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    Textbook Lathibp

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    signals and systems

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    Signal Processing and Linear Systems —_——— B. P. Lathi y Cambrid Calor Berkele: Carmichael, SIGNAL PROCESSING AND LINEAR SYSTEMS. Copyright ©1998 by Berkeley-Cambridge Press. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. No part of this book may be used or reproduced in any form or by any means without written permission, except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews. For information address: Berkeley-Cambridge Pres P.O, Box 947, Carmichael, CA. 95609-0947 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 8 2 1 Library of congress cataloging in publication data Lathi, B. P. (Bhagawandas Pannalal) Signal Processing and Linear Systems Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Signal processing—Mathematics. 2. System analysis 3. Linear time-invariant systems. 4, Digital filters (Mathematics) I Tite. TK5102.9.38 1998 621.3872—de21 98-1609 ISBN 0-941413-35-7 cr Cover and graphic design by Jeff Clinton, Printed in the United States of America suita the r adde topic trans ‘oppo tially conti for a in D, said appr Ther appli and « Thas the 1 anale Nots tte inde. nee, tis and ‘This book presents a comprehensive treatment of signals and linear systems suitable for juniors and seniors in electrical engineering. ‘The book contains most of the material from my earlier popular book Linear Systems and Signals (1992) with added chapters on analog and digital filters and digital signal processing. ‘There are also additional applications to communications and controls. The sequence of topics in this book is somewhat different from the earlier book. Here, the Laplace transform follows Fourier, whereas in the 1992 book, the sequence was the exact opposite. Moreover, the continuous-time and the discrete-time are treated sequen- tially, whereas in the 1992 book, both approaches were interwoven, The book contains enough material in discrete-time systems s0 that it can be used not only for a traditional course in Signals and Systems, but also for an introductory course in Digital Signal processing. A perceptive author has said: “The function of a teacher is not so much to cover the topics of study as to uncover them for the students.” The same can be said of a textbook. This book, as all my previous books, emphasizes the physical appreciation of concepts rather than mere mathematical manipulation of symbols ‘There is a temptation to treat an engineering subject, such as this, as a branch of applied mathematics. This view ignores the physical meaning behind various results and derivations, which deprives a student of intuitive understanding of the subject. Thave used mathematics not so much to prove an axiomatic theory as to enhance the physical and intuitive understanding. Wherever possible, theoretical results are interpreted heuristically} and are supported by carefully chosen examples and analogies} Notable Features ‘The notable features of the book include the following: 1. Emphasis on intuitive and heuristic understanding of the concepts and physi- ‘cal meaning of mathematical results leading to deeper appreciation and easier comprehension of the concepts. As one reviewer put it, “One thing I found very appealing about this book is great balance of mathematical and intuitive expla- “Most reviewers of the book have noted the reader friendly character ‘of the book with unusual clarity of presentation. .pplications in the areas of communication, con- nation.” 2. The book provides extensive trols, and filtering 43. For those who like to get students involved with computers, computer sohi- tions of several examples are provided using MATLAB®, which is becoming @ {Heuratic [Greek houriskein, o invent, dicover|: @ method of education in which the pupil is Galned to find out things for himaelf. The word “Eureka” (L have found it) i the Ist pers. pert Inde. act. of heurik {IF these lines appear familar to you, there ix a good reason. I have used them in the preface of ome of my carer books, including Signals, Systems, and Communication (Wiley, 1965)- What is hove interesting, many other authors also have borrowed them for their preface, Preface standard software package in an electrical engineering curriculum, 4, Many students are handicapped by an inadequate background in basic material such as complex numbers, sinusoids, sketching signals, Cramer's rule, partial fraction expansion, and matrix algebra, I have added a chapter that addresses these basic and pervasive topics in electrical engineering. Response by student hhas been unanimously enthusiastic. jere are over 200 worked examples along with exercises (with answers) for st dents to test their understanding. There are also about 400 selected problems of varying difficulty at the end of the chapters. Many problems are provided with hints to steer a student in the proper direction, 6. ‘The discrete-time and continuous-time systems are covered sequentially, with flexibility to teach them concurrently if so desired. 