3 7/7

The Effect of Overburden Stress on

Geopressured Prediction from Well Logs
Ben A. Eaton, SPE-AIME,Universal Drilling and EngineeringConsultants,Inc.

Introduction
In 1965, Hottman and Johnson presented a method
for predicting geopressured magnitudes by using resistivity and sonic log data. This technique has received
wide acceptance even though the prediction charts
were based only on data concerning Tertiary Age
sediments in the Gulf Coast area. It was specifically
pointed out that these techniques were applicable
only in areas where the generation of geopressured
is primarily the result of compaction in response to
the stress of overburden.
Compaction caused by overburden stress was described classically in a soil mechanics book by Terzaghi and Peck in 1948.: With a vessel containing
a spring and a fluid, they simulated the compaction of clay that contained water. Overburden stress
was simulated by a piston, as in Fig. 1. It was shown
that the overburden stress, .S, was supported by the
stress in the spring, u, and the fluid pressure, p. Thus,
the long-accepted equation of equilibrium was established.

s=u+p

. . . . . . . . . (1)

If Fig. 1 and Eq. 1 are studied, it is obvious that

and
the fluid is allowed to escape, o
if s is increased
-------must increase while p remains as hydrostatic pressure. However, if the fluid cannot escape, p must also
:----,. . - as ~c ,0
i. ]L,
f..oQceA
mulcdsc
v,uaow=.
Hubbert and Rubey4 published a comprehensive
treatment of this theory as related to sedimentary
..
L-... -,J +1.
-+ -o thra m,~rh,,rrock compacuon. They SIKJWCU
L1laL am t,,t,
..
-.

den stress is increased as a result of burial, the porosity of a given rock is decreased. Therefore, some
fluid that was once in the pores of a given formation
was later squeezed out by compaction. In many such
cases, there is no escape route for the fluid, and thus
the fluid becomes overpressured according to Eq. 1.
This happens in many areas, and such generated
overpressured zones are often called abnormal
pressure zones or geopressure zones.
Hottman and Johnson recognized the main significance of the preceding theory and developed a
very useful relationship between electrical log properties and geopressures. They reasoned that since
rocks are more resistive to electrical current than is
formation water, a well compacted shale containing
less water (because the water has escaped) is more
resistive than a less compacted shale containing more
water (one in which the water has not escaped to the
same degree). Also, they reasoned that a sequence of
normally compacted sediments (in which water is
free to escape) should have a normally increasing resistivity trend. They substantiated this when they
plotted resistivities from actual well logs. Any resistivity decrease from the well established normal
high=
trend indicates the presence of ~bfi~i,iiMIjj
pressured zones.
Empirical data from well tests and logs were used
to develop a correlation of the pore pressure gradient
as a function of the resistivity departure ratio (see
Fig. ~): A similar idea was used in conjunction with

Think oj the money that could be put to better use if we could predict the depth below
which commercial production will not be found. It has been suggested that the magic
level in geopressured areas is where log resistivity ratios exceed 3.50. The theory offered
here, with the hope that it will be carried further, is that the limiting ratio is a function
also oj overburden stress gradient.
AUGUST, 1972 WV

929

similar empirical data to develop a correlation of the

pore pressure gradient with sonic-log travel-time departure from normal travel times (see Fig. 3). Note
that in each correlation, only one line is drawn and the
data points scatter considerably. Such a scatter indicates that the chances of error in the pressure prediction magnitude are high when values are read from
the line. Timko and Fertl have shown a different
correlating curve that more accurately predicts the
magnitudes of geopressured in one iocaiized i3ii2i (see
Fig.
4).
one step further. They indi~ky
km
gme
cate that commercial production is never found below
the depth at which the resistivity ratio reaches a value
of 3.50, regardless of the magnitude of the pore pressure gradients that actually exist. Considerable data
are shown to verify this contention. They theorize
that as the resistivity ratio increases, the size of the
hydrocarbon reservoir decreases. The theory is more
or less substantiated statistically. However, Fowlers
pointed out several large reservoirs with original pore
pressure gradients greater than 0.85 to 0.90 psi/ft.
Such high gradients are well above the 3.50 resistivity
ratio on the Hottman and Johnson correlation shown
in Fig. 2, but not on the Tirnko and Fertl correlation
of Fig. 4. Fowler suggested that a more complex set
of conditions must be met before one could be sure
before drilling and testing a reservoir whether or not
it was commercial. It is postulated here that the overburden stress gradient is the other limiting variable.
In other words, a resistivity ratio limit and an overburden stress gradient limit will determine the depths
below which commercial production is not found.

