ONE THE INSTRUMENTS OF THE ORCHESTRASTRINGED INSTRUMENTS yinootr the compatiely brie history of orehesteation the I string grovp—volins, vols, ‘clk, and double-bassee—has ranted is the symphony orchestra: Countless scores frum all periods beat evidence that their ded wondbind a Such an atticude i partly jusifible bes strings in 90 many important repects. Sti ae ofthe superar of the ‘really any kind of musi, They havea greater dynamic range than wind instruments and far more expressive eapacicy, The tone o Of the string group i fairly amogeneaus fom top to bottom, vai tions in he di sbxing mich more ul han in dhe wid Ac the same time, singed instruments ar them x veratlein produc ing diferent kinds of sound. As sing tone is cch in overtones all manner of else and open spacing x practical. One docs not tire of hes ing srg tone as som as one ies of wind tone; in Fae, there xis 2 sable incrture of composition written for sting orchescra without wind instrament “The string section ofa typi symphony orchestra of sisten firs violins, fourteen second violoncells, and eight double bases. Vis may be found, reflecting the predilections of individual conduc pethaps determined by some sich circumstance a the sae of thINSTRUMENTS “The four strings of ech of these instruments are tuned as follows, Inthe ese ofthe doube-bass the actual sound isan octave lower than the weiten notes. The pitch of a vibrating string can be expresed in terms of the frequency, or rapidity. cf is vibrations, For instance, the upper sting of che vis sounds the A which in present-day raning has a frequency ff 4go vibrations per second. Arched suing es be varied in piteh by varying the tension Sernged nsieuments ave sued by turing the roning pegs to which the stings are attached, Tightening a sein increases the frequency (of is vibration; hence rss its pitch Tae weight ofthe string hasan important influence onthe Frequency ig vibration. Thos the four serngs on the same instrument ay be identical in length but may ier widely in pitch becnse they are nade eo differ n weight Furchermore by making we of this principle, the ssngy ean be tuned t thei varios pitches without the necesty fof too grea a differen: in chet tensions. The lowe pitched strings tre no only thicker, ut hey arermade sil heavier by winding the gut tr steel with ine wie of copper sive, alumina, or other metals. Variation in the length ofthe string produces proportional variation in pitch A longer tring ibrates more slowly than a shorter one, other condition Being equal. tis oad, for example, tha halsing the cing Tength doubles the frequency and raises the pitch an octave “The ation ofthe lefhand agers stopping the string frmly against the fingerboard shorters the sounding length of the string, thereby raising he pitch STRINGED INSTRUMENTS s In the diagram, nce thatthe sounding length of the string in motion by the bow, i the between the stopping Grger and che bg. The renminder of the sting will of course be sien. Since having the string length rae the pitch an octave, the point ax which a string i stopped resound the octave above its open, oF un topped, pitch wil be exactly one-half che tance fom nut co bridge If we with to rae the pitch another octave sve will ind te pot stopping ove half che distance fom this mile point ro the ridge, oF thse fourths the real sing ength from the nt Bes principe demensraed is chat fingering a given imerval does notimply covering fixed length of ting buts lenge tha diminishes tthe hand snoves toward the bridge. When plying a suceesson of taal intervals on one string, the fingers mesure of noe equal divisions of sring length but proportional dvsions. For example, on the vila 4 major second above an open string means a dicance of about 134 inches, wheres che same inteval in avery high position measures les than ' inch. A major second above an open string on the ion mea tres about 114 inches, on the ‘cello about 2% inches, and on the bas howe 4% inches ‘Another characteristic of ring Bingerng is that when the hand iin ‘given positon on one sringthe Sngers can readily stop tones on any of the four strings, without the necessity of moving the hand. Each‘ INSTRUMENTS postion i idensfed by a number derived from the number of dstonie rep beeen the fis ager andthe open string. In string technique, and also nthe fingering of wind istrumens, the index finger, not the ham seal ee inge. Fig ¢ Detsled dessiprion ef the fingering syste of the several stringed insrumenes willbe given in succeeding chapters Teis posible to stop nites on rw adjacent strings in such away that the bow ean sound both notes at once. This i called double stopping. Triples and quadeuplestops (chords) are ako feasble, alchough te vill presently be sen ght the sinultaneoussound of three or four notes texnmot be prolonged by the bow oe ma Figs In the orchestra, double notes are eustomarily divided berween the revo players reading from the same desk. The part should be marked Ui, Ulan for divided (Fe aise; Gee, geet), most often ab- teviated to div. The righthand player at each desk takes the upper rote. When the part retro singe nots should be marked unin Fr, ice geet) usally abbreviated si Wf double nots sre writen and che compuser wishes each player to play al the nots, sary mom di. (in German fe sed only when there ting doublestops, he writes prec scares usally Doppelrif). Ths indica ismore tan one note prevent dividing STRINGED INSTRUMENTS , A division ofa section into more than ewo parts would be marked dion 3 (Pe dio d 33 Gen, drifacb get indications fn the individual players muse to show which par each i to pay Sometimes the divided parts ae given separate Hines inthe seor, for Tegiblity If the parts ate complex, eter results may be obtained by ving by desks (Ie da og Fr par pies; Get ple) th ‘odd-numbered desks taking the upper par. TE only half the members ofa secron are to play, the partis marked bol (Its le mets Fr la mvt Ger, de Halfe). The players on the Jefe ar each desk will hen remain slene unc given the indication all (ert; Fe, tous Ge. ale In che playing of stringed instruments the tone is given life and warnth trough the ose of vileato ofthe let hand, This is a combi ‘on of impolses involving the muscles of the hand, west, and arm, and insefece tthe fingertip isan ost ipercepible oscillation in pitch lof the note, The vibrato i employed on all stopped tones excep those ff shore daration and needs no indication for Ws use. However, there fr times when one prefers the peculie tone quality obtainable only by suppressing the vibrato, in which ease the direction senza eibrato shouldbe given Fig. 6 Vilin Bove The bow stick i of fine, ght wood, generally Peranbuco, which isremarkablef ry. The stick i eurved inward towand the har, and, when the hat tightened by means ofthe serew atthe heel ofthe bow, the resulting tension brings ito play the reence of the sick, an important factor inthe varius bow strokes. The hari horsehair, although ia recent times other material uch a nylon, have. INSTRUMENTS been tried. There ate overa hundred haisin a woin bow. leis the habit cfatzing players to rubaspecially prepared resin onthe bow hrs 0 help in scearing the rghtamount of fscion on the strings “The bow ished Gel, yer Bighely, berween the fingers and thumb of the right hand, a shown in Fig 6. The fie finger i ina position to exere varying presure on che bovestic, while the ll fi ised mainly to balnce the bow, acoeding cits postion on the ering. (The so-called German syle of bowing forthe double-biss will be eseribed later) The bow is drawn at ight angles tothe string, ordinarily at apace about halfway betwen the br Toudee and moe bilan tone, and forthe normal prodvetion of high ‘notes, the bow plied nearer the bridge. Fr softer rones iis moved ro dhe Bagerboard The hair may be placed Aa, so tha all the fairs ae in contact with the strings but usualy the bow is turned on ‘cig, that only prt of the ht engaged. This enables the player rol the amount o hiring used. For the violin and viola the ties sway from the player; for the lo and bass the opposite more thd theend ofthe fingerboard. For The part ofthe bow near the pint i called the upper pare ofthe ‘bs that neater the hel the lower part. Whe the bow is drawn star ingat the lower part and proceeding toward he point, straightening he clo jot the Bow are more clearly expressed by the French (drawn) for dove Up-bow. The signs mn (dowen-bow) rake §elled down-bow. The opposite is up-bow. bows, and pousé (pushed) and v (op-bow) ain iver use. Ino sues ae marked, each note cll foe a change in the direction ofthe bow STRINGED INSTRUMENTS ° ex. 1. Franck—Syupbony peryeed. Bulenburg ‘hese changes inthe direction ofthe bow are made by a good player swith pracilly no brea in the continuity ofthe tone, by virte of {hupple wrist anda sllfol e»eiaaion of all muscular movements ‘When slur are marked, all notes under one sur are to be played "in one bow”, that, with no change in direct the bow x. 2 SchubereSymphony me. 5 p. rgd. Eulenburg A siolinist would instinctively begin the phrase shown above with an up-bow. The up-bow,insting syle, s sociated with the up-beat, fr anacrini, whereas the down-bet, 8 in Ex. 1, suguests a down-bow to the player. [cis impasse, and often inadvisable 0 apply chs rincple to every upbeat cr downbeat, but the principle i con finally in evidence in good towing. Fora vigorous attack ona ng noe to bef cord or accent, itis well t begin down-bos, changing immediaely fo up-bow. This change of bow will not be perceived by the ear if propery pecformed, nd wil permit the use of the mare energetic fboven-bow for bch techs. lowed by a down-bow» INSTRUMENTS x3. Becthoven-—Coridanur Overtre pt, ed. Philharmonia There isanatural tendency towards crercendo inthe up-bowe, duc to 1 increming leverage of the length of bow co the left ofthe string, dnd Hewes endeney cowards dinuendo in he down-boss. Whale these endencies a recognize them when plating the bowing ofa pas ded against by the players i is advisable co Teas evklen tha the bow must move up 3 auch as moves down Bocif the up and down motions are of unequal rime vale i rpeans that the bow muse move at anuncven speed, cus making dcule wo mai tain an even dynamic kve. The bowsng indicated in Fig. 7 will in tvtably case the hid nd sath beats to sound louder than the other, Since the sae length of bow mus be used ro play two sxtoenth notes in up-bow as war wed to pay four sstenths in down-bow “= mathe, ~ fe ES rer |A mote even tone wil be achieved by a owing which restores the balance of up and down, beth in quansey and ae of m Ina legato phrase the shangesin direction ofthe bow are d by combined factors of intensity, dynamic level, tempo, che length of the bow, fingering, ete. Any melody can be bowed effectively in many different ways and icisno wonder that concertmaster often dbagree STRINGED INSTRUMEN IS 0 sstoshe best way to bow a given pease and are seen even now matic ing changes in the bowing of such well-established elisis as che Beethoven symphonies x, 4 Becthoven—Symmpony 90.4 pated. Kals Pethaps the commonest bow stoke stat which changes direction foreach nore, As mentioned shove, the change ean be made without breakin he tne, Bur this stoke, known by the French term détach, is usually performed so that ane hears che articulation of the bow changes The notre nts detached fi tne thatthe eee foul be called staccato, The détacé ean be described as noslegao ‘Ordinarily ics payed inthe mide or upper tied ofehe bow. 57d Philharmonia This sol rotake advantage of its exe lightness there, ad atthe heel forthe he someimeswied a the point of ake weight ocesionaly wastedActhe x6. Ba Asthe INSTRUMENTS pine (El pote; pote sdk-—Concerto for Orchestra pe 7d. Booey & Hawkes dom; le a allo; Get am Frosch): sus —Don Quote ps ed: Philharmonia STRINGED INSTRUMENTS. n of sees a series of down-bows canbe wsed near the eel ofthe Bow the bow being up-bow motion between the rte. Tifed with a wife 18, Stravisky—Le Saere de Printemps pried. Ruse A combination of legato 8 lesown a lor. This i nicted by a dish over each note, with slurs to show the bow changes. The fst inger regulates the rather gents tree she continuity of the tone by controlling the peesure onthe stick, aided by a subtle slowing ofthe bow withthe wrist,x. 9, Sibelius Symphony no. 2 Sraceato bowing is of wo typer—“olf the string” and “on the string." In moderate tempo ands dyna level fom pismo to meszo don che sting with sort of semicirelar forte, the bow isd ‘motion atthe middle ofthe bow. The bow rebounds, although i s par lifted by the writ, The Ieaan word és 2 (detached) i Applied by sting players co bowing tha makes wie ofa springing or bouncing ofthe bowie. Ie isalso called saltando (jamping), There is much disagreement ove the exact application of these tems. Bot fortnately the composer or orchestrator isnt ealed upon to indicate hee with dymamie more precisely than by doe over the nots, signs and tempo masks, she quality of music that means to 8 sting Player epiccat,saltendo,or off the-sting se STRINGED INSTRUMENTS 1s x, 10 Besthoven—Symipbony no. + .38,ed- Kalas Serene Seaceao playing in fase tempo doesnot call for ating ofthe bow, be the shore, quik dovsne anc up-bows made by che wrist alone, ia the dl ofthe bow, ease th the hiro spring off the string vith ech stoke eto bounce, a this in rar cases 14.18, Rosini—Ocerture to Wiliam Tell Passed. Kalas Another typeof bouncing bw usally elle by the French jeré (thrown). eis played near the pong, and the bow i ne thrown but the sting wih aight down-bowr motion, and allowed {Groups of ewoto sx notes can be played on being doss under a sur, sometimes with the mile sure ofthe bouncing eet dropped to bounce of irs own word ali6 INSTRUMENTS. ex 12, Rinshy-Korskofl—Capriccio Espagnol. 73,64. Kalu The bowing sed) isan on the-string xe ‘ato (Fr, marelé). The bow is noe permieed and the aoke is very swift, with abrupe star and st the not, whether in pmo or fort, might be imagined inthe shape of an ‘oblong block wich square ends. Although is usually played with che Upper part ofthe bore, the arelao stoke may be sed at the heel, fore the added weight ofthe bow contributes 0 the vigor of the p. The sound Jenee—Sympony v0.9 p.r42sed Philharmonia When several notes under aslur are marked with dors, the intended may be aceomplahed with a bouncing tow, usually up-bow 4s in Ex. 14, or with che bow held firmly on the sting sharp stops being made by the wri asin Ex. r. The later bowing is known 2s slurred sacesto x. ig. Mahler—Sympony mo. 4 P. sed. Philharmonia" INSTRUMENTS ex. 15, Stravinsky Orpheus eae. Boosey & Hawkes SSS aS “The rhythm of doted eighth and sstenth, in fase tempo, is mo “often played a alurred saat even when not so marked. This bow ing is india by slr with don te sintecnth note. Kes the fs note that is shortened, however. The same bowing is used forthe (qarter note followed by an eighth in siceight tine x. 16, Besion Fanti Symphony p-s5.68. Bslenborg For igh, crip effet this may be done at the pone of the bow swith up-bow on the bes STRINGED INSTRUMENTS ” ex. 17. Weber—Eurynthe Overtire p29, Phiharmonia “The various bow strokes described ar tobe found in countess com bination. True knowledge oftheir appropriate ue comes from long seudy and experience in playing cing instrument, to which must be added real understanding ofthe music. The student of orchestration should begin early the practice of marking the bowing of sing par Whenever he this of piste for sings he most always Smagine hove it would bese be bowed, within the linits of his knowledge ‘Through til and olwervation much ean be learned abou this most igs marked in pri ein performance, Composer are seldom exre- always leraly fll fal indicate all bowngs, ad ome markings are the result of editing ‘What the composer actually wore i evidence of his wishes, and this boas for study by conductor and concermaster 35 t0 the best way to realize the compene" intentions. Here sa all maces of a there plenty’ of room for diferences of opinion and iterpeta- forms the Accents are ade principally withthe bow, bu an accent may alo be impared by the left hand by means of «siden quickening ofthe vibrato by a more foreefal Birger stoke, ot by both. Fe depends on whether the accented note sade by iting the finger (Fig 98) or by Aropping ic onthe sting (Fg. 9b). This e-hand accents nearly al ways combined withthe bow acsentin vigorous and rhythmic passages.Accents are of course relative tothe general nuance ofa particular one whether sofcor loud. Thereare diferent kinds of accents xeated by diferen modes of attack. The following figure atemprs to show graphically the shape ofthe tone inthe mest importan of these forms y a Fig. 10 ‘Composers in general sem to have been indifferent o these dsine- tions one reason being perhaps tha they are impossible to produce on the pianoforte, Therefore ic becomes a responsibility of the conduc tor to decide which type of accent i meant by the compose’ sign, and tse that eis properly executed To obrsin atone of very sft lating quality the strings may be dinecred eo play on the ngerboaed (Fe. se le touche; I, sl taters or sul ato; Gee, am Grifbret). The bow is placed so far from the ‘ridge tae its arly over the upper pat ofthe fingerboard, where theres greater amplitude in the vibration ofthe string 1 1M Debussy —Kondes de Printemps -38ed. Dorand STRINGED INSTRUMENTS a In this bowing are mast be taken chat to much pressure isnot pt upon the bows, lt i strike more than one sting. Playing over the Fingerboard is impractical on the E-sring ofthe violin, since the curve of the body ofthe instrument interferes with the proper placing of the bow. Is often indicated, neverthees, for pasags eanaig up toh positions onthe E-strings although the directive canaot be follow Titra, serves ro suggest the tone quality desired. Playing with the bow very close tothe bridge, ar even upon ic (Fr. au chevalet; Ks ponticelio; Ge. am Steg), proces special kind ‘of sound, due tothe bringing