7. The summary at the end of each chapter proves helpful to students in summing up essential developments in the chapter, and is an effective tool in the study for tests. Answers to selected problems are helpful in providing feedback to students trying to assess their knowledge 8. There are several historical notes to enhance student's interest in the subject. ‘These facts introduce students to historical background that influenced the development of electrical engineering. Organization ‘The book opens with a chapter titled Background, which deals with the math- ‘ematical background material that a student taking this course is expected to have already mastered. It includes topics such as complex numbers, sinusoids, sketching signals, Cramer's rule, partial fraction expansion, matrix algebra. The next 7 chap- ters deal with continuous-time signals and systems followed by 5 chapters treating discrete-time signals and systems. The last chapter deals with state-space analysis. There are MATLAB examples dispersed throught the book. The book can be read- ily tailored for a variety of courses of 30 to 90 lecture hours. It can also be used as a text for a first undergraduate course in Digital signal Processing (DSP). The organization of the book permits a great deal of flexibility in teaching the continuous-time and discrete-time concepts. ‘The natural sequence of chapters is ‘meant for a sequential approach in which all the continuous-time analysis is cov- ered first, followed by discrete-time analysis. It is also possible to integrate (inter- ‘weave) continuous-time and discrete-time analysis by using a appropriate sequence of chapters Credits ‘The photographs of Gauss (p. 3), Laplace (p. 380), Heaviside (p. 380), Fourier (p. 188), Michelson (p. 206) have been reprinted courtesy of the Smithsonian Insti- tution. The photographs of Cardano (p. 3) and Gibbs (p. 206) have been reprinted courtesy of the Library of Congress. Most of the MATLAB examples were prepared by Dr. O. P, Mandhana of IBM, Austin, TX. ‘Acknowledgments Several individuals have helped me in the preparation of this book. Lam grate- ful for the helpful suggestions of the reviewers Professors. Dwight Day (Kansas State Prefa Unive Califo ‘Tugne OP. soluti: Simes oblige LAB tome MAI 1 wis os nar wie whew 1 Sixt mle att star Nay tel rial urtial ident stu slems ided with tudy to dject. the rath: have shing chap: ating lysis, read: ed as 5 the nter= Insti- inted >ared rate: State Preface vii University), Prof. Mink Herro (University of Notre Dame), Hua Lee (University of California, Santa Barbara), Tina Tracy (University of Missouri, Columbia), JK agua (Aubuon University), Role Tummala (Michigan Siate University) Love Dr OP Mandhana a debt of grattie for his helpful suggestions and his painstaking solutions to mest of the MATLAB problems. Special thanks go to Prof. James Simes for generous help with computer eoltion of several problems, Tam much obliged to Ing Ming Cheng for his enthusiastic and erucal help in solving MAT AB problems and sing computer to prepare the manuscript. Finally T would ike to mention the enormous but invisible scrfes of my wife Rajan in this endeavor B. P. Lathi MATLAB Throughout this book, examples have been provided to familiarize the reader swith computer tools for systems design and analysis using the powerful and versatile software package MATLAB. Much of the time and cost associated with the analysis and design of systems can be reduced by using computer software packages for simulation, Many corporations will no longer support the development. systems without prior computer simulation and numerical results which suggest a design will work, The examples and problems in this book will assist the reader in learning the value of computer packages for systems design and simulation MATLAB is the software package used throughout this book. MATLAB is a powerful package developed to perform matrix manipulations for system designers. MATLAB is easily expandable and uses its own high level language. These factors make developing sophisticated systems easier, In addition, MATLAB has been carefully written to yield numerically stable results to produce reliable simulations. All the computer examples in this book are verified to be compatible with the student edition of the MATLAB when usod according to the instructions given in its manual, The reader should make sure that \MATLAB\BIN is added in the DOS search path. MATLAB can be invoked by executing the command MATLAB. The MATLAB banner will appear after a moment with the prompt ‘>>’. MATLAB has ‘useful on-line help. To get help on a specific command, type HELP COMMAND NAME and then press the ENTER key. DIARY FILE is a command to record all the important keyboard inputs to a file and the resulting output of your MATLAB session to be written on the named file, MATLAB can be used interactively, ot by writing functions (subroutines) often called M files because of the .M extension used for these files, Once familiar with the basics of MATLAB, the reader learn how to write functions and to use MATLAB's existing functions. ‘The MATLAB M-files have been created to supplement this text. This includes all the examples solved by MATLAB in the text. ‘These M-files may be retrieved from the Mathworks anonymous FTP site at fep://ftp-amathworks.com/pub/books/lathi/ 0. P, Mandhana Contents B Background B.1_ Complex Numbers B2_ Sinusoids B.3. Sketching Signals B4 Cramer's Rule B.5. Partial fraction expansion BG Vectors and Matrices B7_ Miscellaneous 1 Introduction to Signals and Systems Size of a Signal Classification of Signals Some Useful Signal Operations Some Useful Signal models, Even and Odd Functions Systems Classification of Systems System Model: Input-output Description Summary Time-Domain Analysis of Continuous-Time Systems 1 Introduction ‘2. System Response to Internal Conditions: Zero-Input response 3. The Unit Impulse response h(t) 2.4. System Response to External Input: Zero-State Response 2.5. Classical Solution of Differential equations 2.6 System Stability 2.7 Intuitive Insights into System Behavior 2.8 Appendix 2.1: Determining The Impulse Response 29 Summary 3 Signal Representation By Fourier Series 3.1 Signals and Vectors 