had a (quarrel with a rich family of Karlin and removed rom, there to Stolin, a town several miles distant. Considering the amount of business that the yearly influx of strangers brought to the eity where he re~ sided, his removal was regarded as a misfortune for Karlin, “Heded, aged seventy years and seventeen journey’ to the wedding of his Rranddauighter, tnd! ieas succeeded hy his Son, Asher of Stolin, ‘whose chief claim to distinction is that, he spent ‘most of his time at the mificat (bath). Asher died in Drohobyez about one year after the death of his father, and was succeeded by his five-year-old son, the so-called Yenuka (Baby) of Stolin, against whose7 ‘THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Aaron's Rod Baron the Bookseller rabbinnte (in the Hasidic sense) SchatrKes—or, ae- Toning fo others, Judah Lob Levin (called Yeballel Gt kied) sander the pseudonym = Had min Habraya” {One of the students), wrote well-known satire {2 Saaeshahar” (vi. 23-44). Aaron fs the author of "Bet Aharon” (Aaron's Houses Brody, 1872), which contains 1s cabalistic and ethieal expositions of the Pontateuch, It also contains all the extant writings of his grandfather, of his father, and of his son. Dggnaner; Walden, Sh Gen Readah 85 “ P.We AARON THE BABYLONIAN, Seo Aanox poy SaNURL Ha Naat ‘LANON, BARNEY: English pnglist, nick- named The Siar of the Bast; bora in London, November 21, 1800, at Duke's Place, Aldgate; died in Whitechapel, 1850." His carect as a pugiligt ex: tended over ffien years. Wien butmineteen years tia he met and defeated ia turn William Couinelly Gis Nanay Lyons, Ely Bendon, and. Samuel Helnco "He also opposed Angel Hyams and ‘Tom iting in fnterrupted. contests, Ta 1823 he met Sfea'Sigekman (May 0), whom he defeated after a nite of orgy rounds; Yom Lenney (August 5 and November 1H, and Frank Redmond (December 3 hu next year he beat Peter Warten (Apr! 6), but tito monihs later was defeated after ifty-seven fowndaby Athy Matthewson (Iune 21), Te fought Dick Haves (March 21,1820), who. after forty-three rend, claimed the fight on & foul blow, whieh was Wuatlowel, the contest being awarded to Aaron, ‘The latter met Dick Cure al Andover, England (Pebraney 2,387), a after Hang fy minutes {nackert hint out bya blow on the throat. Aaron ausin fought Prank Redmond, on. October 28, and Aenea kim in forty-two rounds. Among other qomitants Whom Anton met und fought with vary- foe suocess were Marsh Bateman (uly 4, 1828), Hiarey Jones (November 21), Jem ‘Talnes May 26, 1890) and ‘fom Smith CAprt 1,184). See Puan inuiganapny: Ryan es, Pup, 10, SOI (wth eR ll oe we " REY. AARON BEN BENJAMIN PORGES. Seo Ponces, AARON DEN Bexsantns ‘AARON BEN BENJAMIN WOLF: Rabbi at Berlin and also at Frankfort-on-the-Oder; born About 1670; died in ranktort-on-the-Oder, July 25, {e2t. His father, sage Benjamin Wolf ben Eliezer Liebinan, author of “Nahlat Binyamin” (Amster- dam, 168%), tabbi in the mark of Brandenburg, was the brother of the court Jew Jost Liebman, who played a prominent part in the congestion of Berlin in the earliest period of its history. | Aaron married Resel, the daughter of his uncle, who founded for him n Talmuclical school and supported not only Auron but also his disciples. In 1097, when the declining. health of Shemariah, then rabbi of Berlin, necessitated the appointment of a successor, ‘Aaron’ was made tabbi of the mark, and in 1709 {was appointed by Icing Frederick I, to the oflice of chief Tabbi of Berlin, with jurisdiction over all the Jews living jn the mark. “But with the death of King Frederick I. conditions changed. Esther, the Pikgsagl dosh, Liebman, fell into. disfavor with fand sho died of a broken ‘hoart in iid.” These yi ‘verses made it impossible for Aaron to maintain his Students; and. the factions in the congregation of ‘Berlin caused him constant anxiety, especially since he had always sided with his wife's family, which qwas very unpopular with the community.» He was fnally forced to leave Berlin and went to Frankfort: on-the-Oder, where he officiated as rabbi until his death, He left some works, though none has been. printed, He wrote several approbations (laskamot) to books, published in Berlin, notably that to the first edition of Samuel ben Dieir’s commentary on the Pentateuch (1709), the manuseript of which was in the possession of David Oppenheimer, to whom he ‘was related by marriage. | His approbation of Ne hemiah Hayyun’s cabalistic work, *'0z le-Blohim” (0712), caused him great annoyance, beeause of the charges of heresy brought against the work, which he, like David Oppenheimer, had indorsed without, reading, In Berlla his brother-in-law Michael Hasid sueceerded him, Bipsig9narny: Miebael,Orhe-Haynrim, No. 9, Pranktor-o tine Sfauns Ishi, Grits, eh, der Jem, aed x. 3103 be Geiger, sen. iter don tn Berni, Berth, 18: Lands tae, 32 3poe MOY ‘erin, 18243 sp, Ha gers Pm Beet ‘ °° AARON BEREOHIAH BEN MOSES DEN NAMEMIAH OF MODENA? Tulin calalst Mee thed 1 1680. Hesres a pupil of Rabbi Hie Oe Stodena (oormomed HusidWerKaddosh, that eres" na and Holy nd of Rabi Menahem Azariah of Fano, At the request of the Hebrah Kad- din uri Society) at ant he inature tes dae tne ie i enthor of "ata ar Tabbok™ Srhih cootafsdisertations on mage eparatio Hove “uuies) and ABM CholveadAaded. TRO Pome to bs ceed tor the sic, and the Met ga wWalas rules for ther rentment,_‘To avert let eit for tating to disuse these themea Poatopphleaips he makes uae of the statement of Pesan bc Ms book *Akedat hae ap, H206 Atiteton must surrendss some of fs Sights io ti aivige revelations which are superfr tik" aver works -yyiten by him are: (1) Asmoret hae iver erie Watohes of the Momfog) piayers 0 pects Arte early omaing: arrange for the sock. beeen te he Sibir (Awakeners of te SiBontagy, and therefore also published wor thi Morning) om ommntary on ETkkune lobar.” tame Zedakan (Hi Cloak of Highteoustes), © omy and study publed at Mantua in 176 together with (4) “Bigde Kodesh” (Garments of Sines, "nthe. same: subject)“ Hibbur” be Heobaiak, a eonk on tho Cabal, consatiog of four Mattei (a) “Shonen Misthad odes" (Te Ol TPH AMShatmentyon tho prinlpesof te Cabal Stanetlng fo Mewes Condovero nd sate Latin: 0) Snes Zeit Zak” he, Pure Oil of the live), yc ieee Gee abies (Sheth le Ete Hlozomag Blanton te psterous pore Gt prapers nl ceremoes: () re Shel. mg Seta'oF Beauty) tnd miscellaneous, matter ‘Fie Sole work wus ser In manuscript by Azul ‘at Modena, and is found in parts in some libraries. Ainge Alon (itt of Aaron, containing one puree works. Thi fete wallet compen er beans ike Joseph Caro, in constant Gommunion with spit ciled the Mager Dunuogaaraes Mee, Or hae. 8, 20: Pe FT tinea Oni Boate Noe iL Ss. sn frARAPE ATER ROORERLECRR.; Jalan dealer ihe beglusieg of the fourteenth century. He eat anda yeas Toledo, searing sucessfully Be Limbte dad How books, and arts able to ci {ehate mone the young students of Perogtn a eat ague oP eighty Hebrew and -Atabie manuscripts‘Aaron of Canterbur; Prsiicte aa Immanuel de Romi and his friends, on one occa- sion, took advantage of Aaron's absence from home, broke open his book-cases, hastily copied some man: useripts, and Immanuel added insult to the harm done by writing, in the form of a letter, a bitter satire on Aaron. BiguiodKarny: Immanuel, Malberat, wll. 450-7 Ist ed. Vorelsein and Weyer, Geseh. te fuaen in