out of upper partials nor usualy head “The sound hasbeen eae glassy and metal, This effect generally combined with the bowed tremolo bx 9, Stesuss Symphonia Domesice p-67.ed. Asociaed Music Publishers eet oh om [oe omb | whl ple gpg When sua easier or sl ponticelo smo longer waned, the paris marked modo ordinaria, ox naturale “The bow may be turned over so the the strings ae struck with the wood instead ofthe hae (I, ol legno). This ia bowing used fr dry staccato effects, che bow-sick tapping with a kind of of-thestring2 INSTRUMENTS ex. 20, Brsten—Pantaagi from Peter Grime .16ed. Boosey & Hawkes 7 emp one ‘Obviously, one can expect litle sound to come from drawing the swond across he string since the amount of fieton i wey sal. There aenevertheles some imancesin sta bowing ol egno Ie isierestig that Gustav Mahler elit necesary to add fooxnore in the score of his Fist Syrphony to explain that the indica tion col legno and the bowing marked were no error. eof tremolo and x.21,Mahler—Syopomy no. 1 p-oted, Univeral em STRINGED INSTRUMENTS » i to be drawn across the string. The reten to normal bowing after ol egno indicated by arco “Thesvings are Fequenty plucked instead of bowed, The dizetion piszicato (abbreviated giza.) indicates tat this manner of playing sto be continued unt che word arco signifies that playing withthe bow i tobe ressmed, “Te right fist finger plucks the string, over the fingerboard, and che locher thie fingers hold the bow aginst che palm of the hand. The thumb may rst onthe edge ofthe fingerboard to steady’ the hand, a though this postion i noe always necessary or practical. The playing peston of “lo and bass permits pazicato also withthe thumb e pecaly for chords arpeggited frm the boom noe upward Changing from seco ‘ime, varying according tothe positon ofthe bow at the stant. A larger ierval must be allowedif the pizzicato follows a down-bow at the pong, whereas afer an up-bow at the heel ce change can be proctialyinstuntaneous, = unt of Prscato requires an apprecable an site| om os “These effecs although na common, are much better knowa today. ‘Some composers write ol legno Baruto (Get, geschlagon) forthe ap- ping, and ol lego tra (Get. gestrichen) to indicate that che wood “The reuen to aco after piasicato is slightly more inconvenient, a, it involves the quick adjusimen: ofthe bow int playing potion. Ac Siig lie than the following example isnot uncorsmon, however.» INSTRUMENTS x35. Berlioe—Haroldin lly prtgssed Bolenburg es a The pisieto is by ts nature a form of staceato. The sound dis way quite prompay, Differences are to he noted inthis respect be fheeen smal and large instruments, violin and double-bass, for instance. "The Longer and heavier rings wstain the tone much better than the shorter anes Open stags are more tesoant than thes topped by the finger. The sound ofthe fingered noes can be prolonged a Tile by vibrato, The quality of tone in pizicato canbe varied by plucking at di ferent points on the sing, and by the manner of plucking, from a gene stroking with the shy pat ofthe fingertip co a cwanging of fvch violence thar the string strikes against the fgerboard. There is Tccoring tothe postion of the left hand. ln higher also a difere STRINGED INSTRUMENTS Fa pstons the string isso shor tha che piaziato is far dry quality ‘hich at times may be sed to adeantage xg. RavelDaplitet Chloe p.132,0d.Darand by the Aiiuley of continued plackingby one finger. The eck of aerating firs and second fgets in fst psiato,aequeed by some players, by no means universal, Facorsfecing the practicability of fst pz zHesto playing include the ze c che instrument, the dynamic level of theme the amount of continnouspzzieato demanded, and the com plications in the passage fom the stadpoir of changes from one string fo another. The following san ample of succesful pizzieao writing at arapid tempo.6 INSTRUMENTS x. 25. Dukas—L’Appremi-Sorcer p-styed. Kalas Piazicato may also be performed with the fingers ofthe left hand wen the notes are so arningd that a fingers free ro pluck the sing, ‘when a finger so placed thait cn pluck asis ase after stopping 4 noe, Left-hand pieico i indieated by a exos over or under the STRINGED INSTRUMENTS ” poaned Schott 2x. 26, Seravinsky Symphony in oar notin pirrieato are arpeginted fom the up, unless ocherwite marked, A series of quickly repeated chords may be more effectively played by alerting back-and-forth ‘ovement, using one or several fingers. The direction of Imay beshows by perpendicular arrows, ot by the unl signs for op and down-bow mes qa guitar i aed Ravel Enfant e 38.08, Durand The arpegiated effect canbe held co a minimum by a sharp, sud den finger stoke, Two aotes cx be plucked simultaneovsly with wo Fingors. A scsght bracket tthe accepted indiation For this* INSTRUMENTS x28 Straviasky-—Ragtons pesved Chester Although poasibiesof nes sounds ro be obtained by prziato have not been explored by composers general, me new effets have been se pizecao sl pomicello and sul ast; pizicsto harmonics, ted, se picking with the Ginger the fingerboard, The lan is indicated by the sign 6 ear the nu, and snapping the string against 8.39. Baedk—Violin Concerto sted. Boosey & Fawkes SURINGED INSTRUMENTS » “The vibetion of a sr siouleaneous vibrations, ehone frequeccs vary ia the ai 12 5 4 cet These ibrationsarerepescted in che following diagrams, Points ‘marked wae called nodes. is composce of 2 number of separte, Lec usassume thestring to be the G-string of a violin. Fig. e+ could Ie wl be nord th th ifthe dvs of he sting showa in fig. he tne hot ofthe frequencies sown a Fg { “hee stand prsncins dog on se eed harmonise: Number one ithe fat omen ofc ne Te ees a ed ‘cond, third, fury snd Sith hamoncy, cur, ee pr | Hite teonenic tea ewe psn sn mii srength "Te umber an compare seo the mone ming tp 2 toe gets one ao tne, ning st sghthe sound of a catne from tha of aeelo plying the same note. We doo hear this comisation of harmonics aa chord The fundamental tone iso mich sronger than ite upper pasil that we ae regularly Azceved ine suing that ialone is what we hear a vibr ly atone ofthe diving nodes shown in Fig. 11 it wil be prevented mental bt i will cecinu to vibrate a inthe diagram, according the node chosen, andi wil snd the corresponding note shown by Fig. 12, For example the Gearing i touched lightly ata poine one third ofits length feom the nt, wile maintained in vibration by the bose The enie string vibrates as inno. jo Fig. x The note sounded isthat shown ano. sf Fig. 12, The stm result abiained by touch the other node 6 the same number, ewo-thrde of the way from nut to bridge. Tons Fe, son 1e is quite diferen: from normal stopped rones, since only those jaedinhismanner at called by string players harmonics monique I arom; Ger, F me). Thee paras are sounding that have s node a the pont touched, They are Indicated in nocation by (a) placing snl etek over the noe in tended to sound ara harmonic, oF (8) writing a diamond-shaped note atthe pith where she node producing the desired noe i found on the string. Fey The indication sul means that all sro be played on the G-string (Ger, G-Sute). Avcther meane of designating the string tobe wet preferred hy the French, i that of Roman numerals the highest sting bing always (eg, 1V* corde), (On the violin and viol ti posible to stop a tone with the fret Singer and athe same ime touch a node wich the fourth Finger. This STRINGED INSTRUMENTS Hn can alo be done on the ‘ello, wing the thumb and third finger. The rode which has been found the swont dependable ie that ofthe Fourth harmonic, one-fourth the new sting lngch, a poe represen rotation by the interval of a perfec fourth above the nate stopped by the fine finger. The ruling tone i therefore rwo octaves above the stopped rane. These harmorice are called artifical harmonics, as ‘ilferentiaced from nacutl acronis, which have open strings 3 fn. Ahameneal tones, Arial harmonies are indicated in oration by (a) placing asl ice above the yore to be heard as a harmonic, or (4) terting the fundamental eo be sapped by the fie niger ae» noemal rote and the node a fourth sbove aa dismond-rhaped note (Fig. #4) “The accu pitch ofthe tone intended i often added above, a (6). Fey otation (2) forall harmonies, leaving Composers frequently set the method of production to the player whether a artificial tural harmonics. The notation (8) i sometimes used when the lower tone isan open string. This is inoreec bu ely understood. “Till are pesformed by the motion of one finger, since the finger stopping the lower of the two tone held dowa throughout. Both tmajor and minor tills are good in al anges, che only exception being those on the lsest note of te instrument, where the alteration of open string and stopped nace dice not pr reas effective a rl at those on sopped notes. Trshould be remembered that sing eli the orchestra means a trill played simultaneously by 1 whole section, Snten first voins will ot key agre on the shythnie quantities fa eill on long note, and the elec wil not have the clear articulation ofthe same el given fay tothe ist He, played by asingle player,INSTRUMENTS A cil witha armonisinterval larger chan a major second i fin gered tremolo. I areal reno tf rwo notesata stipulated sped (sometimes called measured remo). itis advisable to write tne values fase enough o insie a rel eremolo, ortoadd the word tema, o tremolando, Shas are necessary to show fs ntended rather than an alteration the legato movement af heb x. yo.DebusyE*Aprsmidi dm Fnmme p38, Kas STRINGED INSTRUMENTS 3 tone string, the wo notes are held 36a double-stop; and che tremolo ‘effect has toe made by an undlating motion ofthe touching the ewo strings. Thi type of teemolo isnot the sme a & tue fingered tremolo, since ic licks the clear articulation of the finger srokes sex 31. Brahins Symphony me. p-tos,ed. Kalas “The division ofthe Sint vols inthe fst measure of Ex. 30 would cm on frst glance to be only theoretical, bi 3 way of making ‘re that both notes of the interval sound a exch change of bow ‘When he interval exceeds the limi of extension of che fi In the preceding example sane of the measure canbe played ingered tenolo (measured), while ethers require rv rings, ike those nthe fist aiesure. On the other hand. allare possible at double stops with undulating bow ‘The bowed temolo mae with quick up- and down-bow stokes, the lefehind holding the note or notes. Ii characteristic chest elec, capable of great dynamic range and variety of accentvaton, vupings, such as Violin* INSTRUMENTS x. 32, Debusy Ea or 18, ed, Durind Equally idiomatic in orchestral writings the continued repeition of bow strokes, zach ona series of notes, to give more energy and volume to the sting tone ex. 33: Morare—Symplomy, K. 543 8 ed, Philharmonia fea STRINGED INSTRUMENTS as ‘The mote isa three pronged device made of wood, met, bone, oF other materia, which cam be Be absorbing some ofthe brat resonating body ofthe instrament. The tone quality of muted stings i dificult of description, bu, once hear, its characteristic sound i cenily remembered. While one ofthe results of muting ito reduce the dynamic power ofthe body of scrings, the rac chan Js far more imporant. Mating shoul noe be regarded atthe primary means of gern w play sfly. A fine pier can be tetieved without mutes and urthermore, the special effec of forte with med strings may sommes be just what is wanted, “Time mast be allowed for putting on and taking off mts, a least ‘couple of measures in madete tempo. The more tine the beter, void confusion and lsturbarce. Numerous inventions to facia a ‘ick change have apes Jonto the bridge fo the purpose of d,sich as maces with sping elip, of money permanently insaled om the srings back ofthe brid ‘up against the bridge for mating, Te canoe be si that any ofthese Ihave met with complete acceptance by string AA gradual change to mote tone can be managed by dreeting the players to put on mutes one by one, or by desks marking the poine at Which alae o be meted ‘The indication to put onthe mut the Italian com sording, ot com serdino—plural tordine, of snd (Er, avee sourdines; Ger mit Dimpferyor gedomeft) “To all for removal ofthe mutes, the pssige is marked rsa sordini (Be, sans rourdnes; Ger ore Diaper), or via ordi (Bt dts ler sourdines; Ger, Dioupfer o be pushed ‘A change from the normal tng ofthe strings i called scordatara This has been employed to ecend the downward senge of bases and “eal on rare occasions. In Don Quixote tras asks the solo viel to tune the Cstring cB, and a snilar change asked of the ‘cells in Case's Paria fr Piano and Orchestra, The strings donot give heir6 INSTRUMENTS bese tone when altered more than a minoe second, and the inconven during performance seem to ence and disturbance cased by rtuni fverbalance the slight abaneage gained The we of teardatera fora change of tone colori another mate cuapreR two In Maher's Fourth Syinghony the slo violin in the second movement = fsa four stings tuned pa whole tone, to make isound "ikea cheap Fiddle” The eonceronater prepares 2 second instrument to we for this movernea, otha tunings avoid, | iy Fe, won Uy sions Ger, ¥ ue overall length of violin 23% inches. Minor vaisions I in proportions and ze are found in diferent models The body is rg inches long, the neck alle under 54 inches, and the sounding length of the aringy—that i from nu ro bridges slightly over 13% inches. Thelength ofthe bow i 29 inches “The top of belly, of she inarument is wally of pine ors Ick of imple in one or two pieces. Ebony’ wsed fr ee tee, fingerboard, nur nd ring pes Inside the body, the arched belly reinforced by a rip of woo! ealled the bas-bar, glued beneth# | Gesring edge ofthe fingerboard. A wooden sound poss held in plce by tendon bersween cop and back ata carefully chown spor nea the | sing side of rhe bridge, having the double function of suppor and communication of vibrations The f-holes ae characteristic openings of traditional shupe ac ithersdeof the (Plate on page 38) “The violin is supported between the chin and the lft shoulder. A chin rest atached a the lef ofthe epics helps hol che instrument so that ee lef hand i free tommove up and down the fingerboard. The neck ofthe violin is bet wet the thumb and the pal ofthe let hand, and the left elbow i eld far tothe right, enabling the Fngees to fal almost perpendicularly upon the stingstremely light and eee mx y4.5¢The following diagram gives the locition of the Fingers forall the ratural notes in the Fst potion fs drawn back close to the nat for Fo the [Estring, the interval beng minor second, stead of 3 major second as onthe other strings, The diagram ‘hips involving ore than one string. Lie sued ako for relation example, mm first finger on ‘one string to second finger on the nest higher sting i a eninor sith {om frst ager on one sig vo fourth ager onthe nec higher sing isan cctave, from second finger on one sting to third finger onthe next lower sring sa perfect fourth, ot, Perfect ifths le acros he a ight angles, Dopliaton by the forth finger ofthe open string notes A, D, and E isan advantage pecular tothe fist poston. There i, however, 3 marked difference intone quality berween the opcn string tes and those sapped by the Fingers. The former sound clearer and richer in| overtones, because the sting vibrates betwen the bridge and the hard ‘wood ofthe nue rather tan the flesh ofthe ingerip. But without the control ofthe finger the open tone is suscepcible ro litle modification by the bow, andi tend to sound with endive prominence. Further- org titchcannos be xjuned while plying (eonsidrthe note A a subdominant of F, and tena leading tone of Ba). These discrepancies, of ionaton are generaly tolerated asa necesary evil notably in the tse of naar harmonics, whose pitch is dependent on tha of the open string fundamental and slo in enksemoniclly notated pasiage. In THE VIOLIN Ex, 36, open G is assumed tobe a sitisfactory equivalent of F x. 56. Wagner—Tanhinsr: Bachan p.0,ed. Kelas a (Open string tones are wusly avoided in expreive melodie phrase, bbc they are regularly employed in fast scales and figures, Thel sound ischarcter of einglintraments and may even be expe as foah (bs 37. BeahnsSpomphomy mo. 4 p.tsgsed: Kelas A note affected yan acetal splayed withthe stm finger as the natural note On the G-string, he fs Finger plays Ab, As and Ag ‘Also the fit finger ust play the sharped open sting nore Gz. The Srudent shold make dager similar to that in Fig. 16, machin the locaton of the Bigerson the arngs forthe plying ofthe following passageNSTRUMENTS Fig 7 ‘Two notes in chromatic step telaionship ae by tradition played withthe mame finger This requires a more or les fad shift of the fn- nc, with a legato bowing, a certin anouac of fer on the si poramento i unavoidible Musiily, the ference berwcen (a) and (B), in Fig. 18 sone of tonality. The fragment (a iv understandable inthe key of G,and (6) in the key of Ap, 0 nention two possble interpretations. The un techodox fingering shown inc) is emily feasible, and the principle tt asin a sepaate finges for cach chromate step has in pate par Silly superseded the time-honored one, aby chs means a more dsnet tvculation is obtained, without sliding or poramenro. There can be no doubt ofthe superiority of fingering (e) for rapid pages, but i should be recognized that ata slower tempo the dif- ferentiation in harmonic isning suggested by (a) and (B) may be saciiced, not ro meation the elimination of eetain ies firmly estab ished in what we know as "iain syle.” Ici ru that harmonie de- telopments inthe twextith cenrry often demand complete accept hod ofthe harronie notation ofthe tmpered ale, bu the choice ‘ffngerng should be governed by mascal uber than by mechanical ‘considerations. "These ewo alternative fingerings ave shown inthe following sel CObwiousy the sound othe nger slides is eliminated fa déaché bow ing sured, but the lower older fingering remaies awkward even then Fig. 9 sin wih al nsrurentlsy wi 2 wel cing players Tr ot eabpolte bt elave value however. Observation an experiments these coded sant Pythagorean, js or earns oration Nor docs he player accep thetoreshe proce by xngthe prope ingerng jpeg the to constant contol and corres through the ear (> peat coue, inthe exe of nruent ike the Far or the pana ‘whos itch conn be aljsed whe playing) Tecan bed that lend. Ingres and chtomaicllyrsed nots at play sharp and ve ee tothc melodie dona wheres fa a the pounds of ther instruc The peel viraney noite inthe tone of 4 playing in union isdn put the mite ferences nich ha sof pitch, such as equal temperament sted notes are played lew oup of sings ‘As the hand is moved to higher potions new groups of notes lie lund he Singers“ INSTRUMENTS “The series may be continved upward, vith the quslifeaion that on the lower strings high tes ate incresingly dieu of production be tain of the shornes ofthe string in proportion ea is thickness. Oa the E-serng, ones can te plyed up tothe end of the fingerboard, and ven beyond, where digonie intervals bocome sale chan the thick- rest of the fingertips. The Ge writen by Straus in the fol imple is in the thitsath postion, and has 2 Of a File more than an inch and three-quarter ‘ess of violins doublec atthe unison by pce fare, Hp lazinet, and two other desk anding rin Tei payed by ewo atthe ‘octave lone by x 98, Stause—Aleo Syrach Zara THE VIOLIN Fingering athe top ofthe fngeshoard ie difcule ot only because ‘ofthe smallnes ofthe intervals and the extended poston of the hand, bot ao because the stings are paced fat ar the nut, to faiiate bowing The E two octaves above she open E-tring may be recommended as 4 good practical upper limir, exclusive of harmonies, for orchestral violin pars, ne apa atthe bre than “The hand is si tobe in af postion when the fist Fag sa half stop fom the nut andthe second fingerplays notes wally played by the fies finger, Certain combinations of notes are more conveniently fingered in thi eather erumped position (Ex. 39) sex 9, Stravnsky—Apoon Masagite p18 ed. Boosey & Hawkes In the fist position the lf and i eapable ofa stretch of an au rented fourth, an even a perfect fh, fom 8 Figher postion, extension ofthe f finger beyond the range of the postion is common procure (Fig.