3.2 Signal Comparison: Correlation 3.3. Signal Representation by Orthogonal Signal Set 3.4. Trigonometric Fourier Series 3.5 Exponential Fourier Series 3.6 Numerical Computation of Dy 3.7. LTIC System response to Periodic Inputs 3.8 Appendix 39 Summary 4 Continuous-Time Signal Analysis: The Fot 4.1 Aperiodic Signal Representation By Fourier Integral 4.2. Transform of Some Useful Functions 153 a7 an a 183 189 206 216 219 222 224 235 235 245 Conter 43. So. 44 Sig 45. Ide 46 Sig 47 Ap 43 An 49 Da 4.10 Su 5 Sa 5.1 Th 5.2 Nu 5.3 Th 54 Ap 5.5 Su 6 Co 61 Th 62 So 63 So 64 An 65 Bk 66 Sy 7 Fre 1 Fr 2 Be 3 Ce 4 Fil Fre 1 Contents 4.3. Some Properties of the Fourier Transform 44. Signal Transmission Through LTIC Systems 4.5 Ideal and Practical Filters 4.6. Signal Energy 4.7. Application to Communications: Amplitude Modulation 4.8 Angle Modulation 4.9 Data Truncation: Window Functions 4.10 Summary 5 Sampling 5.1 The Sampling Theorem 5.2 Numerical Computation of Fourier Transform: The Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) 5.8 The Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) 5.4 Appendix 5.1 5.5 Summary 6 Continuous-Time System Analysis Using the Laplace Transform 6.1 The Laplace Transform 6.2 Some Properties of the Laplace Transform 6.3. Solution of Differential and Integro-Differential Equations 6.4 Analysis of Electrical Networks: The Transformed Network 6.5. Block Diagrams 6.6 System Realization 6.7 Application to Feedback and Controls 6.8. The Bilateral Laplace Transform 6.9. Appendix 6.1: Second Canonical Realization 6.10 Summary 7 Frequency Response and Analog Filters 1 Frequency Response of an LTIC System 2 Bode Plots 3. Control System design Using Frequency Response ‘4. Filter Design by Placement of Poles and Zeros of H(s) 5 Butterworth Filters 16 Chebyshev Filters 7 Frequency Transformations Filters to Satisfy Distortionless Transmission Conditions 9 Summary 8 Discrete-Time Signals and Systems 8.1. Introduction 8.2 Some Useful Discrete-Time Signal Models 8.3 Sampling Continuous-Time Sinusoids and Aliasing 8.4 Useful Signal Operations 8.5 Examples of Discrete-Time Systems 8.6 Summary 9. Time-Domain Analysis of Discrete-Time Systems 9.1 Discrete-Time System Equations 9.2. System Response to Internal Conditions: Zero-Input Response 251 267 2a7 214 a 289 306 319 319 338 352 356 357 361 361 381 390 398 ait 44 426 449 457 458 an an 477 490 495, 505, 514 524 533 536 540 540 541 557 559 562 568. 573 573 578 93 94 95 96 97 98 10 10.1 102 103 10.4 10.5 106 10.7 10.8 u ma n2 113 M4 5 116 17 118 12 A 122 123 14 125, 126 127 128 29 13 134 13.2 133 BA BS 136 137 Unit Impulse Response Ak] System Response to External Input: Zero-State Response Classical solution of Linear Difference Equations System Stability ‘Appendix 9.1: Determining Impulse Response Summary Fourier Analysis of Discrete-Time Signals Periodic Signal Representation by Discrete-Time Fourier Series periodic Signal Representation by Fourier Integral Properties of DTFT. DTFT Connection With the Continuous-Time Fourier transform Discrete-Time Linear System analysis by DTFT Signal Processing Using DFT and FFT Generalization of DTFT to the 2-Transform Summary Discrete-Time System Analysis Using the 2-Transform The 2-Transform Some Properties of the 2-Transform Z—Transform Solution of Linear Difference Equations System Realization Connection Between the Laplace and the Z-Transform ‘Sampled-Data (Hybrid) Systems The Bilateral 2-Transform Summary Frequency Response and Digital Filters Frequency Response of Discrete-Time Systems Frequency Response From Pole-Zero Location Digital Filters Filter Design Criteria Recursive Filter Design: The Impulse Invariance Method Recursive Filter Design: The Bilinear Transformation Method 740 Nonrecursive Filters Nonrecursive Filter Design Summary State-Space Analysis Introduction Systematic Procedure for Determining State Equations Solution of State Equations Linear Transformation of State Vector Controllability and Observability State-Space Analysis of Discrete-Time Systems Summary Answers to Selected Problems Supplementary Reading Index 583, 585, 598 603, 609 610 617 ar 624 633, 636 638 641 659 662 668 668, 680 685, 693 695 697 704 710 716 716 722 729 731 734 756 761 7 784 785, 788 798 gil aig 823, 830 837 843 844 this expt terit Inve this Itw Bl par Mai phy iw fare hist Bi (pe chi 583, 585 598 603 609 610 617 617 624 636 638 641 659 662 668 668, 680 685, 693, 695 697 704 no 716 m6 722 729 731 734 756 761 m 784 735 788 798 Bi 818 823, 830 837 843 844 Background ‘The topics discussed in this chapter are not entirely new to students taking this course, You have already studied many of these topics in earlier courses or are expected to know them from your previous training. Even so, this background ma- terial deserves a review because it is so pervasive in the area of signals and systems. Investing a little time in such a review will pay big dividends later. Furthermore, this material is useful not only for this course but also for several courses that follow. It will also be helpful as reference material in your future professional career. B.1 Complex Numbers Complex numbers are an extension of ordinary numbers and are an integral part of the modern number system. Complex numbers, particularly imaginary numbers, sometimes seem mysterious and unreal. This feeling of unreality de rives from their unfamiliarity and novelty rather than their supposed nonexistenc ‘Mathematicians blundered in calling these numbers “imaginary,” for the term im- ‘mediately prejudices perception. Had these numbers been called by some other name, they would have become demystified long ago, just as irrational numbers cor negative numbers were, Many