Ran 3h Le AARON OF CANTERBURY: English exe- gete, mentioned in *Minhat Yehuda (The Offer ing of Judah) -by Judah tien Eliezer on Deut. xx¥i 2, in association with Rashi and R. Jacob of Orleans, and thus, seemingly, of the twelfth century, But a passage in the Close Roll of 1243 refers the decision ina divorce case to three magistri,” Mosse of Lon- | don, Aaron of Canterbury, and Jacob of Oxford, and makes it probable that’ the ‘Aaron mentioned in “Minhat Yehudah” was of the thirteenth century and acted as an ecclesiastical assessor, or dayyani, in London about 1242. If so, his name was Aaron fil (Son of) Samson. Zang, 2.6, p- 90: Unlvers Ieralite, 12 Het, vel Jueabe, Fetes af Ange Be a AARON OF CARDENA: A cahalis, about whose Ife litle is known, He wrote 4 book om Talning “profound seeets* nader te tile of Sika nnayim® Rays} Hiab sik. The worl was er- roneotsly aver (a age b, Abraham b. David furmamed “che Blinds shih fact stows tho eee jn whieh it was. held. and also the age Mn whieh Rivas wtiten. The asithor refers a the close hpi and a¢ the beginning of chaps. ¥. andy fo tio of his other works, “itty Yeshua" (iis Grown ‘is Satvationcompare Ps, sx 10) and “Pomh Zz” (The Blossomof the Priestly Diadem=— compare Num, xvii 2, the titles of Whieh seem forrefer to his name, Akron, as priest, ‘The work "gammayim” was fase publish at otk, 1700, together with a commentary, “Dan Yay” by Ke ion b. Pesnb of Astropal and adaitions by Tig hepliwy under the tele Of “Lakkute Shoshnasen In 805 i was republished at Jitomir togeaer wih | fhe commentary. “Parashat. Ehzer, by. Beer Fikho) gmiisos of Rise of Cracow, and in 1855 ie-was again puplished at Leghom together ft the gonmeoiry © eran Zbi and another wor” Perth Stata iy ean. Fone Shnmeing Regarding another work, “Tggorethn-Fo‘amim,” aucribed to our uuthor, see Aanox Anattan Bancor Sriox " AARON CHORIN. See Cuonrs, Asnos. AARON CUPINO or KUPINO: Talmudist and head of a yeshitat. at Constantinople; flourished about the close of the seventeenth century, He was a pupil of Hayyim Shabethai at Salonica, whence he afterward ‘inoved to Coustantinople, "Here he founded a Talmudie school, from whieh were gradt ated several pupils who afterward acquired notable reputations, among whom were Aaron ben Tstae Sa son and Isaac Raphael Alfandari, Aaron Cupino maintained a scholarly correspondence with R. Ben: veniste (1601-76), the author of the *Keneset lia Gedolah,” and with several other scholars. fietael, Or ha-Hayyim, No. B12, p16. Le AARON BEN DAVID COHEN OF RA- GUSA: Rabbi in Ragusa; born about 1580, His maternal grandfather was Solomon Oheb, also rabbi | et. Tani’pp. i Biouroonarm THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 8 fn the same city. Aaron studied in his native city: and later in Venice, whence he returned to occupy a pulpit in Ragusa.” Tn 1628 he was imprisoned as a ‘supposed accomplice of Isaac Jeshurun, who had ‘been falsely accused of ritual murder. Rabbi Aaron's sermons, “ Zekan Aharon” (Aaron's Beard), together ‘with his grandfather's sermons, “Shemen’ ha-Tob” (The Good Oil), and the history’ of Isaac Jeshuran’s iuartyrdom, were published at Venice in 1657, after his death, ‘Aaron's account of the alleged ritual murder, to- gether with documents from the Ragusa archives, ‘were published in 1882, BIBLIOGRAPHY: Jelinek, Ltteraturblatt des Oriente vil, 252; ‘ichael, Or ideHtayni, Now'MSy Tanne Litenaturblatle isa D. AARON BEN DAVID HAYYUN. See Hay yun, AARON HEN DAVID. “AARON, SON OF THE DEVIL”: The namo given to a portrait or earieature of an English Sew of the year 1277, drawn on a forest-toll of the county of Hssex, in connection with a number of fines im: posed on