“ INSTRUMENTS In changing fom one postion to another, asliding finger acts 282 guide to the interval ef change. The hand may move to any of the Peastions but the comaonest shift i tha fom Fifth posion, ete, invlving a slid of a third, wally for the Bist finger (Fig, hid, third to Fy The guiding finger notnece postion. Fig. 35 (2) isa charac Slies from Tt 0D, bt the fourth fi The slide can be made so quickly a 1 be inaudible, buc ic often permited to sound for expresive iaensfcaion, Orher shifts ate Shown in (B)s (eds ane sly the sopping finger inthe new sition shit. The Sst fing ier stops G befoce D is hear When tte andthe syle of the musi allow, the finger chat is t0 play the second nore nay ake a slighe portent on the ting just Feiore reaching the mae. In a descending shift, the portamento on quitting the upper nore is kept toa minimum, ehe thumb accing as 2 fide co the lower poston The sling suns can be laced to near imperceptibly, oF they canbe chminated altogether, by skilfl manipulation of ehe bow and finger, However, hey are iomati in sing playing, and sometimes a particular fingering “hat will produce them is deliberately chose, THE VIOLIN ° le would exe Suppression ofthe portamento inthe fllowing exam tainly be inapproprine x qo.Strause—Der Rovenkscalir_p. 330, ed. Boosey & Hawkes Aue gland is bot and when i i properly exseuted all intervening stages of pte are sounded between the indisaed lini. vith one finger, on one string, wth legato x. 41. Ravel—Daplmni ot Coe 297, ed. Durnd “This plsando is scored ssunison and acres for first and second violins, vols, hall the “ellos and basics, ll om thei open A-Steings, tlding up and down two ocavesin fast tempo.INSTRUMENTS In Ex. 43, G-string sands writen could notbe ude on any other strings. and Acstting are desgnaed, although the gl ex. BartkDance Suite p.8,ed- Philharmonia Ieiseviden that composes fil to daingith berween portamcto and glisondo, and itis unnecessary that a pedantic dition should Isa, Portmento set ipl le tone, and oe thinks of» glisando as covering 2 fairly wide ier, tut these conditions are not muwalyexelsive. Cae should be taken in the notation roshow as accurately 36 posible the exter effect intended. “A sraight line from ene note to another comumonly used 36 sign of portamento although there is often doubt as ro how complete a Sle is wanted In Ex 4) areal glisando with one finger could be made where the lines are marked, bit, on the other Randy the Hines may be ‘Skea simply suggesting a musical tye in which more than usual Emphasis given to Ge porementor sociated with postion shifts Ex. qaismore problematical. A complete portamento from the C down to ihe Eis ot of the question, sine the Upper note coo high to take nthe Gutring, The mst the performer czn do ro make a smal slide nner of connecting tr the beginning and en ofthe descent. x3. MalecSyrplony mo. p18 ed, Philharmonia xa Mahler—Symphony 00.4 p-119.ed Philharmonia Likewise the glinando in the nce ple cannor be Frrally exe cated. After the open E is ceahed, something Uke rapidly fingered chromate sa tuted arta glsindo onthe Tower srings must be sub x. 45: Ravel La Vale ps9. ed Durand “To judge the degree of iiculy i fingering wide leaps one con sides the strings involved and the position displacement necesary. The ship of two octavesand amajorsnth in Ex. 4 pases from the G-string tothe E-tring, and thehand must move from fs position (hid finger (©) to seventh postion (fourth Enger A). This is equivalent to aside from C upto B for the third ger an interval of a major seventh 08 x 46. Brahms—Spmpbony ma. 3 p.4g,ed. Kalmus0 INSTRUMENTS Sinilaly, so crossover two stringsin thenext example, brit happens that the let hand does not have to ehunge poston 0 ply the to lower noes onthe G-string. All are i the sith poston, Except thatthe inital Bis beter played on the more brane E-sering in third posiion, ex. g7-Holst—Te Plante poagied, Boosey & Hawkes Skipemadeon one sting are ape co demand more displacement ofthe hand. nthe following empl, theleap of stent Fom Fe to A means shift rom fs co seventh postion, just forthe mach greater interval in Ex 46 xg Mahler—Symplony mo.g _p.at8yed. Boosey & Haw Ifthe two notes are 1 be sree, the interval mast be seranged 0 that either a single string, oF two adjacent scings, ean be employed since the bow could not play legato and a the sme time jump over imervening stings. x. 4p. Reger—A Romentic Suite, op. 125.48; Boe & Bock A shilfal player can give a fairly good impresion of a legato skip actos intervening sings by lightening and slowing the bow atthe THE VIOLIN, ” ight instant, Ie mst be sdmited, however, that heen eats are no de caved x 50. Berg—Lyre Sure Psd. Univers ‘Open strings may tke parcin passages in which the hand remains a athigh postion x. $1. Hindemith—Syompbony in EF 126. Schort Ses “More than one fingering ispasile for any succession of notes, and the oe selected isnot alae chat which s most convenient for the fingers. Sinplication of bowing, by climiaating sting changes, sometimes «predominant cosideration. Often a fingering with more position shifts is adopted in erder to preserve the aniky of fd special quality of a singe string, to give a partcuae expressive tum toa melody, ‘The student's attention i called to the importance of developing an appreciation ofthese ferences inthe sounds pro- dhced by stringed inseramens In recent years one noes strong tendeney toward a iberation of violin fingering technique frm the traditional system of postions. Ie feannot be denied that many ‘oreed snd unnatural finger postions are the esl of “correct” Fingering, and that these produce bad intonation, ‘Accomplished and experienced players ind that hey prefer to discover Singerings most sited othe sape ofthe hand, of thei owa individual hand, without reference to ccavenional patterns and positions, so chat the notes tobe played le caneniendly under the Fingers that are ro2 INSTRUMENTS ply chem. Doubts thee principles will one day be incorporated into the teaching of violin paying While here is much more unity of timbre i a seringed instrument than ina woodwing, tere extsin his rexpece sihin the homogeneity ofthe violin a eking verry and even contrat of colors and dynamic range. This is largely because four strings. Since the pitch ranges ofthe strings overlap, che posi forvarery are ile and we cannot deugnate characterises of Tow, medium and high registers as we do for wind instrument The Esring smu sel, The radical change to thismatera from gt in the interests of greater bilhance and dabiity, occurred in the fise quarter ofthe present cenary and ws fle by many to bea disaster because of the los of a certain silky and mellow quality stings are of guts although some orchestra players now use a metal A. The D-string ether of gr or gut wound with sluninu wire. The Gscing isalwaysa wound string slver or copper wie over gu being the contmonest materia D- and Gestings entirely of metal are ao sed The ning pegs to whic the strings ae stsched are held in postion by the friction ofa good fi. A knot ora loop attaches che ater end of| the striag tothe tipece, Metal stings cequire a special screw device fon dhe tlpoce for tuning ine diferencs. “The E-sring has the mor cazrying power. Forceful and even sti dent at ties, also capable of an ethereal quality, luminous and clear, when played softly (Es. 52). ofthe dlfrencsin sound between th 1x. 52 Milhaud Second Symphonie Suite p- 69,ed. Durand “The Acsting i sey strong inthe fs Tance and power the string Fecomes shore in upper postions. Foe 4 oft expresive phrase in that range, genealy prefer tp the Arsing rather chan pas ove to the E (EX. $3) x 5. Brahms Symphony no.3 -y.ed- Kalmus “The lene powerful string isthe Destring. Ic has a quiet, subdued gualty in coneast to the G, and is especially suited to certain calm types of expression (Ex. 5). Bx 54. Beethoven—Piamo Conertano.¢ payed. Philharmonia let for bon neds ring rh othe event or ehh prton, Aihogh has endency to Fuses inte etree igh tones, A Cau infor lois on he Ging woud be an ova and fourth above te open sing x59)x 55.Mabler—Symphony mo.3—_p. 213,64 Boosey & Hawkes ie illserates a way of avoiding loss of volume and ‘he weaker D. fore by wsing the G-sing instead for Orchestra pusbyed, Booey & Hawkes LLood accented notes on the G-string can be forceful tothe degree of x. 7. Rousel—Sy pony in G Minor P-soed: Dorand To signify thar apasge robe played oma certain string the pas gemay be marked rl 9 (or Do A), with a dowed line continaing 2s fara necessity. One should realize, however that a volt slets his Bngering according to the moscal and technical demands of the ‘moment, and aednasily sch indication are needed only when a special fect i incende. THE VIOLIN ss Mort viokin msi will eqite the use of moe than one sti a given plese. The passing fr eis done ina way to reconcile thee diferens and as far as possible to preserve com color and intensity — Qo The above representation of bridge, sting and bow shows how lil change in the clevaton ofthe righthand w necessary for the Bow toplay on different stings. The two strings ar once, whatever the poston of the lft hand (Fig. 353) Iecannor he drawn across three strings a one, unless eng the other two, Ths loud sad of shore duration (Fy. 258). Od and four pt ch ce that are in both three-part top sores are held ie noes (Fig. and). Tei the atom to ply the lower ane before the beat, I such anticipation Js cither che top n after playing the lower nore ed, notation like chit show in (e) should be employed,ss INSTRUMENTS ues coneene eo write te plan chord, relying on nce of performer and conductor for a proper ti chords ofthe Braica, che se The notation in poses gnc hn Se sal eh he her ire. (The erp ‘Mlinwramentsare ned at sta ch) lensed ex. Besthoven—Syuphiony no. 3 p-ived Kalmos The student can es: determine the practicability of any multiple stopping making diagram showing the lestion ofthe Finger atleast until he gains enough experience o beable co picture thse postions in ht imagination, The practice of making such dix dh gving hia thc experience. The fllowing the med grams will go far rove pins will be found wel in wating chords forthe violin THE VIOLIN 2 (One finger ean stop two adjacent sings a once (the interval of & perfect fifth), br i cannor seop three oF foe The less awkward andstesnedthehand position the eto theo will sound, and the los Hey tat i wil be out of tune. One goo rule isto try to ave the higher.numbred fingers on higher stings “The following two contrasting cass wil llstate this The hand poston for (a), with ts ourwad slant is practically that ofthe relaxed hand when the forsrm is held upwards. I (3), not oly ‘most the hand be forced into aevsted postion, but also the fee vib tion ofthe E= and Astrings sat tobe interfered with. Ie snot that the chords unplayable but that la) is auch more certain and effective Complex and awhwatd finger embinations need more tine cose in place than spl and convenien: oes. ‘Open stings are frequently ted in chords and doubles may be combined with stopped ots in higher posions (Fig They 2) Theo F Eis: Rig. 17 “The unison of stopped tone pecially in remot, open string is very’ resonant x59, Prokofell—Chowt passed. Gueell“The finger positions for thre: and four-part chords ate often the bis for arpegyio figures actos the strings. The bow may pla legato back and forth (Ex. 6), or itmnay bounce lighly by is own elasticity (Ex. 63) x. 6, Wagner—Die Wathare: is Liebestod p-1s,ed. Eulenburg x. 6, Rimsky-Korskof—Capriccio Expagnol po, ed Kalmus Although harmonics ate primarily colors resource, the octave harmonic frequently employed 82 normal ron in the melodic ine, whether of not the comporer has so indste, 44 ed. Eulenbu THE VIOLIN ” “The upper lint for natural harmonics on the violin is generally placed atthe fifth harmonic; eat wo octaves and a major third hove che open string. In pacts, the higher harmonics would pro tly he taken a8 artical harmenics, up ta the fourth or fh position fon the E-seing, although sil higher harmonies have been writen (a) 1.63. Capland—Sy wny no 3 pr asied, Boosey & Hawkes are numerous of hish pedal notes in harmonics, frequently with boveederemoo, Their effect enhanced by mote; and in soft ‘nuances chords in harmonice for divide viling, mute make ana tracive background of atmospkric color. Artifical harmonics in quick succession, with cither lege or taché bow involve continual shin, much ike playing amelody with ne finger. x. 64 Milhaud Symphony no 2 p.tt0d, Heugel “The glisando in narra harmenice i efeciv with aby of strings “The upper hat ofthe strings brshed lightly wit the hid o fourth finger, Une harmonics sounding 2 the nodes. There is no sound of portamento berween the notes.o INSTRUMENTS x. 6s, Stravinsky Oe de Feu 12,6 Broude Bros An unusual, diate effects obesined with an arpeggio acros the x, 66, Ravel L'Heure Espagne p. tated: Darand af “The artificial harmenic eeated by touching a perfect fifth above the stopping fs finger sounds a twelfth above that fundamental. Ke ted in orchsteal scores, but some instances are found in snfern msi. x.y, artsk-—Dance Ste p- sted. Philharmonia In score reading i esential to ear in mind thar a string pare i played by a number of players a whole section of sxten first violins, THE VIOLIN a for instance, a opposed tone player toa part inthe case of woodwind (or bras. The two sections of vin fr eutmumber any ether group, while presenting on the printed page a ook of equality “The part fr second violins, ina symphony orchestra, fers een technics difculty from that ofthe rst violins. Indeed, one of the ‘commonest functions of the second won ito double the fs athe id besa of ‘ison or octave. This was necesary ia the clasical ps the comparatively small omer f vokns avilable to balance horns and trumpets. Bat loin modern times we Find that over tice a many ‘olinsare stil not adequate oeope with the sonorty ofan enomsly expanded bras section, ‘The fie wolin par wll she rp woe ofthe sti the Ingest share of prominent thematic material. Seated on the left of the conductor, athe edge ofthe stage the fs violins play with hei instars in the most adeantagsous poston elaive to the audience If the scond violins are seated onthe right, in traditional fashion, thse instruments are turned aay fm the auience and some sound i Test If they are massed with the fest violins, as some conductors prefer. they ar sill dominated by the fist violins who are between them and the listeners, and the elec of independence and antiphony’ often Smagined by the composer i meh eeduced. Thi sone of the many acoustical prollems standing inthe way of an exact science of orches- "The scond violins my have asccondary mloic part, or they may, for variety, be rbstivted forte First vol. They may’ engage in a6 companimen figures of every st ether by chemselves or asociated ‘with rst ions or othe strings. In Ex 8 nthe fist and third mee tres, he two seccions alternately pay figures fom a single Hin, giving Jemore security and energy throgh te smpbfention ofeach pare and the overlapping unions a the joins. and carriea INSTRUMENTS, x. 68, Brahins—Sy ony pesssied Kalas THE VIOLIN e Divided violins py cher instruments, 11 the folowing excerp, the arings are reduced (0 inpartsmay be employed unaccompanied by four first violin, si 14s; Eslenburg sieges ee es ofthe nineteenth and twentieth centres contin parts for slo violin, robe played by the concertmaster. Thee ola parte vary in importance frm the ocexsionalpheses in Wagner and Mahler ro developed obligato of coneerralike proporsone snd wierosiny, 3 in Bin Heldenleben, by Richa Sao. The reson for choosing the sound af solo violins aot merely that a eduction in volume sugte A single instrument posses a intimate intensity in its tone quality and