futile attempts have been made to ascribe some physical meaning to imaginary numbers, However, this effort is needless. In math: ematics we assign symbols and operations any meaning we wish as long as internal consistency is maintained. A healthier approach would have been to define a symbol 4 (with any term but ‘imaginary”), which has a property i? = ~1. The history of mathematies is full of entities which were unfamiliar and held in abhorrence until familiarity made them acceptable. This fact will become clear from the following historical note, B.1-1 A Historical Note Among early people the number system consisted only of natural numbers {positive integers) needed to count the number of children, cattle, and quivers of arrows. These people had no need for fractions. Whoever heard of two and one-half children or three and one-fourth cows! 2 Background However, with the advent of agriculture, people needed to measure continuously varying quantities, such as the length of a field, the weight of a quantity of butter, and so on. The mumber system, therefore, was extended to include fractions. ‘The ancient Egyptians and Babylonians knew how to handle fractions, but Pythagoras discovered that some numbers (like the diagonal of a unit square) could not be expressed as a whole number or a fraction. Pythagoras, a number mystic, who regarded numbers as the essence and principle of all things in the universe, was so appalled at his discovery that he swore his followers to secrecy and imposed a death penalty for divulging this secret.! These numbers, however, were included in the number system by the time of Descartes, and they are now known as irrational numbers. Until recently, negative numbers were not a part of the number system. The concept of negative numbers must have appeared absurd to early man. However, the medieval Hindus had a clear understanding of the significance of positive and negative numbers.” They were also the first to recognize the existence of absolute negative quantities The works of Bhaskar (1114-1185) on arithmetic (Lilavat) and algebra (Bijaganit) not only use the decimal system but also give rules for desl- ing with negative quantities. Bhaskar recognized that positive numbers have two square roots.® Much later, in Europe, the banking system that arose in Florence and. Venice during the late Renaissance (fifteenth century) is credited with developing, a crude form of negative numbers. The seemingly absurd subtraction of 7 from 5 seemed reasonable when hankers began to allow their clients to draw seven gold ducats while their deposit stood at five. All that was necessary for this purpose was to write the difference, 2, on the debit side of a ledger.® Thus the number system was once again broadened (generalized) to include negative numbers. The acceptance of negative numbers made it possible to solve equations such as z +5 = 0, which had no solution before. Yet for equations such as x? +1=0, leading to 2? = —1, the solution could not be found in the real number system, It was therefore necessary to define a completely new kind of number with its square equal to —1, During the time of Descartes and Newton, imaginary’ (or complex) numbers came to be accepted as part of the number system, but they were stil regarded as algebraic fiction. ‘The Swiss mathematician Leonhard Buler introduced the notation i (for imaginary) around 1777 to represent. VI. Electrical engineers use the notation j instead of i to avoid confusion with the notation ¢ often used for electrical current. ‘Thus ne and Vi=4) This notation allows us to determine the square root of any negative number. For example, Vai= Vix Jat 23) When imaginary numbers are included in the number system, the resulting. numbers are called complex numbers. Origins of Complex Numbers Ironically (and contrary to popular belief), it was not the solution of a quadratic equation, such as z? +1 = 0, but a cubic equation with real roots that made Ba ( imagin dismie becau: Milan the Ru in whi to his is give For e in the We ce Carde 1Thie canals conic « ccabie« Fonts (Stan ‘hea 3) cei and susly ter ‘The t be who eat the onal The and otute vat) deal- and ‘ping gold tude solve ch as aber aber but rard fi 1 the For ating lratie made B.1 Complex Numbers Gerolamo Cardano (left) and Karl Friedrich Gauss (right). imaginary numbers plausible and acceptable to early mathematicians. They could dismiss =I as pure nonsense when it appeared as a solution to z?+1 = 0 because this equation has no real solution, But in 1545, Gerolamo Cardano of, Milan published Ars Magna (The Great Art), the most important algebraic work of the Renaissance. In this book he gave a method of solving a general cubie equation in which a root of a negative number appeared in an intermediate step. According to his method, the solution to a third-order equationt Searth is given by p+ VR+a + For example, to find a solution of z° + 6r — 20 = 0, we substitute a = 6,6 in the above equation to obtain = Vis vi0s + {10 ~ Vi08 = 930303 - YO3G2 = 2 We can readily verify that 2 is indeed a solution of 2° + 62 — 20 = 0. But when Cardano tried to solve the equation 2? — 152 — 4 =0 by this formula, his solution {This equation is known as the depressed cubic equation. A general cubic equation vem taer ca always be reduced toa depresied cub form by substituting g. ‘Therefore any general ‘eubie equation can be solved if we know the solution to the depressed cubic. ‘The depressed able was lndepeactently solved, fst by Selpione del Ferro (1465-1626) and then by Niccolo Fontana (1490-1957), The latter is bettor known in the history of mathomatic as Tartaglh (CStammerer) Cardano learned the secet of the deprewed cubic solution