some Jews and Christians “who pursued doe that had escaped from the hounds near the city. of Colehester. | This was an offense against the forest lavys of the time, and fa fine had to be paid dy a Jew who had evaded arrest, and who, when he re: turned, was probably the stibject of the caricature, "This caricature is the earliest dated por- trait of a Jew, and shows marked “Jew. Ssh traits. ‘The Jew wears a cowl, a sign that he had no out- door work to perform and that he belonged to the professional classes; on his upper garmait is fet the nnglish form of a Jewish badge, which was in the shape of the two tables of the Lav, in saffron taffet six flngerbreadths long and three broad. ‘This dif fers from all the other forms of the badge, which generally in the shape of a quoit. Dipuiognarmy: Javobs, Jewish Tdcals pp. 20-289; W. Rye. History of North, Ww p52 J Te! Orean, Shove History ‘af the Bngitsh Poop, is, ea, 150 1 ‘ See Batt Aaron, Son of the Devil" AARON IBN EL-BARGARDI. anor. Aaron my ‘AARON BEN ELIEZER: Gorman Talmnd- isi, who flourished in the thirteenth century. ‘That hhewas considered a great man at that time is proved by te actions of his contemporary, R. Meir Bon Bi rach of Rothenberg, aeknowledged to be the great. est rabbinical authority of that age. Of R. Aaroa the latter modestly remarks, in one of his responsn (ed Prague, p. 240), “I mmust he brief, the matter being under consideration by great men; namely, by the high court of T. Aaron.” Abigdor haKoli, chief9 ‘THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA Aaron of Castor Aaron ben Elijah rabbi of Austria, who kept up a regular correspond- hep with hig, feferred oh with great respect, calling him “my teacher.” He appears to be iden tical with that R. Aaron ‘of whom it is said in * Or Zarw'a” (p. 10a), *Now everything depends on ‘Aaron, the only man who combines scholarship, ripe experience, and authority In one; he is ealled upon totight for God and Hts ia, and wearerendy to fol jow him.” nnsooRanny: Michael, Or NacHaynins Nos PRBUROE ied Bnyconeaia) aa NS 1% LG. AARON BEN ELIEZER (called Saggi Ne- een Tee SAR Aci en, Bee islet ie Waa aoc Shas pat gh printed at Mantua in 1561, entitled “Sefer ha-Miz- Be heb ai te elt iy The ol et vee we thatch lh thse Pe ace tn aris oie ee creer Tae etl a at Span entinnt athens ees ema St eke Oe Betta ERDAS, Or a AARON BEN ELIEZER LIPMAN: Rabbi of the town of Zempelburg, West Prussia, formerly Sete in the Kingtom of Poland; foutished t- Ward the middle of the seventeenth century. He Jas intimate fiend of Shabbetbal Hurwita, rabbi of Prague. His work, * Korba Aharon” (The Of- fering of Aaron), was fst published at Amsterdam, in 1646, and has gone through several editions, Te sunmatizesinalphabetial order the deesions which BE Moces series (RMA) has laid dovwn in is tual iste work, “Tort Hatat.” "Aaron is also koow as the author of an acrostle meditation (ebinnal, beginning " Elohat datfan “eal (My eye droppeth teats, Omny God!) Bmuogganny: ene Sa Ce, Boas Qg0 boeefarion, p58 Sta. PB. AARON BEN ELIJAH, THE YOUNGER, of Micomedia: Karaite theologian, born in Cairo bout 1500; died in Constantinople in 1369. To distinguish him from Aaron ben Joseph, the elder Karaite theologian of Constantinople, he was called ‘Anvon the Younger, or the Later. Aron ben Elijah lived for a Tong. time in Nicomedia, Asia Minor Gience hisaguomen. “ Nicomedi), but spent the elo sing years of his Tife in Constantinople, at that time the center of Karafte learning. Of his character Tittle is known, ‘The Karaites claim for him a rank ‘equal to that of Maimonides in rabbinical Judaisin, Tu potut of fact, he seems to have made it the am Ultion of