The Theory
The log data and measured pressure data correlations
discussed above show that there is definitely a relationship between the two. Equations of these correlations must be of the form:
p/D

= f (Normal R.~,/Obsemed R,,h) ,

p/D

= j (Observed 31,.1, Normal J t,,},), .

(3)

and
Normal R,o
f
Observed R..i,

(4)

Observed Jr,), Normal Jt.,J, = / (P/D) .

(5)

(P/D),

and

Now, if we incorporate the theories of Terzaghi

and Peck,:; and Hubbert and Rubey,4 whereby Eq. 1
is used, p/D is shown as foiiows:
Solve Eq. 1 (S = u + p) for p and divide all quantities by depth, D, obtaining:
p/D=s/D

u/D

p/D=j(s/D,

u/D)

(6)

(7)

or
.

If we combine Eq. 7 first with Eq. 4 and separately

with Eq. 5, we find that the log parameters are functions of p/D, which in turn is a function of s/D and
u/D.

One empirical relationship was developed by trialand-error fitting of data, and it predicts the abnormal
pressure behavior data of Hottman and Johnson fairly well. The equation is:
p/D

z s/D

0.535

Observed R.j,

Nornlal

R,,,,

(8)

Eq, 8 reduces to the theoretical Eq. 6 when we

assume that the overburden stress gradient equals
1.0 psi/ft, the resistivity ratio equals 1.0 (normal
pressure), and the normal pore pressure gradient
equals 0.465 psi/ft.
p/D

(2)

= 1.0 0.535 (1)

psi/ft

= 0.465

(9)

u/D is represented by the 0.535 term.

1.gg
L

//z..

}//<///..

J-l

~~

A <1>0,465

STAGE

Fig lSchematic
930

representation

)
A=0465

STAGE

of shale

compaction.s

JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY

EQUIVALENT
MUO WEIGHT
lba. /gal

RESERVOIR
FPG
psi / ft.
0.4

0.5
100

06
120

07
140

0.8
160

0.9
180

10
1,5

1.0

2.0

NORMAL-

Fig. 2Shale

40

3.0

PRESSUREO

R(*h)/OBSERvED

resistivity parameter
pressure gwt!ent.

5.0
R(mh)

vs reservoir

RESERVOIR

S=;ngo

fluid

EQUIVALENT
MUD
WEIGHT
Ih. ./*l
,-.
~. ,

FPG
~~i ;ff

It is postulated here that p/D and s/D are the

variables that control the log-derived groups. In
other words, the parameters derived from log data
are dependent variables primarily controlled by the
existing pore pressure gradients and overburden stress
gradients. If this is the case, correlations such as those
developed by Hottman and Johnson should be expanded to include the effect of overburden stress
gradients. It could be argued that the overburden
stress gradient is constant for a given area and therefore of no significance. However, this is not true in
areas where compaction and geopressured are caused
by increasing overburden loads with deeper burial.
Overburden stress gradients are functions of burial
depth in areas such as the Gulf Coast.
Overburden stresses and overburden stress gradients may be determined by any means whereby the
bulk densities of sediments from the surface to total
depth are measured. Overburden stress is related to
bulk density by the following equation:

0400

0500
100

120

flrh
(Lu)

Bulk densities are determined easily by the use of

density logs. A cumulative averaging scheme may
be used to convert log bulk density data to curves of
overburden stress gradient vs depth. Two such curves
are shown in Figs. 5 and 6. Note that the overburden
gradient is not constant with depth.
To develop the empirical relationship between the
log resistivity parameter, the pore pressure gradient,
and the overburden stress gradient, we need considerable data of the following form: (1) log resistivity data, (2) measured pore pressures, and (3) log
buik density data, Simiiariy, w-etieed sonk iO~ data
to develop the shale acoustic parameter correlation
as a function of pore pressure gradients and overburden stress gradients.
Such data are not available to us, but are thought
to be available to several individuals within large oil
companies. If such data are available and are plotted
on charts such as those shown in Figs. 7 and 8, we
h~li,=ve
IIW
. w

0600

that
th~
. . . . . . ..

nnint~
r------

w~ii

f~ii

~ion~

lkS

Siu@fjJhl~

diflerent overburden stress gradients similar to those

shown.

0.700

I 4,0

.
0800
160

07

s
.

.
HOTTMAN a JOHNSON
GULF COAST AVERAGE

.
.

08
0.900

\<

EAST
,

CAMERON
BLOCKS)

160

20

40

,o~

ab(sh)-An(sh)

Fig. 3Shale

AUGUST, 1972

I
60

!0

acoustic parameter vs reservoir

pressure gradient.

