: Alegebric Structures

Logic Algebra and Sets

.1
-1
: :
) ( T ) .( F

)(
.
A, B ) A ( A
A B ) A ( B A B ) A ( B A B ) A

( B A B ) A .( B

.

) P( A, B, C ,

. A, B, C ,

 B, A :
A B

A B

A B

A B

F
F

T
T

T
T

T
T

: ) P( A, B, C , ) Q( A, B, C ,
. P Q
:
. A B A A B
. B
.
A
A B B
.
-2
A B :
-1 : A B .
-2 : B A .
A B :
-2 B A.

-1 A B.

-3 : B .
A B.

2 -1

: -2
A (A),

A A A A A -1

A B B A;

A B B A -2

( A B) C A ( B C ) - 3
( A B) C A ( B C )

( A B) (A) (B) -4
( A B) (A) (B)

A B (A) B -5
A B ( A B ) ( B A)
A B (B) (A) -6
( A B) A (B) -7

 .2
-1
y .
y .
y A a
a A a . A

) P(a a . a A :
a A; P(a) y ) P(a a
. A ) ( .
a A; P(a) y A
) P(a . ) ( .
! a A; P(a) y ) P (a

Inclusion

A, B . A B A
B A B A . B



A . A

: }} . A = {{},1, N ,{0,1, 2

.
- ... A
- {} ...A
- N ... A
- {, N } ... A

A B :
x A . x B
A = B A B . B A

A = B :
-1 ... A B
-2 ... B A


-1

Intersection

A, B . A, B A B x

x A B .
}) A B = {x; ( x A) ( x B

-2

Union

A, B A B x x

A . B }) A B = {x; ( x A) ( x B

 -3

Difference

A B A \ B A
B })A \ B = {x; ( x A) ( x B
B \ A })B \ A = {x; ( x B) ( x A

-4

Complement

A E A E x

E A })A = {x; ( x E ) ( x A

-5

Symmetric Difference

AB )AB = ( A \ B) ( B \ A

 -6

Set of Partitions

. ) P(
.

}. = {1, 2, 3
}}P () = {, {1} , {2} , {3} , {1.2} , {1.3} , {1.2.3

-7

Cartesian Product

A, B . A B ) (a, b
a A . b B A B . A, B

n A1 , A2 , , An
A1 A2 An

i =1

) (a1 , a 2 , , a n ai Ai . i = 1,..., n i = 1,

) (a, b) (b, a } {x, y ). ( x, y

} A = {a1 , a2 ,......, an
} B = {b1 , b2 ,......, bm

b1.........................bm

A B

) (a1 , b1 )...............(a1 , bm

a1

.
.
.
) (an , b1 )..............(an , bm

.3

.
.
.
an

Mappings

-1
G A B :
x A ; ! y B ; (x , y ) G
x A y B y

) f ( x ( x, y ) G G . f
A B :
f :A B
) x y = f (x
f
. A ) y = f ( x x . f
B

 f : A B ' f : A ' B f = g :
A = A `, and B = B ` y
f (x ) = g (x ) y

; x A

A . I A :
IA :A A
x x

-2

Composition

f : A B g : B C g , f
:

g o f : A C

)) x g (f (x

10


. h : C D g : B C f : A B -1
ho (gof) = (hog) of

IA = IB

f = f -2

:
-1
x A ;(ho ( gof ))(x ) = h[( gof )(x )]

= h [ g (f (x ))]

= h ( g (f (x ))) (1)

x A; ((hog )of )( x) = (hog )( f ( x))

= (hog )( y ) ; y = f ( x) B
= h( g ( y ))

= h( g ( f ( x))

(2)

.( 2) ( 1)

-2
IB : B B; I A : A A
yy
xx

:
x A; ( f

I A )( x) = f ( I A ( x)) = f ( x) (3)

: I A ( x) = x
x A ; (I B f )(x ) = I B (f (x )) = I B ( y ) = y ; y = f (x ) B
= f (x )

(4)

I B of = fo I A ( 4) ( 3)

11

 -3
f : A B . :
f -1

)(surjective

:
) y B; x A; y = f ( x

f -2

)(injective

:
( x, y ) A2 ; f ( x) = f ( y ) x = y

f : A B . :
-3

f )(bijective

f .

f -1 : .
f -2 ) ( x, y ) A 2 ; x y f ( x) f ( y

f.
f -3 :
12

)y B; ! x A; y = f ( x

.
f : y B

). y = f(x

= x

f : y A, x A ) f ( x) = f ( y
. x = y
f .

P :
f : N P . n N ; f (n) = 2n f .
:
y
: y P P
k y = 2k y .

x = k f ( x) = f (k ) = 2k = y : ) y = f ( x f
.
y y, x N x = y 2x = 2y ) f(x) = f(y
f.
f .

13

 ) (:
f : A B g : B C
-1 f g gof.
-2 f g gof.
gof -3 f.
gof -4 g.
: .

-4

X A A X X
) f ( x :
}) f (X ) = { b B ; a X , b = f (a

) f 1 (Y Y B:
} f -1 (Y) = {a A ; f (a) Y

14

) (:
f : A B f g : B A :
gof = I A & fog = I B

f 1 :
f 1of = I A & fof 1 = I B

) (:
f : A B g : B C gof
g 1

=f

(g

) (Y

x f :

y ). f ( x
y f (x ) Y

) (Y

) y f (X :
y x = ...