his fife to rival the famous Rabbi Moses of Cairo, defending atthe same time the doctrines of his ‘ownsectagainst Maimonides’ atiacks. For this pur ppose he studied carefully the entire philosophical Titerature of the Moslems nnd sJews, familiarizing himself with the rabbinieal writings as well as veith all the works of his Karaite predecessors, Tins repared, hie took as a_ model Maimonides’ “Moreh jebukim,” and, imitating it both in plan and style— betraying alo attines a almost lavish dependence pon Itin matters of detail—he wrote his philosoph ical work “By ha-Hayyim” (The Tree of Lite), Which he finished in the year 1846, In 1954, while in Constantinople, he composed his work * Gan Biden” (The Garden of Eden), on the Biblical command ‘ents, and finally, in the year 1862, he wrote “Keter ‘Torah’ (The Crown of ihe Law), a comprehensive ‘commentary on the Pentateuch. “Aaron was not of te same profound and indepen. dent cast of mind as Maimonides, for whom he enter- {tained great esteem even when’ opposing him, but ‘was a Versatile compiler and eclectic, pllosoner father than an original thinker. Still he was emi nontly successful in his masterly efforts to restore {othe Kuraites some of the prestige and self-respect ‘hich had shown signs of deetine ever since Saudia of Fayoum had begun hissystematie warfare against thom. He, like his predecessor, Aaron the Elder, effected a helthy regeneration of Karaite theology, ‘fact which the partiality of Gritz, the historian, failed to appreciate (see “Gesch. d. Juden,” vi, 879, 326). No, Infact, can an impartial Judgment deny Im the merit of having often exticized Maimonides quite justly, aud of having advanced sounder, be- Giuse less ratzonatisti, theological views, Like Maimonides and all other Judwo-Arubie stu- dents of philosophy, Aaron stands under the domi nating influence of Avistotelianism. There is, how- ever, a distinction between Aaron and Maimonides. ‘The latter, in his “Moreh Nebukim,” 1.71, disagrees with the Motazilites, or iberal Aos- Asron’s lem theologians, regarding their sys- Phi- tem of the Kataax theology, because, losophy. in. order to harmonize revelation with philosophy—especially on the ‘question of ereation™the Motazilites combine atom. iim with the theories of Aristotle, while Malmon- ides defends the dogma of the ereation against the Stagirite, himself making use of that philosopher's own arguments. Aaron is opposed to Aristotelian: ism, the restof the Raraite theologians, ad hors o the liberal system of the Motazitites; herein differing from Aaron ben Joseph, who frequently Sides with the mabbinists against the Karat tradl- tions, "Accordingly, at the very beginning’ of his book, ‘Iyz ha-Hayyim,” he declares thatthe theol- ge Kan he tal eli rived at by ‘Abraham through meditation and. systematized by the Mosaic Lave; while Greek philosophy, adopted by Christianity because of its hostility to Judaism, {8 a heterogeneous foreign product and obnoxious to the development of the Torah in its purity. He Further declares the restoration and cleaner reson tation of the Ralam to be the object of his Wo OF the one hundred and fourteen chapters which the book contains fhe frst fifteen are devoted to the doctrine concerning God's existence, His incorpo: reality, and the creation of the world, the heavenly spheres being considered, as a. the “Moreh,” ab Filed by separate intelligences or angels. All these doctrines are shown to-be logical. deductions and therefore priot to his * “Ez hacHayyim” revelation, pis dy’ he eoanrlation of rut ethersc ‘in the succeeding forty-seven chapters, the Bib- ical anthropomorphic expressions (see ANTHOPO- MowPINSM) are explaiued ae