15

20

NORMAL

*#s/ ft.

100

=.

1<

b
1.000

09

n
3
z
~
z
-1
%

( PARTICULAR

170

140

30

R(sh} /OBSERVEO

40

50

R(~h)

fiuici

931

2 -

I
1

I
4 .

~!~
6

I
ii

,1

The Relationship Between Commercial

Production and Geopressured

ii!
10

\
~,

12

II

(4

!11
(6

18

2 0.
070

080

075

085

OVERBURDEN

090

STRESS

Thelines shown in Figs. 7and8 should be nearly

correct, but this can be determined only with experimental data. However, two points on each curve are
fixed. One point is the end representing normal pressure gradients (see Eq. 9). The other end point of
each curve should be the extreme case in which the
pore pressure gradient equals the overburden stress
gradient. In this latter extreme, the matrix stress approaches zero. Therefore, the curve must approach
the value of the overburden at some limiting log
parameter value.

095

100

105

GRADIENT - PSI /ft

Fig. 5Composite
overburden stress gradient for all
normally compacted Gulf Coast formations.

Timko and Fertl state that their statistics show that

commercial production is never found below the
depth where the shale resistivity parameter (as shown
in Fig. 7) exceeds 3.50. The Hottman and Johnson
curve shows that the value 3.50 corresponds to a pore
pressure gradient less than 0.90 psi/ft, Fowler, however, listed data for commercial reservoirs having original pressure m-adients greater than 0.90 psi/ft.
Close exa&ination of Figs. 4 and 7 reveals that at
the cutoff resistivity ratio value of 3.50, the following
cutoff gradients could be obtained:
1. 0.88 psi/ft from the Hottman and Johnson
cume,
2. 0,93 psi/ft from the localized curve of Timko
and Fertl,
3. 0.92 from the curve marked s/D = 0.95,
4. 0,94 from the curve marked s/D = 1.00.
Therefore, it is concluded that such a set of curves
could be developed that would accurately predict the
L 1.-..-2 L..+ L.-.,.,...fi r,l-occ.,l-p
LIICIL UK
~WLV
~,~==J,~
best Cutoff point. It is Wlicvcu

3
\

4
II

7
\

I0
07

1
0.75

08

085

OVERaUROEN

Fig. 6--Overburden

932

sTRESS

09

GRADIENT

095

10

1.05

- p8i/ft.

stress gradient Santa

Channel. Calif.

NORMAL

Barbara

Fig. 7Shale

R(sh)/

09 SERVE0

resisti~ity parameter
pressure gradient.

fl(s~)

vs reservoir

fluid

JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY

gradient cutoff point will increase as the overburden

stress increases.
Several resistivity logs fronl Gulf Coast wells have
been analyzed and plotted. Fig. 9 shows the most
typical plot shape. Note that the resistivity continues
to decrease with depth after the departure from normal. Of more than 120 plots, 80 percent exhibited
this type of profile. In these cases, a plot of the resistivity ratio parameter is nearly linear with depth as
shown
with1--1- such
a plot,-.mwe
... . ..h.,.h
. . .in Fig.
. . 10. Therefore,
,. . ., J-.L
should

be able toprealctme

uepu I

UCIUW

I%oaucmm Irurn
Resistivity Ratio

0450

,,,

, t,

!0 \
II
.
1

12

,,

30

1 1

,1s

i I

2XGSGI-VUM
3 d Phgh

Many hydrocarbon-bearing reservoirs exhibit resistivity ratios that exceed 3.50. However. none of these
are known to be commercial. The obvious question is
Why are they not commercial reservoirs? When we
examine the environment of such reservoirs we will
find that:
1. Pore pressure gradients approach the same
values as the respective overburden gradients
2. Rock matrix stresses approach zero and there
is no rock strength.
3. Reservoir fluid pressures support most of the
overburden load.
Recent experience with six such reservoirs shows the
same very severe production problems. First of all,
the production casing must have a collapse resistance
at least equal to the entire overburden stress at the

,,,

WI IIWWI I,-

mercial production will not be found for a given area. i

The result of such an effort would be the saving of
vast quantities of money spent in the fruitiess search
for hydrocarbons below certain depths.
.
.< .. $--- r.. - n--n . . ..n...o

I
1

I 11

40

Rsh-Ohm-M

9--Short-normal

fig.

log resistivity
wildcat.

data, South Louisiana

10

II

!3

I
!
14-

1~

i~l

15

!6

17

-d

.
18

19

000

4@

20

Ato~(3~)-

60

20

A~n(~h),P~/ft

REsi5Tivi7Y

Fig. 8-Shale

acoustic parameter vs reservoir

pressure gradient.

fluid

Fig.