from Tartaglia. He then showed that by twing the substitution y ~~ fa general cubic Is rodueed to a depressed cui 4 Background Bi on Fiat + 2— aa What was Cardano to make of this equation in the year 1545? In those days negative numbers were themselves suspect, and a square root of a negative number ‘was doubly preposterous! Today we know that y= 24 jl =24 VOT Therefore, Cardano’s formula gives 4 2=(Q+i)+Q-3) We can readily verify that x = 4 is indeed a solution of 2° — 152-4 = 0. Cardano tried to explain halfheartedly the presence of /=T2I but ultimately dismissed the whole enterprise as being “as subtle as it is useless.” A generation later, however, Raphael Bombelli (1526-1573), after examining Cardano’s results, proposed ac- ceptance of imaginary numbers as a necessary vehicle that would transport the mathematician from the real cubie equation to its real solution. In other words, while we begin and end with real numbers, we seem compelled to move into an ‘unfamiliar world of imaginaries to complete our journey. To mathematicians of the day, this proposal seemed incredibly strange.” Yet they could not dismiss the idea of imaginary numbers so easily because this concept yielded the real solution of an equation. It took two more centuries for the full importance of complex numbers to become evident in the works of Buler, Gauss, and Cauchy. Still, Bombelli deserves credit for recognizing that such numbers have a role to play in algebra.” In 1799, the German mathematician Karl Friedrich Gauss, at a ripe age Note of 22, proved the fundamental theorem of algebra, namely that every algebraic a equation in one unknown has a root in the form of a complex number. He showed « that every equation of the nth order has exactly n solutions (roots), no more and no ‘ The t the ir less, Gauss was also one of the Brst to give a coherent account of complex numbers Ce and to interpret them as points in a complex plane. It is he who introduced the term complex numbers and paved the way for general and systematic use of complex numbers. ‘The number system was once again broadened or generalized to include imaginary numbers, Ordinary (or real) numbers became a special case of generalized and (or complex) numbers The utility of complex numbers can be understood readily by an analogy with two neighboring countries X and Y, as illustrated in Fig. B.1. If we want to travel from City a to City b (both in Country 2X), the shortest route is through Country Y although the journey begins and ends in Country X. We may, if we desire, perform this journey by an alternate route that lies exclusively in X, but this alternate route is longer. In mathematics we have a similar situation with real numbers (Country X) and complex numbers (Country ¥). All real-world problems must start with real numbers, and all the final results must also be in real numbers. But the derivation of results is considerably simplified by using complex numbers as an intermediary. It is also possible to solve all real-world problems by an alternate method, using real numbers exclusively, but such procedure would increase the work needlessly. B.1-2 Algebra of Complex Numbers A complex number (a, b) or a + jb can be represented graphically by a point whose Cartesian coordinates are (a, 6) in a complex plane (Fig. B.2). Let us denote this complex number by 2 s0 that und days ber dano 1 the dec. the cords, the idea. of an 2 age braie cowed ud no abers: 1 the aplex clude alized with ravel WY, cform route real diary using sly point enote B.1 Complex Numbers Country 7 Fig. B.1 Use of complex numbers can reduce the work zaatib (Ba) ‘The numbers a and b (the abscissa and the ordinate) of « are the real part and the imaginary part, respectively, of . They are also expressed as Rez= Note that in this plane all real numbers lie on the horizontal axis, and all imagi numbers lie on the vertical axis. ‘Complex numbers may also be expressed in terms of polar coordinates. If (r, 6) are the polar coordinates of a point » = a + jb (see Fig. B.2), then and a+ jb=reos 8+ Jrsin @ = r(cos 9 + jsin 6) (B2) Fig. B.2 Representation of a number in the complex plane, . Background ‘The Buler formula states that ma 108 8 + jsin 0 ‘To prove the Euler formula, we expand ©, cos 9, and sin 0 using a Maclaurin series fi E . =relt (B.4) Thus, a complex number can be expressed in Cartesian form a + jb or polar form rei? with £08 8, rsino (B5) and ra Var, o (B6) Observe that r is the distance of the point z from the origin. For this reason, ris also called the magnitude (or absolute value) of z and is denoted by |z} Similarly @ is called the angle of z and is denoted by 22. Therefore and (B7) Also (B8) Conjugate of a Complex Number We define =*, the conjugate of » = a+ jb, as = jhe re (B.9a) (Bo) The g B2. conju, is the 1 the re the s Unde at an num any ¢ In fas The has 8 The Ther Thus mand (B3) (Ba) form (Bs) (Be) (B7) (B8) Boa) B.9b) B.1_ Complex Numbers Res @ Fig. B.S Understanding some useful identities in terms of re, The graphical representation of a number z and its conjugate =* is depicted in Fig. B.2. Observe that 2* is a mirror image of z about the horizontal axis. To find the conjugate of any number, we need only to replace j by ~j in that number (which is the same as changing the sign of its angle) ‘The sum of a complex number and its conjugate is a real number equal to twice the real part of the number ptet = (a4 j0)+(@—j0) = 2a = 2Rez (B.10a) ‘The product of a complex number + and its conjugate is a real number | the square of the magnitude of the number: 2442 (0 +46)(a— 56) z/? (B.10b) Understanding Some Useful Identities Ina complex plane, re’ represents a point at a distance r from the origin and