expression; by comparison te complet ection sounds formal and innpersonal. This sone of che motivating factors in the tend toward the snall orehestrs inthe twenveth century An acoustic phenomenon tobe noted when the solo violin plays in the midse of 2 lage orch heard, eis well nown that eonsrumtens playing the sae part do not erste twice the fonorty of one, Their overtones are dulled by ‘minute pitch differences and, mezeover, their individual expresivencs is eanecled in favor of a composite level. The solo violin laying an independene par, can inno way 9 looked upon a merely the siteenth part of the fs violin section, Performers are cognivan of thc atts, or approaches, aloped in the playing of mac, These are the orchestral style, the chamber 1 its surprising ability to make itelfa INSTRUMENTS style, Playing in an orchestra, ehe individual inthe mas. In chamber ansie syle che musi styl, andthe dows hse tobe ab performer retains hit individoaley whe sharing ie onan equal bass With his asocinres The soloist properly asertive and aggresive, striving to project the muse with all the vigor and authority a his fcommand, Thi attitude contributes tothe disinetion of the solo violin THE VIOLA wf the viola cannot be as nearly defined a hose I ‘ofthe violin, which ean be stil co havea standand size within ‘quite sal iit of aration Fine vols ex, and are being played, whose measurements show variations af 1 03 inches in body length, and comparable difernces in sounding string lengths. Ke sem that every imaginable combination of messrements hasbeen tried in the as yet unfinished evolutionary proces, the goal of which isto the viol’ sound and eapabiliies, This common ideals being delayed in ts erystalizing by an unusual divergence of opinion among per formers composers, an listeners, both asco wha kind should produce and what kind of msc should be expected to ply The viola presents an specially marked example ofthe coninaity of the evolcionary proces, which we cannot assume to be completed in the cae of any of our instruments ‘A hypothetical norm or average may be given for the principal measurements: length of body 16s inches length of neck 6 aches, ‘overall length 273 inches; wounding length of strings 15% inches. Even the anges violas are nti eno toeorrespond tothe pitch 2 perfect fith lower, and this discrepancy doubles responsible in lage pare forthe wig rane quality of the viola The larger the instmnt the more dificoe i is ro handle, ee ecially when plying in upper posions The bow isomewhar thicker than the violin bow and hence heaves tne the viola“ INSTRUMENTS. The vila's heavier sings speak with more relucrance, and tone pro- duction requires aertain amount of fof bowing are therfore ler natural to the viol than to the violin They are nor eo be shunned, butane should reaize that only sill iggngin” Light and airy pes players with good istrumenss ean m The two lower stings are wound with wr, the others beiag plan gut. Some players ws wound strings forall fou, and metal A-sings ae aso used, ‘them sound effectively “The fingering syem of the vila is ideal with that of the violin Since there dflerence the msjor and minor second intervals between the fingers are propor” ‘ionaely larger, lying the vols requis a lrge hand an trong fn ne 215 ches in the two string lenges tet, particularly the Fourth finger, which is held in a more extended poston than on the inn, The extension of the left forear inthe first pston proves tring after long playing. Positions above the thied are Inconvenienced by te awhwatdnes of geting around the shoulder of the viola with ee let hand, THE VIOLA o “The harmonie obcinable by extension of the fourth finger inthe seventh poston & shown in the diagram, a it represents a practical Spper lini for orchestral wrdng. Except as harmonics, nots higher than ths are rarely writen and nary always they are doubled by sx. 70, Prokofief—Chowt ps3 0d. Gurhell “The norma lef forthe vil ithe alto clef (middle Com the third Tine), The tchle clef (G ele) is emp stantially abore the range ofthe alto clef fora length of time. Too many clef changes should be avoided. A violist is quite accustomed to reading «wo or three leger lines above the afl, and he would prefer to do ap ruther than change cle for just few noes. Because ofthe wider spacesberreen fingers, the af postion is more convenizat on the viola than en the iin and is more Frequently sed 8.71. Brahms—Syompony no. Aajectives used to decrbs the tne of the vol, or of any other instrument, cannot do more tun dict the students attention €0 cet tain admicedly general and vague atcribtes. There i no way othero INSTRUMENTS than acta! hearing to core up the memory impressions that mae pos "ble the mental hearing ability indispensable forthe practice of the art 1. One must develop the capacity to call 10 mind the Sound of each inserunent, comparing i co other instrument, but it B also important co diinguish dif wality presen in of orchest cach single instrument "The top string ofthe vol p thre strings. timbre has be ing, and sandy, Ie has atendeney t goes without saying that a good performer Keeps a smooth balince in psig from the D-sing co he 8. The A-strng's individuality is well xhbied in che following example ens a striking contrast 0 the oth esr a al pieteng, penetat ound unduly prominent, bv x. 72 Shostakovich Symphony no. 5 The Din ‘weigh ehan the D of the violin. les, with the Gost fof the viola fr che many’ kinds of accompaniment llo.ed to it and its exellent for melodies like the Following, Here the vols payin oc fate forthe rest ofthe phrase is unsbrrusive and gel, although it has more tone igs the best part tre commonly es with the obve for ewa measures and with che 14.73. Brahens Symphony no. 3 Pooved Kalmus THE VIOLA o While the Gstring is subdued in comparison with the A- and (C-atings i gives richer and warmer tone than the violas G. x 74: Debussy Nocturnes: Nuages Proved, Jobere “The Cstring of the viola isthe only one beyond the range of the violin. ris powesfol and disncrive in eimbe. Ae ‘with part of the range of the ‘cella ts ronce ae in sharp cones £0 the sound of che Dring ofthe “elo, Thoe wha look for subjective uals find ic foreboding snd menacing. in te following example Srith vigorous dctaché bowirg, inthe lower half of the bow such solidity and energy . 5x75.Dartik—Concerto for Orchestra pqs ‘The Csting it alo eapable of soft dicate tones, a inthis a compuniment figure far divided viol70 INSTRUMENTS: Pedtsed. Kalmus of the “The situation of the viola in the m strings eens to Bave made it the sist member ofthe group. [isnot le of the pitch rang only or nels ofits own, butts consanly called upon to double violins at the octave of unison, o ie may double the ells or fren the bases, The character and the sound ofthe viola are more ‘hited o singing melody than tothe performance of ale figuration. he viol to perform a great dal of haemonic filing up. Viola par in scones of the elsist period and later abound swith pasages in double mores, often without indieation as co wether frmottheu are to eplayed dk, The face cha hey are nea alwys practicable a doublestops, by good players sess chat this may fave been optional, bu iti era that she results neater and thei tonation more secure when the parts divided, Example 77 shows tht Mozart considered violas entirely adequate and suitable for the in portant ecumpaninene atthe beginning ofthe G Minor Symphony x.77-Mozatt—Syiphony in Minor K. 550. pte Philharmonia Ag mt Si The absence of double nres in the vila pare contributes to de transparency and feenes ofthe orchestration of Magic Plate wheseis on he other hand the massive vibraney ofthe Beethoven ttc shown in Ex. 78% largely due co the violas three-part, fe Overtuce ro The THE VIOLA 1 tremolo on che lower strings. Held chords for winds are omited from the example sx 78. Becthoven—Violin Concerto P.fved. Euleaburg When wis i aon de Causing asin mesure 2 of che exe example, they mst of course be played divi. 1B 79. Wagner—Prede to Parsifal p-s3,ed. Bulenbueg Tn a modern orchestra ther are usually twelve violas. Inthe period. ‘of Haydn, Mozar, and Heethoven, the number was at most five with sicto ten fist voline and six even aecond violin. Violas have a heavier tone tha vctns, and in clasial scones theres good evidence thatthe divided violas were choughtasuficint balance forthe combined fit and second volo, ‘Also there are numerous istancesin which these divided vols are ‘combined with wind insrusnnts like the fllowing.INSTRUMENTS x. Bo. Mocart—Symphony in C Major, K. 200 p.,ed Philharmonia SS i THE VIOLA 2 The practice of dividing sols reins widespread to the present day, although one cannot say it onsite enough ro become the rule, There ate many scores (eg, Ravel's Daphne Chloé) in which the vols are given regularly two lines in che score, There at ikewise scores in which divide w in). Ieisnow mandatory to mark cleaey eth there aze double nots lasarea rarity (eg, Strainaky’s Symphony iv or non do. when ‘A light bas situated inthe stave below mide Cis sometimes bet ter given to vols than ro ‘cello ia citer arco or pizscato, x, 8, Maler—Symphony mo.7 236; ed. Bote & Bock one | Ee leis wise to adhere tothe principle tha che maximum stretch from Seto Fourth inger ithe equivalent ofa perfec fourth on one string,a INSTRUMENTS for chords and doublestops in the lower postions. The playability of any combination em be judged by making dngrams simile eo those ‘vised forthe violin. Three part chords wil be found more generally tseful than four-pare chords unless fil heavy effet is wanted, and ‘opetsspaced chords sund beter than those in close poston Ta thefllowing example of vol passage in ull ui the double stops and chords are slfully chosen to give the maxim sonosty. Notice the large numberof open string notes employed. 1 82, DIndy—Sympbony on a French Mountain Air B.s3ved Durand All harmonics are good as on he violin, Arial harmonics are seldom written abovethe tied positon D on the A-sting x. 83, Schoenberg Serenade p- 40,68, Hansen coll ed en ret i Several notes abore this D are perfecely playable a ati har monic, but there is ee cession fr their asignment ro violas rather than co violins. The lower pitched harmonics ofthe viola ae ia a ose generally sel range or the glsndo 1 harmonics, the longer string makes posible the extension of the natal serie a8 far athe ninth partial. Nosce the inclusion of the seventh harmonic in dhe following example THE VIOLA ” x 8, Seavinsy Le Stored Printompe P toed, Ruse Te is noticeable between the various stringed instruments that the greater the string length the more resonant ate the tones played pi Heat. The vol pizzicatoislghly rounder, less dry and shore, than that of the violin in compar ligh notes on the Acsting tend to sound haed anil wocden above E or F. This quality may be fumed ro advantage in appeprate sical circumstances. Ta the next. example the viola doubles ce fst oboe at che unison, he fs fae playing an octave above, x 5. Kousel—Suate ons p. 0,¢d. Durand feet ‘An example of extreme high pizrcato is found in Alban Berg's Vio Tin Concerto, where it is employed in unison with harp, ewo Aes, and wo clarinets. Iris intresing to note that whereas these instruments are playing fj, the violas ae marke f6 INSTRUMENTS. x. 86, Berg—Violin Concerto p-r0,ed, Universal er ngs pe tebe int Ses Ac another place inthis work, Berg indicates picicato co be played over he fingerboard (Grifbrert) and then athe bridge (Steg). ditferences inthe manner of packing the string have beea litle sudied by composers although used by players to obtaia variations of tone quali. The score alo contains the following example of left-hand we open C- and Dstriags, while che bow plays om the pieriato on Gating x. 87. Berg-Violin Concerto p-46,64. Univeral com yy Be — “The tone quilty ofthe vio lends itself expecially well othe effece of bowing close eo the bridge. Examples ae namerous, most often in ed tremolo (EX. 89) 14 ed. Broude Bros x , Debussy —Gignes p33; ed. Durand “The bow is frequently moved near tothe bridge in the course of normal plying in order eo obtain more bite inthe tone and a ensper thythmicatack Ths is doubles the purpose of sme uses of the in iat sud ponticelo. The mute i a pratcalobsacte tothe propee poston ofthe bow fora realponticclla effect x.go.Strauss—Der Roventscalr —_p.sogyed. Boosey & Haves ‘The slo viola i not as Fraquently sed inthe orchestra 18 the slo violin, perhaps becnse its fitch and tone quality ae such dati is casly covered by accompanying sounds, Nevertheles, there are many fine examples of succesful writing fo solo viola in symphonie sores. [Example 9 isinterenting forthe rather lively typeof melody given vo the viola in contrat to the more usual owing. phrase, lke that in Ex. 74 The very light ace fof a held D in the strings he rhythm marked b agp, and two slo violins pressive kind ofisn Rbapiody no.2 .26,ed. Enoch cts in Le Seer du Prin. cto in ‘ella and bases p-8o,ed. Ruse Division ofthe violas ea fanple. Pars ae writen tne fr each player x 93 Strause—Dow QuinoteTHE VIOLONCELLO Fe, eolncille; Ke, violoncello; Ger Violoncell se violoncello commonly known a the cll. leis pitched an I ‘octave below the vol, and although it general meararemens tre not proportionately large enough fori ite, compen tion for this found inthe grey increased thickness feom top to tock, The main dimersions ofthe cll are approximately 25 fellows ‘overall lenge, 48 ince; lengeh of body, 29 to 30 inches; length of feck, 14 inches, sounding string length, 27 inches thickness at sides, of bridge, 381 inche In playing postion, between the player's knes, the neck pointing o ‘ent supported on xe floor by means ofa adjustable pe tha sides ‘ur jase belo the endo the apiece. Usually the A- and Dosrings ae of plain gut, the G and C being svire- wound, In recet ines, however thee isa noticeable inerese in i left shoulder, he instr the use of metal forall four sings. Fig 25 0,00 the “The patterns shown are the basic forms in the fst pos (C-sring, The normal compass from fist eo fourth finger i a minor THE ‘CELLO 8 third In (2) the minor hid ismade up. wed by faminor second; hence the thd Finger for E- In (6). the minor second tomes Firsts Ep taken by the second finger. Al our fingers fll ito asequence of half seps in (c). The pattern i (d) inelades an exten tbsed on the principle tha a major second strech x posible bet fis and second finger. “Transpoiion of thse pattems upwards by Bits wil give the notes obtainable onthe oder thre sings a major second fol The traditional datonie bas forthe numbering ofthe left-hand portions on stringed instruments becomes somewhat illogical when applied ro the cll, since the oacng of the fingers would seem to sug esa progression by half step The following Figure gives che pat (@) from Fig hand moves datoniclly inthe direction ofthe bridge Fig.30 As in iin ingering, these designations are retained even shen the patern is raised or lowered by eheomati alteration, iavo¥in ‘cello a diplacement ofthe entre hand. Some ‘elists have sought more accurate terminology, using such terms a8 raised fet postion Incered second postion, immediate portion, and one-2id-ahal postion, te Ina two being psliedenarmonically. The half postion fused 2 onthe vols,c INSTRUMENTS, SSF tt pti = First poston; lowered fist ———= First poston; ried Gist pos SS ion, ‘oneandaall positon; - imermediat poston Second pstion; lowered sec: 1d position; one-and-a-half poston; intermediate postion Figs Because the compas of a third docs noe ill che interval of a fifth beeween strings: the elle rst she postion often han the violinist or violst, A few scales canbe played in the int poston withthe ad ‘antag of open strings, while cher call fr several shifts Fig. The le ofthe finger in silting positions made in such a way that the se is barely perxpible, although some portamento is purposely ted when appropeite, The longer dicances co be covered on the string lead exaly to an exaggeration of portent, the more pro nounced wien particiated in by the entite group of ten ‘cellos (Ex. oo. TEE ‘CELLO 8 x. 94: Tehakovsky Symphony no. 6 8, ed Kalmus Chromacic sales ae fingered by reptron of dhe porter +23 sca tert: pe Fig ss “The ell’ lef hand has the vantage of gregt freedom of move rent. The neck ofthe instrument xing atthe player's shoulder, ll pars of the ingerboard are within exey reach, and since the weight of ‘the cello ress onthe pg the ft hand isnot ealed pom toast in is suppor: "When the hand is advanced tothe seventh poston, an cctve above the open sing i teaches the body of the instrument, andthe thumb has to leave its postion wnderesth the neck. The oster edge of the thumb may then be placed onthe sting, serving to stop the strng as kind of movable nut, With the hand inthis postion, the third finger will be found o reach greater distance than the fourth Bingen, with he consequence thi the later i ite wed in the thamb poo. Oc- tesionlly the thamb postios i employed at lower pitehes when the longer serch ofthe thd fn suddenly iovoduced ina continuous passage of sorma playing. An is needed. Thumb notes cannot bea INSTRUMENTS appreciable amount of tine s necessary co place the thumb in ts new potion, Tes inipostan to remanber tht the ting lengch of a given interval Aininishes asthe hand moves to higher postions. On the ‘elo, the Span rom thonb to thied finger i easy equal to a quarter of a entire String length, This would be a diminished ffeh in the half positon, ‘whereas inthe seventh posiion makes possible the stretch ofan oe tave, The posible forextende fags pattensin che uppe positions Ta Fig. 34a shown «few combinations using the chumb, sore on ezezeth “The normal clef forte ‘cellos the bas clef. The tenoe clef (middle Con the fourth line) is extensively employed to reduce che number of lege lines in high pasiges, and the ble ce is wed when the notes fre too high tobe eal adi the tenor cle Formerly, parts forthe ‘ello in the tebe clef were habiually ‘written an octave t0 high, except when the