figurative expressions Of the divine energies and activities, the words. of Maimonides being at times literally reiterated or pitomized, though Aavoa claims that Maimonides Iorely followed Judah Hadas, whose work, “ Ha- Eshkol,” appeared, twenty-nine years before the “Yad lia-Huzakah.” "To him also, 28 to Maimon- ies, the Bibliealtheophany of Bzekiel (*Mer bab*) has a. physleal meaning, and so has. the ‘Tabernacle with Ys armbolian” fo demonstrating the unity of God in the following chapters the au thor opposes Maimonides sud Hadass, who rejectron Bon Ean oa on Havin ail but the negative attributes; Aaron, however, de lis power knowledge, fe, wily and sxistenee to fe postive afirmattrs) sttnbutes inseparable from Fi easence and consequently inno way intHogiog {pon His unty. Ths Tends hn to an explanation OP fe aseal nafaes of God which denote His activity {ts cistinguished fom His specie name, the Tetra rammaton denoting Hisessence as the guthor of al Sierence Tn cluptere 78-95 divine providence fs then dis cussed hth special Teferenoe to she existence of Gril in its fourfold nature, physical His Views in psychical, moral and toh-iora of his lin! been n favorite topic of the Divine older ‘Karate pllosopers such as Providence. Joseph nl Bazit and Joshua, based pow the Anstotetian view followed also by. Maimonides, thnt evil is only a defect dus herent ia matter, and therefore not fo be aserived fo God, unlessand this is-well brought ont by Maron and his araite predecessors God makes {t'fte meas of man's moral improvement, Wile Maimonides assames an especial providence of God uly for man and not for ereatures without reason, Sidon extendy divine providence over all Delage Goa'suniversat Knowledge embracing, according to Fete theology, bo syanpathy witha blag Therrating principle of divine action he takes to be aot His wislom, as does Maimonides, buts with & far deeper thealogiea) insight, Is fustce “Recentuating te superiony of the moma above ‘up ntelletual powery Aaron takes a higher view ofthe suffering of th rghteots than do falmonides and some of his Karaite predecessors, who speak Of Yenurak (che law: of fompensation for grch friieh also rules over nnimal ify; and he post Intes, with especial reference to Abraham ad Job, oodaess as @ divine principle waderiying al als {inposed upon man for his spiritual benef. As to thy pos of the ov nanan ony compre hend his own ‘ubloary world, of which: he forns the highest end as God's servants From ehapter 9 fo the end of the work, revelation a lar, with the soul's perfection ts immorality and fuvure bliss, tre the mubjects treated. ‘The two trees in paradise fre taken ay symbole of the bisher and the lower tpheres of human fe, mau's fal from the onto heother necesttating the speci] commandments of God, uot finally te Law becomes the means of fons fill restoration to ine twofold nature, This Tends to 8 diseusion of the natore of prophecy in fener and uf te higestlezieaiaet by Mees iso of the object of the Lasr and its varcng_ com: ancients given for the purpose of the perfection ot the tudividial aswell as of the human race ta general “The Law of Moses was intended for and offered to ai ations, and ir ean never be elaoged: improved, for (ase mbbaniees cian) atgrmented by an. oral fave, Essentially diferent from the atitude of Mat fmouides, and in tact from that of all-Aritotelian thinkers, is Aaron's attitude toward immortality, ‘which He bases ehieiy upon moral. grounds. the Jovi of retfution, Bat Zor thi very reson is esthatology is mather obscure, being” hat tional and hulk-mystieal a Drenting. of ioany. be. Hsia alo rpentane forms the conclusion of Ta his great work on the