at an angle 6 with the horizontal axis, as shown in Fig. B3a. For example, the number —1 is at a unit distance from the origin and has an angle x or ~x (in fact, any odd multiple of +7), as seen from Fig. B.3b. Therefore, lett = 1 In fact, tine n odd integer (Bat) The number 1, on the other hand, is also at a unit distance from the origin, but has an angle 2x (in fact, +2nx for any integral value of n). Therefore, "= 1m integer (BL ‘The number j is at unit distance from the origin and its angle is x/2 (see Fig. B.3b), ‘Therefore, Oa; Similarly eta yg ‘Thus et? = ay (B.13a) 8 Background BI In fact, I 45 (B.lsb) and miss on ‘These results are summarized in Table B.1 7,11, 15, (B.13¢) TABLE B.t 1 n odd integer =1 nr integer Hef? Pay +i 1,5,9,13, 11,15, fourtt This discussion shows the usefulness of the graphic picture of re, This picture comp is also helpful in several other applications. For example, to determine the limit of third e444" as t — 00, we note that obtain clots — got iut addin draw Now the magnitude of e# is unity regardless of the value of w or t because e lies, re with r= 1, Therefore, e determines the behavior of el)" as ¢ + 06 and me ole) tom ete {. eee ay) : i ao e cw a0 « In future discussions you will fin it very useful to remember rei as a number at a distance r from the origin and at an angle # with the horizontal axis of the complex inthe plane. of 56 ‘A Warning About Using Electronic Calculators in Computing Angles From the Cartesian form a-+jb we can readily compute the polar form re! Eq, (B.6)}. Electronic caleulators provide ready conversion of rectangular into polar ‘and vice versa, However, if a calculator computes an angle of a complex number In th using an inverse trigonometric function # = tan~¥(b/a), proper attention must be tiven paid to the quadrant in which the number is located. For instance, # corresponding (26. the number ~2 ~ 3 is tan~"(=3). This result is not the same as tan“(3), same The former is ~125.7°, whereas the latter is 56.3°. An electronic calculator cazniot than make this distinction and can give a correct answer only for angles in the frst and B.l Complex Numbers 3b) 3c) Reo © © @ Fig. B.4 From Cartesian to polar form fourth quadrants. It will read tan~*(=3) as tan“1(3), which is clearly wrong. In ure computing inverse trigonometric functions, if the angle appears in the second or tof third quadrant, the answer of the calculator is off by 180°. ‘The correct answer is obtained by adding or subtracting 180° to the value found with the ealeulator (either adding or subtracting yields the correct answer). For this reason it is advisable to Giraw the point in the complex plane and determine the quadrant in which the point ies. This issue will be clatified by the following examples. nd @ Example B. 14) Express the following numbers in polar form: u ' (a) 2443 (b) -2451 (©) 2-353 (@) 1-38 ) a ata VER aE a In this case the number is in the first quadrant, and a calculator will give the correct. value of 56.2". Therefor, (se Fig. Bla) 24+ 73=vise** [see @) —— : . olar VCH = V5 c= tan ( 153.4 mead Im this case the angle is in the second quadrant (see Fig. B.4b), and therefore the answer t be given by the calculator (tan}(;) = —26.6°) is off by 180°. The correct answer is sing (£28.64 180)° = 153.4° or ~ 206.8". Both values are correct because they represent the (3). same angle. As a matter of convenience, we choose an angle whose numerical value is less anot than 180°, which inthis case i 158.4°, Therefore, and Vee “2491 10 © oe l= VSR =v In this eave the angle appears in the third quadrant (sce Fig. Bc), and therefore the ner obtained by the eleuator(tan”!(=3) = 56.5" is of by 180", Te correct answer iGo t Jal)" = 2903 or ~ 1237. Asa matter of convenience, we choose the latter and (so Fig. Be) -j3= Vie (@ —, l= VPP = tan (5) = -716" In this case the angle appears in the fourth quadrant (sce Fig. B.ld), and therefore the ‘answer given by the calculator (tan~#(2) = ~T16°) is correct (see Fig. BsAd) -js=vie"" © Computer Example CB.1 [xpress the following numbers in polar form: (a) 2433 (b) -24+31 MATLAB function eart2poi(a,b) can be used to convert the complex number a + 30 to its polar form. Oo) [Zangle.in.rad,Zmag|=cart2pol(2,3) Zangle-in-rad = 0.9828 Zag =3.6056 angle-in_deg=Zangle.in.rad*(180/pi) ‘Zangle-in.deg=66.31 Therefore j= s6056e%9" @ [Zangle.in_rad,Zmag|=cart2pol(-2,1) Zangle-in-rad = 2.6779 ag =2.2364 Zangle.in rad*(180/pi) Zangle-in, ‘Therefore on 2491 = 2.236100" Note that MATLAB automatically takes care of the quadrant in which the complex number MAT lies. © Wi Example B.2 ‘Represent the following numbers in the complex plane and express them in Cartesian form: (a) 2e°"/9 (b) dF” (e) 20/8 (A) Be (e) 20 (F) 27 Ther (a) 2097/7 = 2 (cos § + jain $)=1+5V3__ (ee Fig. B58) (b) de 9°74 A (cos 3F — jsin 8E) = -2VE- j2V2 (see Fig. BSD) (e) 20877 = 2 (cos $+ jsin §) =200+j1) =52 (ee Fig. Bc) (a) 8e-* = 3(cos 3x — jsin $n) = 3-14 j0)=—3 (see Fig. BSA) ae (@) 20° = 2(c0s dr + jsin Ax) = 2(1-+ j0) =2 (see Fig. B.5e) (£) 20-9 = 2(c08 4x — jain dx) =2(1— 30) =2 (see Fig. BSE) Ml Cart ied oad Howes sei fa F aa eae REE Bae Re ad B.1 Complex Numbers ave the ar » the + ' Ay in “i eS © ® Fig. B.5. From polar to Cartesian form, © Computer Example CB.2 Represent 4e-) in Cartesian form — MATLAB function pol2car(@,) converts the complex number re to Cartesian form. {2ereal,Zimag]=polzeart(-3*pi/4,4) Zreal=-2.8268 a Zinage-2.8224 ‘Therefore -2sm—aa Arithmetical Operations, Powers, and Roots of Complex Numbers To perform addition and subtraction, complex numbers should be expressed in Cartesian form, Thus, if 2 Background B+ j= bei" and = 2453 = Vises then stay = (8454) + (2458) = 5457 If 2 