rele clef followed the tenor clef, This practice has been abandoned, and today all aotes are writen tthe proper pitch. Tis necessary to know thatthe custom was once prevaleng, sine examples of it may sill be Found in nine- tcenth-century editions ‘Orchestral parts may go as high a¢ two octaves above the open Acsiring, without recoane to harmonies. This practical upper limi is THE ‘CELLO &s exceeded by a fourth ora fifth in pare fr soo ello, bt instances ike the following forthe ‘ello sect an, ae exceptions. x. 95 Brtten-—Four Sea Interleder from Peter Grimet Boosey & Hashes lsando, up tothe twelfth harmonic onthe D-string, ean be taken as reaching the oper lnc in the production of natural harmonics om any si x. 96 Stravinsy—I "Oirne de Fen P 12,64, Browde Bros ‘This is intended as coors effec, the succes of which does noe require that every one ofthe nos shall be sounded by each individual player. The series i posable bestuse of the progresive approsch t0 ‘he high notes Ordinal the eighth harmonic x rarely exceeded, and ‘he ‘cline may prefer to play even that ax an areal harmonic fromwe INSTRUMENTS, te fundamental two eezaves below, The seventh harmonies usually cvoied a ng to ie x97 MaMer—Symphony no, pesved, Univeral Spe gw On the “cl, the tare string le sth of the upper paral allows thm ra suind with ore scarty than can be had oa the violin oF la. The harmonic nme a minor thitd above the mut can be use, a p.29.ed: Duran Ravel’ indication of the actual pitch of the tone produced is an octave t0 low, The Esounded isthe sath harmonic, evo octaves and if above the fundamental A. Aifcial harmonics are played with the thumb and thied fing thoughout the range xf the ‘elo, upwards from the low Dp on tl Cs he fundamental stoppd by the thumb, The harmonic sounded is wo ‘ctaveshigherthanshethumb note g. The thind fer touches the node 4 perl THE ‘CELLO ® x. 09. Cosella—Pup 19, ¢4: Philharmonia The aruificial harmonie from the node a perfect fifth above the thumb can be sounded on the ‘cello but is infrequently used, that of the fourth being easier to produce and of beste quality. in four pars ta harmonica cach setion divided x. 00. RevelRaprodie Eipugnole pried, Durandry INSTRUMENTS The ‘ello how isa litle shorter (281 inches) than she violin and vio what ls springy. However al the types Of bowing previously mentioned are avaiable co the ‘elise and are tof excellent effect, The bow ished in the same way a8 for che other too instruments, excep that is turned so that che edge of the hae nearest the player is the fist to engnge the string. Another difference obe borne in mind is tha the lower: pitched strings are nearest tothe bhosw arm, on account ofthe paying postion ofthe ‘cll. The terms up-owan doxen-bor continue tobe used in the same sense as hereto re. although les aceartly deserve Bowing ove the fingerboard, near the beige, and with dhe wood, ane effet in common se tae all kinds of terol, Special mention Should be made ofthe towed tremolo rls toucbo on the two lower strings of the ‘ell, Ke has a mysterious qualey unlike any other bows thicker and on tremolo, x. 101, Debussy Ls Mer 105,64: Durand e Pree Since = A Gngoted ermolo wth an interval larger chan a major third ean be played by using the thumb postion. The amount of sretch posible ‘atic according tothe poston on the string x, 102. Schmin—Antine et Cléopstre 18, ed. Durand THE ‘CELLO » Excepting seconds, al nterals within the ocave ae playable as double-scopsinche lower positions wichot using the thumb, Them Second ean be reached, fs to fourth finger, fom the third postion up, and the minor second from ze fourth postion up. The thumb i of coune an ain eer br oe canary trade te ‘thumb withou a breakin dhe musi. Moreover, tones stopped with the thumb are comparatively les expresive ia quiity. (Chords found in seores shoul be studi by means of diagrams like thase made for violin chords. In this way the mechanical problems in placing the fingers can be judged, and know for che ‘cello acquired ering chords CChords containing one or more open stings ae the most sonorous. ‘The thumb, aswell asthe oer gers, ean nop perfect ith across ‘eo adjacen strings ‘Thece-pare chords are more frequently wied than four pare chords The four pa propriate. Arpeygio figures acras the strings are best arranged to be Angered like four pare chor chords are generally too heavy, but are sometimes ap 1 103, Srauss—Symphonis Damentca 106, ed. Asocated Music Publishers stay” INSTRUMENTS. Bowing of chor follows the conventions of volin chords, the lower rote bein sounded fist weno other indication s given. The die tion may be reversed, shown by an arrow placed before the chord, in tondet co give emphasito the bass x 104. Bartdk-—Second Rhody for V “The ‘elo pizticatos especially sonorous and vibrane, and it finds frequent and varied enployment in the orchestea I isan everyday medium forthe harmenie bass, The plucked bas toe tnd cranspareney to the accompaniment. Another common we of ‘elo pizzieato in accompaniment figures like the following. ve both body sex tag. Ress —Sympbomy 0.2 foe, Kalmus Arn pine For the high notes, the tone quality in pzzicato remains good wel ‘over am octave above the open A. Then i begins to ake on a rather srooden sound, suitable for special effects. High cello pizzicato is wsed effexively inthis example x, 106, Shostakovich—Sympbony mo. 5 ed, Musius THE ‘CELLO a Harmonies, when plucked sound no unlike those ofthe harp. They are best nite ro the natural harmonics af the oeave and the octave and ith x. toy. Mousorgsky—A Night on Bald Mounin . 81,ed. Inernational Music Co [Nor all ells: have acqied the trick, borrowed from harp and pita technique, in which the right hand touches the node and plicks the string simultaneously, allowing the lee to stop tones other than open ones ‘Chordsinpzzicato may be rpegated upwards by using the chumb, lor downwards with one or mee fingers. The firs way wil be followed unless dowenward pzvcaoisindiested by an arrow Considerable va- tery of effets to be had, from softy rolled four-pare chords ro short, sbrupe chords on the three upper stings. The following example is taker From passagein which he ete sting section joins in an evo ‘on of guitar plyingo INSTRUMENTS: x, to Debussy Bri 1104, ed. Durand “The Acting of the ‘ello ie characterized by much expresive warmth and intensity 28 well dynamic power. Coontles examples sen melodies in thi eegser. The Fol show how often the ells ae Towing excerpr gives only pare ofa remarlabe pasage for unaccom fond cr teen cody eens ve si sires ex 109, Charpentier mpresons of ily p.ssed. Henge “The D-serng is smoth and wnobersive, les nasal chan the A. THE "CELLO ” x, 110, Wagner—Siegfried lylt iene P46, ed. Bolenborg “There i ie diference i “Their one isfll nd rich in overcomes, the C bei derous than the Gin fort, Ine nanees, melodies lying in this range ist be very lightly accompaied if they are not tobe covered up. ibe between the ro lower stings. ex, 111, BranckVariations Sympboniques 38.04, Enoch In the ser solo piano pa Is regular duty ofthe “lls with the double-bases, A. comm for’cellos and basses Since the ater sound an octave lower tan ten, the result sa bas part in octaves, in which forcement of the ortave overone of the double-bases. The ‘cells may occasionally be placed aa octave lower so a 1 sound in wnison swith the bases, giving a more concentrated sono he only accompaniment i a delicate figuration ia the marked panini, play base pars, citer alone ot cedure isto write the sme notes ‘celle acta rin- "allo pactacontan much pasage work cher ofan accompnimental ature of designed ro contribute animation to the general orchestralo* INSTRUMENTS. eure. A wide range may be covered, and elaborate figuration often callfor echnieal em shrough numer e the great variety inthis kind of writing for the sity. The student should I cello. Some example are given here. P64, ed. Kalmus x. 115, Ravel-Repiodie Espagne x14. Dukas—LaPéri aaa ea 46,04. Durand Ez Rap passage inthe low register, with stacato or détaché bowing, ae difcal to make clear because of the inertia of the lower strings. THE ‘CELLO os Te takes good players to per utes like the following without x. 115, Stravinsky Le Store du Printemps p67, ed Russe CLE See rity ofthe ‘cello section and the intensity ine to jsify che Froquent procedure of dividing the group an tha half play he telly. The er lf play the bast fora subordinate par, ae they may even be divided further. Ex. 116, Mahlet Symphony no, 4 p-t15, ed, Univeral% INSTRUMENTS This Strauss example shows the division of the ‘ellos carried to the int where each player a he four ds hae 2 diferene pat, eight a ex. 117, Serause—Alo Sprach Zarathustra pred. Ail “Z. THE ‘CELLO ” ofthe use ‘One might describe the preceding excerpt as an insta of eg slo ‘cellos, the strings toe noted inthe se 0 Wile Te tesa regula pare forse remander of the section. Tehaikowsky i the Ouverture Solevn ls fo four sain conjetion with 0 solo violas The most Frequent and characteristic se of the sol ello JS tha in which a single player given an oustanding melodie soe igh is the eesul of progresive division of sof Straus In Remin's Overtre 1 for fv sala in adtion x. 118, Brahms—Piano Concorso o.2 p-t25,ed SimrockTH DOUBLE-BASS group beeause of its sloping shoulders tapering int the neck, characterise ofits ancexor the Viol, Abo noticeable ae che coguheel tuning devices on the pegbor, replicing the friction held pegs ofthe other stringed instrament. : The bate wands on an adjutable peg, and x supporeed in playing poston by de body and lf ne ofthe payer. Bas players sometimes sitona high stool wil playing Basses are of diferentes, For general orchestel use thesize known sa thee quarters is pre‘erved tothe eather uns ‘Averige dimensions af the three-quarter ized ly fallszed bas. ble bass are a follows th of eof bridge, 6 inches; sounding length of stings, 4224 inches length of bow, 26 0 2 inches, The G-and D-sringeare normally of gu, the A and Eof gut wound with wire, bur complesestsof metal strings are being adopted incre ingly by bass plhyers. Although they bing some modification in the tone quality of che iestument, the metal strings seem certainly to be superior to others in drabilty and dependabity, and they respond tothe bow much more madly ‘As previously mentined, the double-bss sounds an grave below THE DOUBLE-BASS » the writen nots, Awareness this act should become 2 haiti ee Jag or writing bs prt or playing them onthe piano. lathe examples of this book, all notes for doble-bases sound an octave lower tha printed, unless otherwise indicted ‘Notes ss low as, below the Ef che fourth string, ae to be found in the scores of practically all eomposcs This seven more remarkable in the scores of Heethovens ire, when the three-ring bas, now ab foles, was in common vse, Tye lowes string of that sstrumene was funcieo A or G above the Eo the modern fouestring bas. in performance te player imply pays an ozave higher what lis ‘below his range, erasing, no coubr, that she change of octave macers Tele a such low pitches. Granting thatthe octave difference will be rocced only by attentive and dicering ears, espedally when the in he'll nus be resized tha his ange covered by dou procedore sometimes resis im serous disfigurement of the museal Hen, Compare, fr insane, the following phrase with es shape as per- formed on the fosr-sring bas Ab ios SSS “There a three waysto exind the range ofthe bas below E. These arethe temporary cuing (reordatura) ofthe E-string to alower pitch, the use ofthe five-ring bas, rd the adoprion ofa mechanical appre tus for extending the Estriagto C. All sree are employed "The fist ofthese is the leat sarsactory heeause ofthe disturbance to the instrument by the change in euning, and even more because proper tone cannot be progneed witha sring whose tension hasbeen ‘edaced ro the pone of anes. cis entirely practical, however, 0 tune to Ep or even D. with the caning mechanism ef the donble-bss chan with the pegs of other seringed istuents rt ateracions are more easly accomplished100 INSTRUMENTS “The fvestring tas isnot 2 common instrument, nd some orches tras do not possess even one. Is fifth sering is rund tothe low Cte boy being earespondingly larger to favor th A marked inerease inthe we of the E-string extension attachment is appureneraday In some ped ‘with he device Ieconsswof an arm acting aan extension ofthe inger board wyseard past the pegbox onthe Estrin arrangement wherchy the hestras the whole base section i res Cz,D. Dz, and E ae stopped hy re rte control ase were, y means of keysar the sie ofthe ingerboard near the nt In normal paston the Eremtne stopped. Operation of the mechanism presents some fingering problems forthe player, but the results onthe whe Since there seems itl doube ofthe etalshment ofthe Fourstring ove bs the aor estument follows tht bass parts should be designed accordingly If notes below E are felt be indispensable, thy should be regarded sexcepional, andi shouldbe fully realired tht they may be played by only one or seo bases, of even not at all. The best procedure sta write the pat in octaves where these low ‘notes accu, showing cleanly whac is o be dane by the player whose lowest note is E x, t20, Mousorgsky-Ravel—Tableaue ume Espostion 15344: Boosey & Hawkes aoe ’ . sae Tr prevent transposon af the low tones up an octave, a remat rst be added, such "vesting bases only." or “not an octave higher.” x. 121, Mahler—Dat Lisd wm der Erde 136,08, Universal THE DOUBLE-wASS cy “The compass of the hand, fom fst to fourth finger, is a major second inthe lower postions, The third finger oe used independ fnnly bur is placed on the srag together with eh fourth Finger, until the svth postion i reached. Then the positon of the hand and the leer string lengeh of the half sep make t convenient to we the thied and foarth finger separately. ‘Some plyers develop a wicer use of the thied Sager and of the ex tended position, stretching 3 whole tone nd Binge, but the above are the basic principles of doubl-bas fingering. g. 33 gives she notes playable in the postions of the Sst crave ‘on the Gesring, Ie wil be sun thar cere are relly relve postions to the octave, ame for exch hal sep, but tht the numbering 1st, 2nd, 3d et follows the daronic tes on which the fs finger i located, the pasins in between being half posions, Jost sin te ease of the ‘lly thete are other ystems designating the postions “The chum is Brough into pay above the seven postion “To find che notes playable onthe ather three strings the student shoald write othe transposons of Fig. 35 down by fourths ‘Seales containing open sig notes can be played with fewer poston shifs, a» demonstrated by the following comparison of the sales of (Gmwjr and B major.1 INSTRUMENTS ‘Chromatic sales ate Fingered by repesting the patern 2 43 4 oF rageag “The clefsemploye are the same ae forthe cello; namely, bas tenor (idle Con the fort ne), and tcbe (G eet. High nores for double bases are very effective, and not of great Aiiculy excep for intonation, They ar afer when approsched by step or by soll imervak. The Dan octave and fifth above che open G fay be ten ata pracical upper line exclusive of harmonics This limi is exceeded inte fellowing unosal example, in hic the bases play in unison with ils, ellos, and Bassoons Shostakovich Symphony no. 5 p25, ed, Musious Aificial harmonies and are impractical the oth omible on the bass only in high postions orchestral perp. Natur hermoniet oo ‘sful because of their medium pitch andy ae especial THE DOUBLE-BASS 1 oor, because of the long strings, and are range, They ae esily pr ‘of excellene quality. Those avalable onthe G-string are shown in Fig $7- Transpsition down by farts will give the seri om the other xrngs. Nore thar harmonics the treble elf are nated at actual pite, co save leer lines. The harmoni from the node located 2 axinor third from the aue sounds more clearly on the bas than on anyother stringed instrument. x. 125, Ravel—Le Tombeau de Couperin ps8. 0d. Dorand Inthe fllowing chord of harmonics, one ‘clio contibutes the C tunbrainabe onthe bas at that pitch, The fourth bass pat ells foravot INSTRUMENTS x. 124, Strvinsky—Concerto on RE p17. 