15

.x f

 y ) y = f (x x X ). y f (x

f : A B X 1 , X 2 A
Y 1 ,Y 2 B Y1 Y2

) (Y2

(Y1 ) f

:
) ( (Y1 ) f ( x) Y1
Y1 Y2 f ( x) Y2 ) (Y2
) (Y2

.4

Family

(Y1 ) f

x f

x f

A, I A I:
:I A
i ai .

(ai ) iI

= and A

= I (ai ) iI .

) (:
I , A A :
)Ai P( A

; ( Ai ) i I ; i I

) P( A .A
:

16

 A = {a A | i I ;
i

a Ai }

iI

A = {a A | i I ; a A }
i

iI

A = {(a )

i iI

| i I ; ai Ai }

iI

:1
: I = {1, 2, 3, , n}
n

= A1 A2

An

= A1 A2

An

k =1
n

k =1

= A1 A2

An

k =1

:2
I =

A=

: Ak = [k , k ]

Ak

kN *

Ak

kN *

= A =] , +[......... A 3 = [-3, 3] A 2 = [-2, 2] A1 = [-1, 1]

A1 A 2 .......... A =

= {a k N ; a Ak }

kN *

kN *

Ak A1 a A1 a

17

k N *

Ak

 A1 Ak
= A = R

* kN

* k N

A1 = A1

* kN

R . AK

.5

E E . G E E
( x, y) G :
xy ( x, y ) G

xy x y .
:
}) G = {( x, y ), ( x, t ), ( y, x), ( y, t ), ( y, u ), (t , y ), (t , t ), (u , z ), ( z , u ), ( z , z

-1
E :
-1 : x E

x :

) x E ; x x ( (x , x ) G

-2 : :

18

 ( x, y ) E E = E 2 , xy yx

-3 : :
yx x = y

( x, y ) E 2 , xy and

-4 : :
yz xz

( x, y, z ) E 3 , xy and

-2
E :
-1.

-2.

-3.

.
( x, y ) E 2 ; xy x = y

E x E

} C x = { y E ; y x

.x

: x = y mod x y:
" x y "

)(Partition
( E i )i I E E

:
i I ; E i -1

(i , j ) I 2 ; E i E j = -2

19

(i, j ) I 2 ; Ei E j Ei = E j

= E -3

E
iI

E (Cx ) xE
. E
E
.
:
x Cx Cx x E

y ( x, y ) E 2 Cx C y =
z z Cx C y x = z mod y = z mod

x = y mod :
u = x mod u = y mod u Cy

u Cx

Cx = C y : .
y E = {x} C x
xE

xE

Cx E E

C
xE

E Cx E E = Cx
xE

xE

. E
( Ei ) iI E :
) ; ( x Ei ) ( y Ei

xy i I

} . E / = {E i ; i I

20

; n p k ; p n = 2 k .

) (n, p

.
:
y:
n Z ; n n = 0 k = 0; n n = 0 = 2.0
nn :

y:
(n, p ) Z 2 ; nP k Z ; p n = 2k

( n p ) = 2 k
n p = 2k = 2(k ) = 2.l ; l Z
l Z ; n p = 2l
pn

y:
) (n , p , q ) Z 3 ; (n p ) ( p q
) ( k Z ; p n = 2 k ) ( l Z ; q p = 2 l

q p + p n = 2(k + l ) = 2m ; m = k + l
m Z ; q n = 2m n q

} p n

; n Z ; C n = {p Z

} = { p Z ; n p = 2k
} = { p Z ; n = p + 2k

21

C 0 = { , 4, 2, 0, 2, 4,

= = C 2 = C 2

} E / = {C 0 ,C 1
} , 5, 3, 1,1,3,5,

= = C 1 = C 3

=
{ = C1
=

-3

-1.

-2.

-3.

E xy
x . y
x y ) ( E , .

) (

E ( x, y) E 2

x y . y x
E .

X ) E = P( X X :
AB A B

-1 .
-2 E !

22

( A, B) E 2 ,

 -1 :
(a, b); A A AA

y :
) ( A , B ) E 2 ; ( A B ) (B A
) ( A B ) (B A
A=B

y :
) ( A, B, C ) E 3 ; ( AB) ( BC

) ( A B) ( B C
A C A C

.
.
-2 E
E = P ( X ) = { , P {1},{2}, x } X = {1, 2} :
{2} {1} & {1} {2} :

-1
:

E E A

y E M A . a A; a M
y E m

a A; m a

y A X A :
a A; a X )max(A

y A x A :
a A; x a )min (A

23

 y E S

). Sup(A

y I A I A

).inf(A

y A y A :
yaa= y

;a A

y A z A :
a A; a z a = z

-2 ) ( F , ), ( E , f : E F:
y f :
) ( x, y ) E 2 ; x y f ( x) f ( y

y f :
)( x, y ) E 2 ; x y f ( y ) f ( x

y f :
) ( x, y ) E 2 ; ( x y ) ( x y ) f ( x) < f ( y

y f :
)( x, y ) E 2 ; ( x y ) ( x y ) f ( y ) < f ( x

y f .
:
a < b )(a b) (a b

24

 : E = R 2 :
-1 ) (.
)`( x, y ) 1 ( x`, y`) ( x x`) ( y y

(x , y ) R 2 )(x , y ) 1 (x , y

-2 .
})`( x, y ) 2 ( x`, y`) {x x`)}}( x = x`) ( y y
)`( x, y ) 1 ( x`, y

(x , y ) R 2 )(x , y ) 2 (x , y

25

 1 2
.

26