and 22 are given in polar form, we would need to convert them into Carte- sian form for the purpose of adding (or subtracting). Multiplication and division, however, can be carried out in either Cartesian or polar form, although the latter proves to be much more convenient. This is because if zy and 23 are expressed in polar form as. nan and = 22 = rae then (rie!) (raei) = urn) (B.158) and sn Be = 89 (B.1sb) Moreover 2 (B.150) and BI" = (rei)! = pllngi0/n (B.15a) ‘This shows that the operations of multiplication, division, powers, and roots can be carried out with remarkable ease when the numbers are in polar form. Mi Example B.S Determine 222 and 21/22 for the numbers Vie We shall solve this problem in both polar and Cartesian forms. ‘Multiplication: Cartesian Form (84542 +53) = (6-12) + 51849) = 84517 ‘Multiplication: Polar Form Division: Cartesian Form In order to eliminate the complex number in the denominator, we multiply both numerator and the denominator of the right-hand side by 2 j8, the denominator’s th conjugate. This yields Bl ¢ Divisi Itisc plish i ‘Theret @ Oc Multig Therel te ter 5d) vbe B.L_ Complex Numbeys 1s j1_ 8-1 24 _ (3-+54)(2- 38) 38)2— 33) Division: Pol vis oy It is clear from this example that multiplication and division are easier to accom: plish in polar form than in Cartesian form. HE Example B.4 For 21 = 20% and 22 = 80", find (a) 21-22 (b) 2 (©) B (A) (a) Since subtraction eannot be performed directly in polar form, we convert 23 and 22 to Cartesian form: 2S" 22 (con § + jin $) = VI+ IVE sa = 80"! = 8 (con $+ jsin $) =4454Vi "Therefore, 2x22 = AVE + jvB) - (44 54V3) = (2V3- 4) + j(2v3-4V3) = 17 jaa 2 1 nts © 20M __aeinlt 3 = [pea > Bee @ Y= a = (ger) = © Computer Example CB.3 ‘and 24/2 if 3+ jd and Multiplication and division: Cartesian Form zL=aB+j%4; 22=24)3; zlz2=21"22 aLover 22=21/22 lover 22°1,3486-0.07694 Therefore (84j(2458)=-64 717 ond (94 54)/(2453) ais6—o0769 © u Background Ml Pxample B.5 Consider F(w), @ complex function of a real variable w 24+ie ay jus F(w)= (8.160) (a) Express F(u) in Cartesian form, and find its real and imaginary parts. (b) [Express F(a) in polar form, and find its magnitude |F(w)| and angle 2F(w) (a) To obtain the real and imaginary parts of F(w), we must eliminate imaginary terms in the denominator of F(). This is readily done by multiplying both the numerator ‘and denominator of F(w) by $~ jw, the conjugate of the denominator 3 + ju so that (24 ju)(3— jas) 7) = jy _ 6+ Aut GF HGH Ha) OFF BAF Fl) (B.16b) ae This is the Cartes are given by. form of F(s)- Clearly the real and imaginary parts F,(w) and Fi(u) oe () _ vats) Vor Tat oF F ltae"()-tae?(48)) (B89 . B.2 Sinusoids = Ceo ses) ea) We know that cos y= cos(y + 2nm) £1,42,48) Therefore, cos y repeats itself for every change of 2x in the angle g. For the sinusoid in Eq. (B.18), the angle 2rFot + @ changes by 2x when t changes by 1/Fo. Clearly, this sinusoid repeats every 1/Fa seconds. As a result, there are Fo repetitions per second. "This is the frequency of the sinusoid, and the repetition interval Tp given by ee == (B.19) eetueadale ce B2 is th freq ther stude expr angle radie expr With and Inft cos ( is Fo spec signe This tot chan a 90 quar thirc the + the by 19) B22. Sinusoids is the period. For the sinusoid in Eq. (B.18), C is the amplitude, Zy is the frequency (in Hertz), and @ is the phase. Let us consider two special cases of this sinusoid when @ = 0 and @ = —x/2 as follows: (a) (0) =C eos 2nFot (@=0) (b) F(t) = Coos (2 Fat — $) = Csin 2nFot /2) Phe angle or phase can be expressed in units of degrees or radians. Although the radian is the proper unit, in this book we shall often use the degree unit because students generally have a better feel for the relative magnitudes of angles when expressed in degrees rather than in radians. For example, we relate better to the angle 24° than to 0.419 radians. Remember, however, when in doubt, use the radian unit and, above all, be consistent. In other words, in a given problem or an expression do not mix the two units. It is convenient to use the variable wy (radian frequency) to express 2x Fo (B.20) Mite ths notation the nun in a, (18) can be expesed as nee = (Baie a = an (B.21b} T Tn future discussions, we shall often refer to wo as the frequency of the signal cos wot +0), but it should be clearly understood that the frequency of this sinusoid is Fo Ha (Fo = wo/27), and wy is actually the radian frequency. ‘The signals C cos wot and C sin wot are illustrated in Figs. B.Ga and B.6b re- spectively. A general sinusoid C cos (wot +8) can be readily sketched by shifting the signal C eos wy¢ in Fig. B.6a by the appropriate amount, Consider, for example, £(0) = C cos (wot ~ 60°) This signal can be obtained by shifting (delaying) the signal C’cos wot (Fig. B.6a) to the right by a phase (angle) of 60°. We know that a sinusoid undergoes a 360° change of phase (or angle) in one cycle. A quarter-cycle segment corresponds to 90° change of angle, Therefore, an angle of 60° corresponds to two-thirds of @ quarter-cycle segment. We therefore shift (delay) the signal in Fig. B.6a. by two- thieds of a quarter-eycle segment to obtain C cos (wot ~ 60°), as shown in Fig, B.6e Observe that if we delay C cos wot in Pig, B.6n by a quarter-cycle (angle of 90° or x/2 radians), we obtain the signal C'sin wot, depicted in Fig. B.6b. This verifies the well-known trigonometric identity Cas (wot ~ $) = Csin wot (B.22a) 16 Background Cooney @ Csinwyt cy Comm Ce a © Fig. B.6 Sketching a simsoid Alternatively, if we advance C'sin wot by a quarter-cycle, we obtain C cos wot Therefore, Cssin (uot + §) = C cos wot (B22) ‘This observation means sin wot lags cos wot by 90°(r/2 radians), of cos wot leads sin wot by 90° B.2-1 Addition of Sinusoids ‘Two sinusoids having the same frequency but different. phases add to form a single sinusoid of the same frequency. This fact is readily seen from the well-known trigonometric identity C08 (wot +8) 00s 8 08 wot — Csin 6 sin wot = 0008 wot + bsin wot (B.23a) in which C008 8, oO B2 ¢ Equa espe: find ¢ the re Tos in wh tobe by us bya boos the h at an and ¢ tan his ¢ wher foolp magi me ud @ wot 220) leads 3.23a) B.2_ Sinusoids rg Fig. B.7 Phasor addition of sinusoids. ‘Therefore, ca Varre (B.230) (2) (8.230) Equations (B.23b) and (B.23c) show that C and @ are the magnitude and angle, respectively, of a complex number a— j8. In other words, a— jb = Ce!