6, Boosey & Haves ‘The intervals playable onthe bast as double sop ae thirds, fourths and hs, and any intersl in which one 2 open string. Doubles, and c rarely found in arches music, hoseeer, In general, ll harmonic interals do noe sound well in lowe piece bees ofthe conflict of ‘overtone, and even when used fr special effec, beter result ate ab tained by dividing the noes among two or more players. The follow ing sequence of ifths i unusual pe noes can be taken oo rs of theee and four notes, Gialéns Dances —_p.55,64, Boosey & Hawkes x. 135. Kodily r THE DOUBLE-BASS sos “There are ewo distinct types of doble-bas bow, wally refered to asthe German bow and he Fech bow. The Gerntn bows held with the thumb ontop ofthe stick, the fog bring shaped so that the ingers fan grasp ita thy might grap as, The French bow ike a large “ello baw and ils in the se way, excee tha some players place the thumb underneath the fe ls, Ie can be seen that the action ofthe wast i quite different inthe two hand postions, and that with che Getman Bove the thumb exerts dosenward presure on these, as opposed ro the finger presute with he French bow. There are advantage in both mtd and the choice depends upon the for eertan schooling and pers Al bow stokes mp used on the bas withthe quilficato tha these mist be thought of in erms of a shorter, heavier bo, thicker heavier strings, and a much ‘more cubersne instrumental factors in greater inertia tobe over tne in the production of tons. Hence too lng rs in legate bowing should be guarded sgunst. The studene will have to rely on olserva tion and experince in chs respect. It wil help to remember tha che ral om the other stringed instruments may be lagrogate sori of the wh ow than does the tone of a single solo bas and that long posible in sft nuances than aloud ones. x. 126, Wagner—Tritan und lode P19, ed Breihopf For the lng held pedal nos, sometimes lasting for many measures and often seen in anetcenth-cenary scores, the bass are expected £0 change dzection ofthe bow ten as necesasy. Continuity of tone is preserved by seeing oft tha all do no change bow a the sae ime Dovle-bas acento is preferably ofthe onthe -sring type, but the controlled bouncing bow ir enirely feasible and often used. The mod- tm bas section is capable of considerable deeacy in passages like the {allowing16 INSTRUMENTS ftp Sonos—Don on ps Kals Th oie petites, it Anexample of fast doxached bowing in long, gradual ees 18. Rinsky-Korakof’Scheherssade 221, Kalmus Sul tuto and 1! ponticlo ae regulaty ployed ne debe bas. The bas cot leg stacesto may be said ta be ore musical than on the oer instr Bowed temelo is very co for sul tatoo vl ponte The fingered tremolo is not practical in che lower posions. For ‘most hands the minor third sreeh becomes feasible above the second postion. Al msjor andmince els are excellent, however, ets beeause of the greater resonance of the bas. moa in bas pats and is frequendy called sx. 429. Mahler—Syamphony no 9 -65,ed. Boosey & Hawkes THE DOUBLE-BASS 107 “The bss player plays peiato much often than the other stxing players This is noe only becase af the superior resonance of che bass pzzicato but also cause i rings welcome rlef and variety tothe bas line, mpartng ighmnes end transparency tothe whole orchestral texture, Sometimes the bases double in pizieato the part played a0 by the ‘elo. “The string is usually plucked with the fs finger, the other fingers holding the bow. The Germas bow: hangs downward, held by the litle finger hooked inthe fog. Vatavions ia tone quality and dyeanic range can be obtained by plucking diferene places on the string. The low tone in pnrcaro demand carein ther exceaion to aid booming oF all hulk sound, [As forthe high note, one rarely exceeds the B shown inthe follow ing example x. 130 Stel Sprach Zarathustra p.sred- Alb fe te te In the following example the bas pzzcato i not doubled by the “ello, but the bam clarinet waderlines the accented measures. p.1ied. Durand “The double-bas mote has tobe a heavy affair tobe effective since the vibrations of she age bridge ae nor easily damped out. Mute are108 INSTRUMENTS. tone color when the cet ofthe string group is mored, and also forthe peculiae veiled sonority they give to the bases, The mye nning of Ravel La Valee ate seared for mited lasses with ao ater snstruents, ex. 152. Ravel Vate P-ied, Durand — st dry the bases have to perform ie matrally that of supplying the harmonic foundation. This accompli in more than ninety percent of all orchestral msc by the doube-bases playing in When the later ae otherwise occupied, the function of octave doubln len over by other insrament, such 2 basoons or hows, or the sins, The elaiy of the bas par seer to benefit greatly by this reinforcement, or f octave overtone of the dep fundamental ofthe basses an the ar may ako receive the impresion ofan even dee hy resin of the acoustic phenomenon kzown athe difference tome. The upper partials ofthis octave bas are an inpertane source nfrmation, of the ncchment of the entire ‘orchestral sonority, although it mast be added that they ate very often inconfice wieh ypper nes and may cause damage A common example of such damage shesrdin softly played minor triad placed in such away ay compete in strength with the minae tied (Fig. 3). ha the major hid overtone fom the bass THE DOUBLE-BASS 109 ‘The shove lena can be resolved only by reducing the dynamic Jevel of the basses and strengthening that of the second violins The double bas part occsionallyereited aan independent voice, without octave douting batts sigifcin that in the pricticeof com ‘over this procedure i cleady exceptional 54.153. Beethoven Symphony no. P6500. Kalmus Ie snot out of place to caiton the student that common faut in ‘writing for bases is excesive use ofthe lowest tones a habitat tends toma the whole ochesta ound heavy and overponderous. ‘The harmonic bass may be areal melodic bas. Fine examples ke the following are numerousno INSTRUMENTS 1.194. Franck—Syonphony portyed. Eulenburg Sgrueove Modern composers have exploited the possi of melodies in the igh regicer for bases withour doubling. Inthe folowing expostion of a fogue subject, the double-bases deliver the opening phrase quite unaccompanied, excepefor the group of eighth-notes athe tar x 135. Riegger—Sympbony no. 3 610d, Asociated Music Publishers srnitia tie Z rokoie has suggested new possibilities for the double-bases, using them 3¢ melodie doubling ofthe solo voln (Es. 136). The entie sear ing ofthe sic measures given here. The clarncs are notated a atl THE DOUBLE-BASS a 5.156 Prokofie Violin Concerto no. 2 ne “The desterty of bas players has reached a very high degree of virtuosity, The scores of Maher, Straus, Ravel, Stavinsky, and other Imodern composers should be studied co observe the demands ma ‘pon the bases for agility of bowing and fingering, wide skip and complex chythns Seraus—Ein Heldenlcben p-2o,ed Fulenbargma INSTRUMENTS. The double-baes are froquently di is consitent withthe endency of modern French composers vo divide tach sting section. The division in octaves furnishes the bass octaves ‘within the double-bass part. lcervls smaller than fifths or fourths are les satisfactory in low pitches. in wo pars. Ths pratie sx, 138. Debusy—Ls er p.83,ed. Durand (Close intervals in the bases hep to provide the dramatic, foreboding sage fom which the next example ake suggestion inthe p sx. 139, Debury Peart Métnde Posa6s . Dorand Basses ae divided so that half can participate ina melody while half rennin on the bas, and so chat balf can play pzzicato and half play’ aco on the same figure Chords of cree and fur pars in Tow reget te likely to have a percussive sound, especialy if plucked (see the G Ininorchordsin the Marche au Suppie ofthe Symphonie Een, by Berlor). To soundelealy, chord should bein open positon, of Io cited in the uppee part ofthe ange of the bas. The following chord for bases ends an adagio movernent, and sen ‘unaccompanied, Although the notacon indicates double-xops, in performance the chords divided in fur. THE DOUBLE-BASS o 1x. 40, Dvoiih—Symphony wo. 5 P.7eved. Kas dsl A limitation inthe number of basses (“a met," bank” only.) sometimes elle for to secure a beter balance ‘The we ofa single double-bas, slo, is aoe frequen. I is of novel ‘effect became not often head, The base solo surpsingly deficient in carrying owes the instrument, and its accom panimene mus be deliacelyaljsted, The following sols writen 3s for five string bas bur ean be played wsing the E-sring extension. It is naecompanied x, ig Ravel L°Enfane els Sort se p.12gsed. DurandWOODWIND INSTRUMENTS vescn and conning eon of he exegry weal know A= soodwand ms difca to propen. sense toy whch been constuted otra ete an won, nd tes ae eli male of mea the yen ine, Rater tan atempt to fey tent big the ern epee y veto of he Eph pu a upchaped mouplce Oe reed nd The wonvind sen ofthe symphony ore sible ne foun grup los Flutes, piccolo, (ako Bote) ‘Obes, English orn, (oboe d'amore, heckelphone) (Carnes as elarint, (Ey and D easiness, baset horn) Bassoons, contrabasoon ‘The instruments naned ia parentheses are only occasionally ext ployed, while the othe ate tundard equipment. This clasifcaion coincides with dferences of tone color ready distinguishable by ear, brought about hy dfferenes of constuction and method of tone pro dccion, Inthe make-up ofthe woodwind section, thee baie formulas, of type exist (2) Woodwind by wos 2 tes 2 oboes WOODWIND INSTRUMENTS us 2 earners 2 bassons (®) Woodwnd by hres: 2 flues and pelo 2 oboe anid English horn 2 larnets and bass clarinet 2 bassrone and conrabastoon (©) Woodwind by fours 3 fle and picolo 3 obors and English hom 5 clarnes and base clarinet 3 basnons and contrabasoon Ie wil be found wseful to egard deparsues from these thre types 4s variations fom the norm, The second type, woodwind by thre uses constnrly in the went eenury tha it has become estab Tshed as che normal woodwind section ofthe present day “The vibration of sir eneloted in a pipe may be compared tothe vbr sion sain sueched between wo pints: One inporane ference is that wheres the pitch of astring is affeceed by length, density of raters and amount of ton, the pitch of «vibrating se colamn depends upon its length alone, This rule i not perfectly accurate in + scientific sense, but i ithe bas forthe custom of speaking of pitches in tems of length. For example, the noe produced by the C-tting of the ello is denied a 8:f00"C beng the note sounded by an open longan pipe 8 ft long. Its understood that this is length adopted for convenience, and that 2 fraetbaal correction would have to be made to bring i nto agreement with whatever sandard of pitch is being wed. Doubling the length of the air column lowers the pitch an octave, and halving the length rises the pitch an octavene INSTRUMENTS These lengths will gve the same pitches i all wind instruments, brasas wel as wane, with ne notable exception the carne. The clarinet is a cynical tube, closed atone end by the mouth- plese, Oboes and bascons are conical, larger at one end than atthe ‘ther Fates are in part eylindsical, bat the open embouchure makes them open pipes, Now ihe stopped eylindrical pipe has properties un Tie the of the open eylindsea pipe ofthe conieal pipe, and one thse i that fora giver pit i reuies bu half as much lengeh In ‘other word if late and acarner employ the sae amount of ey deal tube length, the carne sounds an octave below the Hut, oaly fundamental cones being blown, Ler us considera prinitve Autelike wooden pipe with si finger holes forthe Fist, secon and third fingers of both hand. The Fourth fingers are not used, since they do not naorally fall into a steaght line with the others The thumbe soppore the instrument in a horizontal positon tothe right of rhe player, and the lef hand wil be nearest to the embouchre, i this case a hole to be blown across. The lft end ff oe ple igtly chee with x spy, This snl tube 2 ehe basis forthe fingering ywtems ofall woodwind instruments All six holes muse be closed by the fingertips ro enable the pipe to vibrate through teenie length and sound its Fundamental tone. For the sake of further similarity ro the ute, lee ws say’ the length salle lover at inches, which isthe length ofthe dute’s ow D. Fee I now the rghe hind finger is ised, uncovering its hoe, the sound ing length of the pipe ishortened by the distance from the hole tothe ‘open end of the fube, nach as ehough the tube were e pony, and ifthe holes have been spaced for the intervals Seale, the note sounded will be E. All he remaining five h ep closed, off at that les mse be WOODWIND INSTRUMENTS ur “The entire scale is obtained by successively easing the finger, open- ing the hoes fom right ro lef, as shown bere ee Ifthe next ole ro the right ofthe sounding hole closed, the soand- ing note wil be fstened by a half step. This i the procedare eal fork fingering, ox forked fingering, and by is means the followis berween noes become availableus INSTRUMENTS, “There are now two ways to finger Fs, but Ep cannot be obtained by fork fingering ince there sno farther hole to else “The acquisition of additional fundamental res requires the boring of new holes andthe isvention of key mechanisn. The lefe thumb thle ro contro roe hl, leaving the supporting fonction tothe right thumb, Roth fourth fingers, however, need the help of keys in order tw contol properly loested holes convenialy. The history of the d ‘elopment of key mechunism is one of increasing ingensity in nding trays by which che fingers may cover and aco each theough the use of Keys, levees aves, and springs. These abo emit an extension inthe length of the robe, with the added lower ted by keys hoes op "The key systems of © ind inscruments will be de- seribed in saceeding chapters In Chapter One, the harmonic atibuter of a vibrating sti cussed. A vibrating column of sir posses these same character ties the over-all curve of the Fundamental, and the sbsiiary vibrations ‘ofthe partials oc harmonics that are present nthe formant ofthe tone fof the individual instrumen. Jus asa tring harmonic is made o sound by lightly touching anode, 0 in a woodwind instrument a harmonic nga hole locate at or nea a node, This ole ee isproduced by ope ferred o-asa vent [tay be oe ofthe hols regula used to sound andamental tone, ot 2 hole especially designe for the purpose and equipped with akey caled speaker Key, egster key, or octave key ‘Gm the face, and wit certain tones on the oboe, sme hasmonics ean be produced wit ing vent hoes, by direction and shape of the slestream from the lps The production of harmonics in ll wind instruments calle, rather loosely, overblowing, The tones so abtined are not usually called monies, sin string echaique. They are regarded as normal tone, ithe only tones posible above che range ofthe fondamental series, WOODWIND INSTRUMENTS. ww ‘The following figure shows how the octave D isobaaned, by finger: ing for D and upening asa vent the hole fom which Cz normaly sounds, Nove tha chi hole isiuated at apoin waking one-half the tube length ofthe fundamen D, just where we know the node for the octave harmon wil be foun Again the carne is exceptional, inthe miter of overbosring. The physical propertss ofthe stepped eylndricsl pipe are such thatthe harmonic that divide the air alum into even-numbered section, = quitng anode atthe open end cannot be sounded. The fst overblown ote on the clarinet is therelore the third harmonic, an octave and a ith above the fundamental, vented by means ofa register key “The term embouchure refers tothe apparaes for inducing sym. ‘of blowing. In playing the Hot the lips direc concent: Airto the oppose edge of an oval-shaped hoe inthe rub, Forte abo, toro thinly scraped ceeds are bound together and fixed toa srl tube which in urns inco a hol a che end ofthe instrument. This double rec isheldgerly between the ipso ato avoid closing the tiny ape. ture between the reed. The bassoon employs a similar double reed larger than that ofthe oboe. I its onto 2 curved metal pipe that lads to te slr end ofthe wing joint. The claries hae singe reed, held by a meraligitate to the open side of mouthpiece Fring the end of the instrument. The eed is held aginst the lower ip which covers te lower teeth, andthe upper eth eet on the heeled top of the mouth Piece. Doubles she principal fator in cresting the color of a wind instrament i the embouelie, bv shoo not be forgosten that there are ther nporeanc influences, suchas the propor. tions berween length and diaeer ofthe bore, sre and sition oftheno NSTRUMENTS tome holes, materia of construction, and ofcourse the sound ideal and arty of Tone quality varies vith the player and ean be varied by him for 1 purposes Taman elements such as sestvry, warmth, and vibrato ae mystxious fatorsin musical performance that ca hot be produced by mechanical means. The eaiition ofthe reed, its degree of pliabiliy, has effect onthe toe of dhe eee instruments expres Wind players are fy as much concerned with playing in eune as are sing players. The pth ofthe instrumenes canbe alered lightly by moifying thie oral length through various manipulations of ins and icing, but since the tone oles have ben leated with reference to Fixed pipe Jets, ary ehange ia dhe ater ill cause eouble. The ‘cntzl of intonation i managed by the lps. The wind plier has not ‘only to correct the pitch in sof his own instrament (FE and Gb have che sme fingering, ro mention ane example), Dut he muse con finally adjust his pitch othe sounds ofthe other instruments of the ‘orchestra, With good players, this is forthe mos pare an insti fin consis prone All sind insrumentsare sensitive to changes in temperature. A cold instumene will be fat unl warmed by playing, and a temperature above normal will aus a sharpnesin pte, The tongue is held forward in a postion to prevent the air, under pressure fun the ings from striking the red or pas lipsunttit is waned. tones started by asudden drawing back ofthe tongue, exactly 2 in speaking che syllable eu. This sudden action is necewry eo overcome the inertia of the red or ai column. A. wind fone cannot have an impereepible begining, ike the gradual engog ing of astring by the bow huis bu certain variations in the attack ean bbemade,such a da for um, or even bv. The tone isended by the tur ofthe tongue tits erignal poston, WOODWIND INSTRUMENTS m When ao slur, or other marke articulation, appears over the notes, cach notes atculated by the tongue with 1 1g. Beahs—Variatons on 0 se by Haydn ed, Fulenborgem INSTRUMENTS WOODWIND INSTRUMENTS ny With the tongue, I staceato & wanted, dots ae placed over the notes, nd the strokes are made 8h widerable ae ‘When the arculatons demand ate too fast for the tongue toe peat the tustoke, the formla eA bvisused, This called double ne ute, but while obae, clarinet, and ractce these atrokes can be repeated. with cs For lng periods of te without a chance to ret necexity, itis aot for them a wholly iy as posible ng became te is formed back inthe mouth, a of ced. An unevenness between the notes is sometimes Symphonie Fantaiqne peasy, vx. 143 Berl to be detected, bx. 144, Mozare—The Marriage of Figaro: Overtwe p22, Kalas In fas triple shyt sil anotberFormola may’ be wed ty u, aku t, called eple-tonguing. Mest " tu hu, 0 sometines ta ka players prefer the firs way. Thee is alo mach tobe sid for te prac fice of applying double-tomguing to rp hythms so chat che # andthe nthe group of three notes fe, ke a EalernatelyINSTRUMENTS, xs ngs. Wagner—Lobongrin: Pr Asa special effet th remo nade by elling the tongue, sn the Ilan or Spanish , hasbeen asked for by some composers. [eis usally given the Geran name Fltersunge, tanslted futer-tonguing, and Fing elec of «rapidly agered chromatic sale, with Buter-conguing has certain picturesque quality m on reed istrvmenta, The whit x. ig6. RavelLe