Commandments, entitlea «Gan Eden,” consisting of twonty-ive setions and one hundred and ninety-four chapters, besides ute Smaller jonidieal articles; whic became of para Imount importance to the Karaites, Aaron follows a system of mtionalsin stir tothe one expound THE JEWISH ENCYCLOPEDIA 10 by Maimonides in his “Moreh Nebukim,” wherens the Karaites prefer to compare it with the “Yad ha- ‘Hazakah.” He starts with the prin- Aaron’s ciple enunciated in the “ ‘Ey ha-Hay- Interpreta- yim,” that the inculeation of the belief ‘tion of the in God’s unity, and especially in His Law. — government of the world, is the main purpose of every single’ precept of the Law; wherefore it is our duty to, seareh after the object of exch commandment. ‘The Sabbath ay has for its special object the inculeation of the belief in the divine creation and guidance of the world, while other festivals arc intended to eounter- fact the influences of paganism and fatalism. Two treatises of this work have appeared as separate books: one comprising five sections and twenty-two chapters on shehétah (the law for the slaughtering of animals); another, “Zofmat Pa'aneah” (Disclo- ser of Sccrvis), comprising cight chapters on inces- tous marriages. ‘The whole work 4s the best and ‘most comprehensive exposition of the Karaite s tem of the Law, and presents the opinions of Aaron’s predecessors with impartial and frank eri ism, It is chiefly owing to this work that he ex- certs a great influetice upon the Karaites. Aaron's third work, * Keter Torah ” (te Crown of, the Law), {8 composed after the manner of Ibn Ezn’s commentary on the Pentatcueh, Like his other works, it also contains a review of the philo- sophical and exegetical interpretations by all. his pralecessors, with a fair cxtieism of the aame, and holps to supplement and elucidate his ritual work, Of Special interest is his preface, in which ave stated the main differences between tho rabbanites and Karnites in regard to Biblieal exegesis ‘The * ‘Re ha-Hayyim,” of which many manu- seriptsexistin Leyden, Munich, Vienna, and Leipsie, ‘was first published, with a large com Editions of mentary (“Or ha-Hayyim”) by Luzkt, ‘Aaron's in Koslov, 1835. A critical edition, ‘Works. with valuable information and a sum: mary of the one hundred and fourteen chapters in Hebrew by Gale Afandopulo, and one in German by the editor, Franz Delitzseh, appeared in Leipsic, 1841. Of the “Keter Torah” there is extant a Koslov editfon (1868), besides manuscripts in the Bodleian Library, Oxford, in Vienna, and in Leipsic: while the “ Gan Eden exists in manuscript only, m Leyden and Lelpsc. Portions ofthe latter have been published by Schuparth, Trigland, Danz, and Laveen. ‘BipuioGmarny:, Jost, Amnaten, 189%, No. 1; Jost, Ges, de ftontims, i 38-808: Pars Geach a Aart he S02 Bihe Nentmuer Aus der Pelersburger ibtothek, p88 Iumhworger,miinter ana Whosene' Sidiaone Iter SOUR where nfo specimens of Aaron's writings ave piven Jn Gorin wansition: My Snrungn Dey lay tn er Jie thaehe Eateratur. in Pricenth epnré othe Berlin Lee ‘atts 185. pp ST x AARON EZEKIEL HARIF (more fully AARON JACOB BEN EZEKIEL HARIF Hungarian scholar; died at Nikoisburg, April 10, 1670.” As successor to lerson Ashkenazi he held the post of rubbi in Nikolsburg at the same time that he was chief rabbi of the provinee of Moravia, ‘The epithet “Harif” (The Keen Thinker) was also be- stowed upon four of his ancestors, Ezekiel, Jaco, Ezekiel, and Isaac, Possibly he attained to the title by personal merit; for an inscription on his tomb- stone compares his death to the loss of the Ark of tte Covenant. Brauioenarmy itor Jui M. H. Friedlander, Bettrdge 2ur Geschichte ‘Moré 2, AL BG.