*. Hence, to find C and 8, we convert a ~ jb to polar form and the magnitude and the angle of the resulting polar number are C and 6, respectively = tan ‘To summarize 2608 wot +b sin wot = C cos (wot +0) in which C and 0 are given by Eqs. (B.23b) and (B.28c), respectively. These happen to be the magnitude and angle, respectively, of a ~ jt “The process of adding two sinusoids with the same frequency can be clarified by using phasors to represent sinusoids. We represent the sinusoid C'cos (wot + 8) by a phasor of length C at an angle @ with the horizontal axis. Clearly, the sinusoid 2.608 wot is represented by a horizontal phasor of length a (= 0), while bsin wot = bos (vot ~ $) is represented by a vertical phasor of length b at an angle —x/2 with the horizontal (Fig. B.7). Adding these two phasors results in a phasor of length C at-an angle 8, as depicted in Fig. B.7. From this figure, we verify the values of © and 6 found in Eqs. (B.23b) and (B.23e), respectively Proper care should be exercised in’ computing @. Recall that tan“1(32) # tan-!(-2), Similarly, tan-!(=t) 4 tan~1(2). Blectronie caleulators cannot make this distinction. When calculating such an angle, it is advisable to note the quadrant where the angle lies and not to rely exclusively on an electronic calculator. A foolproof method is to convert the complex number a — jb to polar form. ‘The ragnitude of the resulting polar number is C and the angle is @. The following examples clarify this point Mi Example BG Tn the following cases, express f(0) asa sing (2) f(t) = cos wot — VBsin wut (b) (9) = S008 wot + in wot (a) In this case, V3, and from Eqs. (B.23) sinusoid 1b c= P49? 0 = tant (¥) = 00° 18 Background ‘Therefore, S(t) = 208 (wet + 60°) We can verify this result by drawing phasors corresponding to the two sinusoids. The sinusoid cos wot is represented by a phasor of unit length at a 2ero angle with the horizontal ‘The phasor sin wot is represented by a unit phasor at an angle of -90° with the horizontal ‘Therefore, —V3sin wot is represented by a phasor of length V3 at 90° with the horizontal, lepicted in Fig. B.8a. The two phasors added yield a phasor of length 2 at 60° with the horizontal (also shown in Fig. B.S). 1 herefore, Slt) = 2e08 (wot + 60°) Alternately, we note that a ~ j6=1+ jV3= 26/9, Hence, C= 2 and Observe that a phase shift of six amounts to multiplication by —1 can also be expressed alternatively as H(6) = ~200s (wot + 60° + 180") = =208 (wot ~ 120°) = ~2e0s (wot + 240°) In practice, an expression with an angle whose numerical value is less than 180° is preferred (b) In this ease, «= =3,5 , and from Bs. (B.23) ee = tan“ (=$) = -126.9° Observe that tan” (S$ Puan (2) 00% There, 1 = Seo (ont ~ 12687 ‘This result is readily verified in the phasor diagram in Fig, B.8b. Alternately, a — jb = A= Se", Hence, C= 5 and d= —1269°. © Computer Example CB.4 xpress f(t) = —3c08 wot + 4sin wot asa single sinusoid. Recall that aos wot + bsin wot = C'c0s vot +tan™"(-b/a)]- Hence, the amplitude ‘and the angle @ ofthe resulting sinusoid are the magnitude and angle of a complex number a — jb. We use the 'cart2pol’ fonction to convert it to the polar form to obtain C and 0. aib= [theta,c Theta-deg: C,Theta.deg =5 Theta.de Therefore 26.8699 osm aut = Sst 1268800) B3 in ter For Sinus Ea, ( Inver B3 1 expo! B3- with Le ( ite ve B.3. Sketching Signals 19 +} in wy 2 ® o 7 Ro Fig, B.8 Phasor addition of sinusoids in Example B.6. We can also perform the reverse operation, expressing re in terms of cos wot and sin wot using the trigonometric identity Cos (uot +9) C008 (wot +0) = C e08 8008 wot — C sin sin wot For example, 10.08 (wot ~ 60°) = 5cos wot + SVIsin wot ‘Sinusoids in Terms of Expone Is: Euler's Formula Sinusoids can be expressed in terms of exponentials using Euler's formula {see Bq. (B.3)] (B.24a) sing= 2 2ab) eR (B24 Inversion of these equations yields ef? = cos y+ jsin g (B25a) cos ~ jsin y (B29) B.3 Sketching Signals In this section we discuss the sketching of a few useful signals, starting with exponentials. 8, .3-1 Monotonic Exponentials ‘The signal & with (assuming a > 0) as depicted in Fig. B.9. For the sake of simplicity, we shall consider an exponential e~* starting at t = 0, as shown in Fig. B.10a ‘The signal e~* has a unit value at ¢ = 0. At ¢ = 1/a, the value drops to 1/e (about 37% of its initial value), as illustrated in Fig. B.10a. This time interval lover which the exponential reduces by a factor e (that is, drops to about 37" its value) is known as the time constant of the exponential. ‘Therefore, the time decays monotonically, and the signal e* grows monotonically 20 Background ° ig. B.9. Monotonic exponentials, constant of e~** is 1/a. Observe that the exponential is reduced to 37% of its initial value over any time interval of duration 1/a. This can be shown by considering any set of instants ty and t separated by one time constant so that ota Now the ratio of e7* to e-®" ig given by a)

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