Vie p-f,ed. Durand Flutertonguing is of rather poor eect on the oboe and bassoon, tut somewhat rrr on the elaine. In che sore from which the fl- lowing excerpeis takers the clarinets are doubled by the harp and also bby basonns and saxophone wing ordinary tonguing. The clariner pars sre notte a aceal pth, WOODWIND INSTRUMENTS ns sx 147 erg—Violin Concerto P1304 Univer “Two or more notes covered by aslur are played with an uniner rupted flo of ai, Tei in ‘his coninaous airstream the kngth of she vibrating aie cola & continually changing with the fingering. Some notes are harmonics and some fundamentals, some are more brian chan others, so that theembochite histo be adapredo each new station in order 0 pre serve cantinuty of tone and intesty Tos a wide int ¢t0 realize that during the Bow of val upwants, which invalves increasing the ce sion of dh elated wo lu ie sue wards. certain amount of reluctance has be overcome when the tir colin issue lengthened or asked to return tots fundamental after vibrating in partiais The eria & more securely overcome by tonguing. A temolo between two notes a sth more apart runs the ‘isk of failure ofthe lower not o sound on repe Phrases normally contain several srs, ora mixture of sus andsingle notes. The player mintins 3 full and steady flow of aie until a new breath needs roe taken, and meanwhile the tongue atcultes the rhythmic pattern ofthe music. the following plas, the abot will probably not take a new breats uni after the Bp in the fifth full% INSTRUMENTS, x. 1g8 Beethoven-—Sympbomy no. 3 pe assed: Kalas “The function of te breath ist et up vibrations athe embouchu fot to blow into or through the istrment. Breathing indications ae twetten into the pact, bu good writing for wind instruments re squires 2 sensitivity to this sential physical aspect of wind playing. Ten though one dees play a wind instrument, oe can leara much n and listening to good players. ‘The are of breath isa fine at of dstebution of wind pective needs, bath musical and mechanical hese. The dynamic design ofthe Sometimes anew breaths ase has tobe taken inco account. sive harp definition toa motive culate feeling for the nto breathing quality in inserameral musi, like that of singing, In fas passages it hetero sactifice noes than cformce to state tran tealy at minute opportniies co replenish his wind supply ‘The compuneris advised foxce the perf “The woodwind instruments presenta remarkable contrast to the strings, in that they poses fat more pronounced individual characterises; also eich one ha its peculiar variations within i i ower, and tone-weght, depending ton the pat ofits ange being employed. Knowledge ofthese registers and chi effect is m indispensable part of the technique of orchestra- and me coo intensity, catty ‘The woodwinds ate placed atthe top ofthe sore in this order: WOODWIND INSTRUMENTS ro Piceolo Fores English hora be clarinet ascons Firse and second parts for identical instrament, as ewo futes, ate writen on one saf xcept in cases where differences in rhythm and ther complications might case confusion in reading the two pars. ‘Then a second staf is wed feniporany forthe second phyer. When two parts ae onthe me sf, stems forthe fst pare poine ups those forthe second pac, dow, Dots and accents replaced athe tends of the stems (Fig 443) If both fine and second players are to play the same pat, double seems may be used (Fig. gb). ofthe part may be writen a8 for one player and marked a 2 (Eig 44) ifthe int players to play ane, the second part may be epresented by rents (Fie 444), or the single partmay bemarked 1,1,1°,0r1* (Fig. #9 fhe second players to play alone, the fre pare may’ be presence by ress (Fig. asf) the single part may be marked 2 Il, 2°, or IP Fig 498) “The indications divs and uni, are peculiar to sting parts and are not sed for windsTHE FLUTE Fr, te grande fle: I fluo, lo grande; ‘Ger. ots, groue Pte (Tei fb wen in tra platinum, and hy supa hoe of 00d nes of speking, gy ‘lear and serene posing eaty of diferent goat rom a of thir pedecesor Sne wooden tes with slersned esd jit, tow ir se ae cine of ingsing wah 9 pve quali of tech ype The vera Soha te sounding ng ofthe ein the neighborhood of 24 Inches The lowest tne fon C. Soe fesse made with low Br ecesiainglengtning of teins bya The bore ey, ith career of inch narowed sigh at the cmbacureendin «partie ete The tem ether sections th hadi th baying an pp envtage in he preceding chap, ond fries the ional th ofthe Hate is about 26) inches. cork topper he end near the embouehre, THE FLUTE ue tones Ct and C. A longer foo jane may be arached,gving the low B, for those rare cisions when tha not alle for “The modem ut embodis the revolutionary constructive principles ineoduced by ‘Theobald Boehm inthe midsle ofthe ninetesnth cen tury, with a few subsequent improvement. What is known ab the ‘Boehm system” is base on tee main principles. Fist, holes were co 'be bored forall chromate ons, and thse holes were vo be laced in theit acoustically correct postions. Second, the h large a possible for beter tone and inonstin, ‘open. Formerly, the sizeof the holes depended on the ab fingers to cover them, and alo on correctionsin pitch necessitated by a ‘compromise in che location ofthe holes. Third, the mechanism wr bbe aranged so tha the Singers could contol all of the Holes, by meant ‘of ys hole covers aves, and springs. The flloscing min features of this arangesnent should be eonideed in relation to the basi shale “The right hand fr finger mow plays Pa when depresed instead of Ff, the second and third play-ng E and D. 9 before. By mean of rovating ale the Fe Role elosed when either the fst oF the dhisd finger key x depresed, The right-hand fist finger key alo loses the By hole above, providing an alrrative fingering for Bs For the left hand anger jlate enable he fit finger to close the CCE hole from a pasion an inch below the hole. A combination hey and plate fr the thumb allows closing either the Ce hole or both C and Bs holes 1 was found inconvenient 79 keep two of the holes open, she Gz and che low Dz. The Gt hole is opened by the left tle finger lever. [A duplicate hole ix bored, however, and tis stands open les the lied finger is depresed for C2, The right lisle finger open the D hole athe foot joint, and keep it open for practically all noes above ‘The same finger control spit key to play ether Cor C, the lowest The remaining keys are the high D and D rill keys, operated by the right third and second finger, respoeively, and an added Bi eslv0 INSTRUMENTS THE FLUTE ut Ti a key for the righ fist Finger, depicting the action ofthe thar plate lilt Keys ate named for the note sounding when the Key is depressed Teis to be recognized, however, that whereas Gt comes from the hole ‘opened when the Ge key is depressed, the effet of depressing the Gs Key is to close the hole from which A comes, the G hole being ewo holes father down. The low C holes the end ofthe fu Fingering a note involves ax only presing the key, but abo closing all higher pitched oles. The erie cube down tothe note being fi gered has to be tightly closed except when vents are opened £0 pro ‘duce upper partial tones. foes ale |elelel2|z|elele : Tn paying positon, the At is supported by he right thant the wh fit int ofthe ee forcings, andthe players chin. The lower lip pamilly covers the embouchure hole Ieis understood that enharnonie equivalents are fingered ake; the fingering for Gz and for Ap iexady the sme “The fingering char shows tow the upper notes of che ute ae ab tained by fingering 2 fundamental and, except forthe chromatic tones from F to CE, inelesive in he seennd rtave, opening ae oF mote holes as vers forthe prodcticn of harmonies. This proces is summed vp in Fig 4, Fig. 45 Fingerng Qharcfor the Fate (Boehm Syste) Fie 46 The tones of the ise half-ocave specially the foo joint notes, have ‘warm velvexy quality of ther own. The sound is deceptively heavy ‘when heard sone, bat tis exsly covered by other instruments and by serong overtones from low bas notes. This is due, no doubt, 1 the ‘weakness of the upper paral in che formant ofthe low register of the fs,m INSTRUMENTS Tn the following example, the low C sounds clearly because isthe lowest my of Ps 15 ed, Boosey & Hawkes A gradual brightening ofthe roe takes place as the sounding length eereses through the Sst octave, although these fundamental t bowen ‘donot achive the cai ms ofthe sexond cave. This ceample, for wo dues x 50. Ravel Ma Mire LOye p.t,ed. Durand THE FLUTE 1m “The third octave i bilan, with much ca shrines at ea fra A ying power, without even Bp x. 151.Sehunann—Syompbony no, 1 Cf and D shouldbe considered as extremely exceptional extensions of the tes range, They can be included only in loud psiges and ii advise to double thers withthe piccolo, Instances oftheir use are quite are x, 152, Strauss—Symplonis Domestica 18, Associated Music Publshers In the production of notes above the staf, various harmonics are employed (Fig. 46). The fist Cis harmonic no. x (octave), the D no, 3 (octave and fifth), the Dz no. 4 (double octave). These hae monies tend to ifr intone and brilliance. The top Bp is clearer, ‘more manageable tone than th Bz, mostly because i a harmonic no. ‘428 opposed to ano . The finger combination fr high As proves awhovard in passages, The reconciliation of these diver sn esetial pare ofthe art of fte playing, and me the entire ange ofthe instrument, though should b dynamic ange ofthe eis mot wide “The following va famous cumple of a modern solo forthe But. added thar he+ INSTRUMENTS 1x 153. Ravel Daphne Chloé 298,04. Durand THE FLUTE ns x. 54 Serus—Blebtra 1 186,ed, Boosey & Hawkes [No wind insrumentsurpase the fate inary, letness and gen- cral virtuosity, Flute pre contain all manner of rapid sales, arpeggios, and biliane pasage work. Wide skips beeween register ae iiomati for the instrument. x. 155, Srause—Ein Heldenleben p13, ed. Fulenburg Loud pasages inthe high reser eouire more wind. Opporeuites should be provided for taking at lest a quick breath, ether in the ing oF with ares, “Two flutes may divide a pasage in aerate motives, overlapping ‘on the accented notes. This precedure makes bexthing eae for both andthe rele isa more shythnie performance than if bor utes played ‘the whole phrase in union sea de Fe P-29\ed, Broude Bros% INSTRUMENTS Dot -tooguing (Ex 157) and triple-onguing (Ex. 58) are boch cient for fas staceata playing Suite no. po 5,ed- Kalmus 158. Debussy La Mer We have seen tha onthe fut all normal rones above the fi re harmonics. But she tem Burtonic, in woodwind parlance, i wed to denote 4 tone produced by using s harmonic differen fram thar normaly wed Figs In Fig. 47 (a) are shown three ways to play the high D. Firs, the normal D 3s harmonic no. 3 from the fundamental G, with lef st Finger raised, opening the Ce hole as 4 vent (ee fingering char) second, the sme played with the ven elesd and thie the D a ha monic no. 4 from the low D, without vents. ‘Some fists are able to produce the entice harmonic evie (F 4478) up to the seventh er eighth harmonic from low, withour open igated to be played as harmonics ae those ob tained snvented as harmonic no. 3 of the fourteen chromatic tones inclusive. Thoy are marked with a sal dre ikesring harmonics. While they possess acetin veled itis generally admited that they are inferior to normal ute cones bothin clearnes and intonation In Ex. 9 isan extrordinary example of flat harmonics fom low C vp to ope Hicmonict ar useful 3 an added resource in the fingering of dit ‘nl passages. Somtines the incuson of une oro notes in "barn fingering” will simplify the exeation without appreciably affecting the overall sonoriy “The rapid alternation of twa cones may present dificult of finger ing and ao of embouchue, tell ay involve an exchange of finger ‘combinations requiring che movement of several fingers, ogether with {quick adjustment of the embouchure t different harmonies, These lias ean be sone ou: bythe ws of harmonic fingering ot by the addition of exer keys to the lastrument. The D and Dg tail keys ae examples ofthe later expedient. In any cate, the effectiveness ofa ten el or tremolo, depends upon the expermnes ofthe performer. Practeaily isa matter of depec rater than a subject for clasiea tion into posible and imps “The thre keysin the foor cine being controled by the righ fourdh finger alone, the enilsC-Ce and C2-De, andthe tremolo C-De, ate noe playable excepe rather slowly, The bie finger has to glide from one ey tthe other “The woodbvind version of the bowed cremala isthe reiteration ofry INSTRUMENTS, a single noe by means of utertonguing, an effect not often used fed temo of Sin the interval too wide the “The more usa tremolo like the fi with an interval larger than a second Tower nate may fil to speak, owing fo the neta of the air column and if harmonic are invlved there wa rk dhat the Fundamental may Suna! where tis noe wanted, Within the frst octave, cremoles having fn inervl greater thana perfec fifth are uneerai, whereas in higher registers a safe imi ihe major third For added tone-weight, the second late often doubles the fs in unison, Les often i dcubles a¢ the octave below in whieh exe is o&- tave overtone tenfores the fist fue, ‘The lower instrument isa 2 Sight dindvantage since the octave diference places ein ales bil Tanto Tris wise to asig sone ofthe dates ofthe fist player to the second player when both are not meted. Tht allows the ist to test and tends fo make the second pat more interesting to play The two fue parts nay be melodies of equal importance x. 60, Steavinsky—Orp nb co piied, Boosey & Hawkes Light accompanimest figures may be axanged for two ues cine Rbaprodie p.28.ed. Durand THE FLUTE vs Inthe next example, an inaginative we is made of rwo Autes to supply two inner voies ofa four-part texture, in which soprano and tua played by strings ia weaves x. 162, Mendelsohn—Ialian Symphony p.yred: EulenburgINSTRUMENTS Anocher instance of inspired chesteation isthe following chord noted are the sudden change of mode in the harmonie progression, the unustalspcig ofthe chord he perfect fourth in effec is quite unerpected and magica, 148 ed. Philharmonia f fuce with other instruments shoold be studied THE FLUTE Ht The grouping of woodwinds by threes bree fates stead of ro faces ant pice os is preferred for purposes ice the fll x. 164. Verdb—Aids 4 Broude B er orchesra may eal for for fes, The fllowing illsration is caken from the final meatyes of Berg's Woeseek Inthe score, the flutes are doubled atthe unsen by te cele. x. 65. Berg—Wosseck (End of Act Il) ea. Universal (ia THE PICCOLO Fe, petite lite; Ue faz piccolo, otsinas Ger, eine loe In each of the four familie of woodwind, there i one instrument thar i regarded a8 the stndhrd or normal instrument of the type “These four are fe, obue, Bp carne, and busoon, They represent in each case the size and proportions found co give the most neatly characteristic rone coor, 8 will as ther features anwwerng 9 a moreay INSTRUMENTS 31 es univers albeit ransitory, conception of how these ineruments| Should sound. The oherinstumentsin each group are aay instr ments adjunessto the nema types. The asbiary insteurents havea thei st racom dete the exten ‘ofthe pich range of the fais to which dey belong. The pie ofthe lute family up to another octave C, the re keyboard, However the top Bs and C are uitediicul of production An ausilary instrument, made forthe purpose of playing higher ‘notes than the normal rseumen, i of smaller size, favoring the upper parcof irs ange, The lower notes end to be of les good quality. This colo extends he a Tse note on the pana frllusrated by the piccolo, whose love tones ae decidedly inferior to ‘hore ofthe fs. Farharmore, the fot joie i lacking altogether, 50 thatthe lowest not ofthe pceola sD. Auother principle of aslay instruments exemplified inthe pic ‘colo the principle of ranspoing instruments. The mechanism ofthe flute beng reproduced in minatore (except for the missing oot joi) a fats plays the picelo withthe sume fingering to which he i a ‘custome. Since the inerument i but half the sine of the Rte (12% inches), the notes sound an octave higher. The piccolo par in the “The interest of compacts in che auxiliary instruments as given th posions of importance nearly equal to that ofthe standard types in ‘ich Family. This development hasbeen stengthoned by advances 0 the poine of specialization, in the technique of playing these inse ‘ments and sill more by the realization tha what Wete once considered defects ate really qualities, to be studied for eheiradvancages, and to bbe recognized as adds tothe colorisie resources of the various families of woodsrind. The peculiar hollow sound of low tones ofthe piccolo can be very effective in the right surroundings ‘THE FLUTE ” 1x, 166, Shostakovich —Symphony no.7 ci fee, passed, Leeds ‘The upper tones ofthe picolo ae brighe and piercing easly heard shove the maximum sonaity af the fll orchestra, The instrument is here unsorpasie in penetrating power. Its highest aetave should there fore be ws sparingly. In high pitched chords, the dheee upper notes ray be given to two futes wr the picenlo on rp, The piccolo adde highligts tothe orchestral rat, srengthening the upper parse of the harmony “The picolo wil be found mos seul in ies medium range. Here it combines more fesbly with oher instrament, and contributes les ‘edginestothesonoiy eis often bene, whea doubling the lute with piccolo co write the later an actave below, so thatthe two wil sound Jn unison, expecially when the ute is int upper octave Slo parts for the piccolo inthis register are numerousx, 167. Milhaud Sy sed, Heugel aug ‘Common erorin writing forthe piccolo are the ton consistent ple ing ofthe part in the highest octave, and che misconception tha es Tood muse only. ‘The pic use. Is capable of deieney, and ic ean proportion othe amount 0 pier Sometimes for the duration of a move al posage, On thee acssons one ofthe piceals is played by the vecond ue third ui. ‘THE