10Ratio

plot of

-.-.RAI IV

data

from Fig. 9.
933

A TTP.T

1077

producing depths, or it will coiiapse. After such a ieservoir is perforated, production is normally established at a high rate for a short time. Then the reservoir collapses around the wellbore. Plastic shale and
,
- ~n..at~nnc
sand are then extruaeci through the pellu,
-.Lw~~.,.fill.-.
ifig the tubiQg string. Reservoirs of this sort are normally abandoned only after repeated attempts have
been made to wash out the tubing and re-establish
,7mIV
the
The shale
. . . same,
production. The iesu,, .,I+ ,.;. ,,JL.-.,
refills the tubing string immediately. For that reason
such reservoirs are noncommercial regardless of the
size of the hydrocarbon volume.
Such has been the experience with reservoirs in the
following areas:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5,

One in Ship Shoal, La. offshore,

One in East Cameron, La. offshore,
One in West Cameron, La. offshore,
One in Terrebonne Parish, La. onshore,
Two in South Texas onshore.

4. A corm! aticm as suggested in Fig. 7 will more

accurately establish reliable depths below which commercial production cannot be found. Both a limiting
resistivity ratio and a limiting overburden stress gradient must be established.
5. A plot such as that shown in Fig. 10 can be
used advantageousiy as an exploratiofi tool.
6. There is a need for a great deal more work in
this area.

Nomenclature
depth, ft
function
acceleration of gravity, cm/sec2
formation pressure, psi
shale resistivity, ohm-m
overburden stress, psi
At = sonic travel time, microsec/ft
;< = average bulk density of sediments, gin/cc
u= rock matrix stress, psi
D=

f=
g=
p=
R=
s=

No doubt there are many others that have exhibited a

similar behavior. A theoretical analysis of such piastic deformation has recently been published by Gnirk.s
His theory agrees perfectly with the observed plastic
flow behavior just described.

Su!Jscript
~h z shale
B= bulk

Conclusions

1. Hottman,

This study has resulted in the presentation of several

ideas that are still in need of additional verification.
However, we have drawn several conclusions, and we
hope that they will be verified or denied by others,
who have the necessary data. These are:
1. Correlations such as those indicated in Figs. 7
and 8 will more accurately predict the magnitude
of abnormal pressure gradients.
2. The effect of the variable overburden stress
gradient vs depth must be included in such correlations.
3. The overburden stress gradient may be determined from density logs.

Original
manuscript
received
in Society
of Petroleum
Engineers
Office
Sept.
26, 1971,
Revised
manuscript
received
April
3, 1972.
Paper
(SPE
3719)
was
presented
at SPE
Abnormal
Subsurface
Pore
Pressure
Symposium,
held in Baton
Rouge,
La., May
15.16,
1972.
@ Copyright
1972 American
institute
of Mining,
Metallurgical, and Petroleum
Engineers,
Inc.

References
C. E. and Johnson, R. K.: Estimation
of
Formation Pressures from Log-Derived Shale Properties,
J. Pet. Tech. (June, 1965) 717-722.

2. Timko, D. J. and Fertl, W. H.: Relationship Between

Hydrocarbon Accumulation and Geopressured and Its
Economic Significance,1. Pet. Tech. (Aug., 1971) 923933.
3. Terzaghi, Karl and Peck, R. B.: Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York
( 1948) 566.
4. Hubbert, M. King and Rubey, W. W.: Role of Fluid
Pressure in Mechanics of Overthrust Faulting, Part L
Bd/., GSA (Feb., 1959) 70.
5. Fowler, W. A., Jr.: Discussion of Ref. 2.
6. Eaton, Ben A.: Fracture Gradient Prediction and Its
Application in Oilfield Operations, J. Pet. Tech. (Oct.,
1969) 1353-1360.
7. Eaton, Ben A.: Problems Encountered In Drilling and
Completing Deep Wells, paper SPE 3662 presented at
~~ ~~;~
Regional Meeting, Charleston, W. Vs., NOV.
-,.
8. Gnirk. Paul F.: The Mechanical Behavior of Uncased
Wellb6res Situated in Elastic/P1astic Media Under Hydrostatic Stress, Sot. Pet. Eng. J. (Feb., 1972) 49-59. JPT

IOIJRNAL

OF PETROLEUM

TECHNOLOGY