ALTO FLUTE Fe, lite ool te, fate comrao: Ger, Alyite The alto flue isan auciary instrament thar has nor yet becom established as a regular orchestral instrument. Many orchestras donot {ven posses one eis ound in very few sore, but che sigiicance of h works as Dep et Chloé and the Sacre du Prinemps give the ako fate a certain standing and importance. With alngeh of 34% inches, chealto ates pitched a perfect fourth ixlow the standard ate. Iw therefore a transposing insrument, al cs sounding a prfet fou ower than write. If the Singerng for Con the fare taken the reslane sound willbe G. eis called the Flat ia G,and sometinesealed, erroneously he Bass Flite anism of the alo leis the sme as that ofthe rela flute, exept for modicatons deco ts ie, The left hand is placed so that thas to each no farther tothe right than onthe regular fue, h see plates and ates, First and third the holes Being conecled by f Fingersof the right hand are enabled co reach thir key covers by means of cscs placed a the nea edge the fate up tothe high C, avaiable on the ako fs, The THE FLUTE in brilliance, and sues bur the upper half-ocrave is cin parson with the Aue at che sume pitch, The lower tones, on che other and, are exermely rch and warm, and stronger than the low notes of the flue. The insrament is responsive even to active donble- and trpl-tonguing. Te equiresa isle more breath than the reglae Ate Ina grouping of four Hus, the alto fue is wel in extending range dovenward x 168, Holt The Paneer P-131.04 Boosey & Hawkes the ako Mute’ range i, of course, its The mos individual pare lower octave. Ta be ear sccompanied o, beter stilt at all, in the lowing example x. 169, Ravel—Dapbnie et Ch 243. D In the medium register, the alto fote difers fom the ute more subuly in timbre, The comparison must be experienced by eat to be spprecitd x 170, Stavisiy Le Sacre P.i8ed RuseTHE OBOE Fr, hautbos Ie, oboe; Ger, Oboe, Hoboe yu: body ofthe cboe is gently tapering conical abe, nade in I thee sections, led upper, ower, and bl joints, The diam ‘er of the boremensres 3p inch athe rop, and inch a the beginning ofthe bell jit. Te bell i flared alle and fished wih 2 rmetalrng, kn the smal ends inverted the reed tube of "staple," feted ‘with cork and the daubc reed, % inch wide, bound to it by winding with thread, The length ofthe iasument including the reed, i about 15H inden heed andaape protruding + nchen more of lcs The pitch of che oboe ean be varied but very sghtly, only by pushing in ‘or palling out the red ube Oboes aze wwally made of wood. Favorite woods are grenadil rosewoor and coeds weod, Some ae of ebonie, which has at least the sdvantage of feeedom fom warping “The fingering sytem ofthe oboe is based on the fondamentalsit- hole D major scale, descabed in Chapter Six. Unlike the fate the oboe sounds F3 when the ign fet inger is depresed, bo the wo instr nents aes ia thatthe right fourth nger controls keys for low C.Chyand Ds, The lefefourh finger operates keys for Gz, a duplicate low C2, low Bf, and By, the lowest note on the oboe. The right thumb support the instrument, while the left thamb works an octave key and 2 Bp pt. THE OBOEus INSTRUMENTS The tone hoks are quite small compared to those ofthe flute. A feature of ear types sll nde the lee third inge cons When one holes closed the note sounded is Ap, With both else he This half-olepriniple is made permanent inthe peri over on the Cz hole forthe lft fist finges. A tab is provided onto which che Finger may ade, leaving the key-cover dows and the small perforation open for vencing certain notes Levers for upper By and C sed key pressed with the side of the right fis finger. across Fs key, and the Upper D and Dg el ays are standard equipment, Further key work vanes with diferent models. The French Conservaoie syste, erally regarded as the best as fro ‘on to plates or ring ys onthe Fundamental six hol. Special Keys te added co individu instuments co faciliae che exceution ofthis forthat eri or figure, In consequence, a great many at ings exist. Only eomaan fingerings ar given inthe chart, which a fot record all he variants in we, and hence mv Itisiended to present a general view of oboe fingering. Keys 1 and on the chart are calle fit and seeand octave keys Like the half-hole device, thei function i to induce the sounding of upper harmoaics by venting, Some snsteumens have secon octave key tha goes ogo action when the first octave key i Apesed andthe fingsrng is taken forthe A above the staff and up ward THE OBOE we Figure 49 shows the sche of harmonics employed for the higher notes. The lasts harmonics ae all sharp relative to thee funda mentale, by a est hl harmonics, nam fal F being a whole tone sharp. The 5 3,4. ands, require further venting besides the hole and octave keys, and this venting i larg the sharpness of the harmonics, which necesstates lower prched fundamentals sound the nots wanted The octave and fifth harmon can be produced from che nots ofthe ist octave up toad so overblown. Composers have not thas far made 3 practice of indicat. ing these harmonics but obvate sometimes we them a6 a mans of achieving an expecially Sine pans, An accepted part of oboe playing isthe preparation ofthe reeds. A, selected piece of cane is folded double when we, che ends bound sound tube, the dovble rod ext tothe desired length, and chen the new ends are seraped with special tons The reed must be very thinto vibrate feely, bu if too thin the tone and the low tones donot speakeasy. A iff rec causes che tone tobe Ian and stride The red pays Such a vital pat inthe tone qual of eee instr ment that the face of the performer's preparing the reed makes of the ‘oboe 4 peculiarly personal instrument, ‘The sound reflects ta high degre the individual ease ofthe player. Before playing, the reeds ma be moistened, In playing postion, the ends ar held between the lips which gently contol the vibration and prevent the seth fom touching the reds, Because of the Resiblty of {he reeds, considerable variation in pitch can be obtained by the lips“0 NSTRUMENTS The tiny lipteal ofice berween the reeds opens and closes with their ition and ths in ror et up vibrations in the ae column of the instrument. The ove requzes by far the least amount of wind of any wind instrument, This means that long phrases may be phyed Without taking a new breath, but ie means also thar ehe player i ina Constant tate of holding back the wind presure. For ths reason, a6 wells for the purpose of allowing relaxation of the lips and tongue, frequent ret should be provided inthe obve pat “The tongue coneosthe air steam atthe aie between the red |All he eongue arculations previously described are Feasble on the tboe, with afew reseratons. Double: and tipe-onguing ae in the future of emergency resources, wed only when the tempo demanded is too fst for single-onguing. They are not idiomatic features of the instrument, a they arin the ese af the duce. Oa the other hand the Tight aboe saccato in single tonguing can achieve a surpeisingly fase divery a. 174. RusiniLu Sela di Sea: Sinfonis ped Enlenburg THE OBOE ast “The oboe staceata is superne ro tha of all the other winds for is sharp dry, lighe quality, a pont ta realize when wing woodwinds in ‘Another important ¢ sracteritie of the oboe emboud tones have to be started with a definite anack, nocceable to the ex. Ifthe toed is simply blown upon, without the # stoke ofthe tongue, the moment at which the toe begins to sound is unpeedicrable and impensbl Flucer-ronguing bas been enploy moderate effectvenes. sx. 172. Sravinshy—Le Suered Printemps p-88,ed. Ruse “The sound ofthe oboe ha ben called pungent, tangy, nasal, pene- crating, bing sore obvious qualities of dobleseed tone, piercing, and ruspy. Thee adjecives represent the qu example, Ther ea noticeable dit ferencein the kind of rone produced by diferent schons of oboe play ing, sich asthe French and the German, and by individ players. Ie ia generally belived thatthe oboe tone of the present day is much thinner nd muchlgher than when the following melody was writen, thar diingush the oboe sharply from the Bute,ws INSTRUMENTS ex. 173. Dach—Brondenburg Concertomo. 0 In direct contrast tothe ute, the oboe inereases in inremsty a it descends thcough the lower fifth of ie ange, and the characteris ‘efesred to become more pronounced. Here itis the problem of the ‘bois co subdue the natural tendency to loudness and even coarseness “The low By isseldom fund in cores. Ieannot be attacked sly, and icf moce appropiate for music of a robose character than for the tance called for in Ex 174. The Be is more manageable x, 174, Prokofielf—Chout p.119, ed, Guth ay Of she highs ing chat, Gand A ae im practical for orchestral wring. They ae insecure of prodction and Tacking in oboe quar. Fg and Gz are not often asd, but they are ‘more playable and they are considered a normal part ofthe range ofthe ‘hoe. They had better ot be approached by skip, and should ot cake pain active legato figuration. The fllowing sol inthe upper register tive witen well played ie very diicul bu very x. 175.Ravel—Daphnise¢ Chloé p-3yed. Durand THE OBOE 53 ‘Upwards from A above the staf the oboe tone gradually becomes ‘hiner, and above D begias ro sound less like an oboe. ‘Thee high tones do noe poses the warmth of the range below A, but they are very wiefol for adding brilince to the woodwind and the upper strings. The oboe parts in Ex. 176 double the strings x, 176, Chauson—Syomphony in By -93,€d. International Music Co ‘The dininetive tone colo and expresive capabiies of the oboe rake ita favorite solo insteanent. Below are tvo well-known oboe melodies. x. 177.Sehumana—Symphory mo.2 pts, 6 Philharmonia iy. x. 178. Brahms Symphony no.2 feed. Kalmus1s INSTRUMENTS Melodies of fllcanng character are especially well sited to the simple plainiveness ofthe oboe. The following melody is contained ‘within the range of am octave, The eboe repeats ic several measures later an octave lower x. 179.Bartok—Concerto for Orchetra_p. 68,64, Boosey & Hawes “The oboe intense he suggestion ofa strange exec pipe, imparted by the next example x. 180, Palla El Amor Brjo P6404. Chester Geneally speaking, fst slurred arpeggioe and figuration are not recommend forthe eine nles 2 special eect iimended. It not thatthe instrament i incapable ofthis kind of vitwosty, buesther able tothe double-eed tone, a least in that agility does not sem 5 femparison with duteand easiness. On the other hand, he tigate thythmie pater with superior nestnes, The following fuite dificle phrase proves eminently succesful as oboe writing THE OBOE us x. tb1, RavelLe Tomben de Couperin ted, Darsnd Even more than inthe case of the ar, a tabulation of oboe eri and temoos eannt be deinively made. There ar the sme variable factors of sil ofthe performer, and degre of rapidity inthe akerna tion ofthe two notes, further complicated by difference ia mechanism between iva nsruments. A to finger one or both the notes involved, Ie can be sid that all major and minor erlare posible, snd that most remoos wider than a fourth fare undependable. Tremolos an nots above the staf are ape to be of poor efece theres often more than one way ‘The oboe group commonly consists af two oboes, or two oboes and English hor, thre oboes and English hor, oy les commonly, thee oboes, Other combinations, lice the four aboes and English hora in Suravinsky’s Sympbony of Pins, are special and unusval cases, ‘Apart from the melodie wes decribed sbove, the oboes may rein- force violins or violas by doubling at the unison. In corbinaton with ‘other woodwind they give insvenes ta wind chords and sharp de i=6 INSTRUMENTS: nition to rhythmic figures, The ison doubling of oe and earings ieforcotl hae sgsther three o nic effet of extreme pangency i obtained by placing to sand English horn alin thie low cepistes x. ,Stuss—Til Enemspiegel sed, Philharmonia Two oboes in thirds, or other close imerval, have a tangy quality of tome not possesed by the oer woodwinds. x. Debussy Le Mer p-f,0d: Durand Inthe cles peatsa simple major seventh morive in diminishing nuances, with hanging Iaemonies in fe and strings. With economy of mean, 3 ‘maximum effee i obtined, messues of Sibelius’ Fourth Symphony, the oboe re- THE OBOE 7 2x. 18g Sibeline—Sympbony wo. ¢ . 68, ed. Brsithopt To.obtain a more stridene onorty, Gustav Mahler often directed the cboss and elarinets to ase the bel of the instrument soa ro pat straight atthe audience. The insrcion in German is Schalericbter ‘nf! making more usually sen in brass pars The opposite proces i thir of asking for muted oboe. Mating is accomplished by staffing a handkerchief inthe bell,1s INSTRUMENTS x. 18s, Stravinsky —Pétrouche po tss, ed. Russe ‘THE ENGLISH HORN Fe, cor anglais It, coro ingles: Ger, engich Hom “The mechanism of the English horn issn i al details otha of the oboe, except thatthe low By lacking. Ie differs from the oboe ia ize Gength 31% inches, including ceed, inthe balb-shape bell, and in the bert metal crork extending from the top end of the instrument to hol the red rbe, The double reed i larger than that ofthe oboe. "The weight of the Bnglsh horn is sopporeed by a cord around the player's neck, iin Fngish hor sa transposing insramens a acsuinent “in F “This designation mean that when the player reads C taking the fn geting for Cas onthe oboe, che sound produced wil be F, beease of the diferenceinsize of the two instruments, Since the Engh horn i Target than the oboe the sounds will be Tower in pitch it wil be re called that he pieolosounds higher than the fae beenus fis sales See). All notes writen fr the English hoa, therefore, sound a perfect fifth below. Atehough often used in eighteemh-century chamber mosie and the diversimento the Engsh horn his been a normal member of the or ches, an auiliary stunt of the oboe faily sine the middle of the nineteen century. Iwas at ist introduced only occasionally foe 4 feared solo melody, and was usualy played by the second abs THE OBOE 19 ‘who resumed playing the oboe after performing the soo. This could be enily done, since the two insruments were identical in playing technique. As the importance ofthe Fnglsh hora grew ands individ tal capailides were more appciated, chi proces of interchange of Fnsteumens gave way eo che exblshmenc af the specialist onthe Eng Tish horn, who now occasionally ply third or fourth oboe. ‘Asan auxiliary instrument, a priniry fosction of the English horn isto extend the range ofthe oboe family downseard, Since the esr rent has no low Bi, the extension in snd i to F below middle C Tower fifth docs not hive the endency’ eo coarseness nocced inthe Tovest note ofthe oboe. The linger sie seen to favor the low notes. x. 186, BardkSecond Rhipiody for Violin and Orchesea ved: Boosey & Hawkes nother sevice performed by the English horn isto ply the notes ofthe oboe’ lower ith wien 4 softer and les penetrating tone is de- Sted, A three-part chord for tree oboes sounds smother and more homogeneous if the third aboe replaced by che Engh horn, For singing melodic che Engst horn brings a new tone colo. Ie i cloney related ro the oboe sun, yet possesses a quality that highly distnesve and individ, ing, atlas in pare, ro the pecliae bulb ichas for bell, Orcheste iterate abounds in solo pss for the Englsh horn. Two of thee are given blow10 INSTRUMENTS x.y. Berioe ~Overure: The Roman Carica Pp 3d Philharmonia “The English horn provides new eolorsti resources in combination with her instrumen's winds aswell strings. A perfect example of rnsed tinbre is seen athe following melody which splayed in unison (vith a solo ell. Tato instruments Blend as one, and neither pre dominates at any time, The accompaniment consists of widely spaced held piano, Iconic in the sin x18. Debussy —Le Mer pe28ed. Durand THE OBOE vt In common with all aus instruments that are designed to ex tend the range downscard, th upper tones lease effective pare of is rn corchesra, unless dovbling by other instruments pr in the following example is produced by good players the English hora are che ove Bin the ied. The F Tris unwise ro write x. 1go, RosselRaccbus ot Ariane, Second Suite p16, ed. Dorand The Engh horn equal 0 the oboe in aiiy and can participate inall active woodwind guezion. ‘THE OBOE D'AMORE, bautbis amour; We, ober amore: Ger. Oboe amore, Fr, Larger than the obce but smaller than the English horn, the oboe {Famore is pitched in A, a minor thied below the oboe ls notes here fore ond a minor third lower than writen, les mechanism ike tha ofthe English horn in hai does noc po the bulb bell. The tone is gentler thin that of the exer wo inst ‘ments and sibely differen intone color “The abve d'amore was a comsion instrument in the baroque period, and was much wed by JS, Bich. In modern orehestetion tis known chietly fort importane part in Staus Symphonia Domestic, where its wntten range ascends to high F. Among other instances of is we = the low By, al icalso hasws INSTRUMENTS are the Bolero of Rav}, and the following example by Debasy. The {to ist appears unaccompanied. x. 191. Debussy—Giguer p-4ed. Dorond THE CLARINET Fe, clarinets Ky eointo; Ger, Klaine ‘THE HECKELPHONE Ger, Heckepbon Invented by Withel, Heckel, in 1904, the heckelphone was ine led inthe scores of Elektra and Salome by Richard Seuss, I 3 sortof baritone oboe, bile to sound an octave below the ardinary oboe and furnished with an additonal semitone taking it down to A. The [eysae aranged hgh on the insteument, with the fingering ofa Ge ‘man oboe, There ia ball bell perforated on the side. The heckelphone hs rich and full eedy tone in the lower octave, making an exellent bs for the oboe family. Ie can be played atleast as igh as E above the sa, alchough it would hardly be wsed for is Upper tones Insances of ts use are so rae tha few orchestras are pre pared ro supply the inerument The heckelphone isa transposing inscument sounding an octave below the writen notes ute clarinet isa eylinsical tbe, with ell expanding sghaly I ‘more than tha ofthe oboe. Ir moe often made of grenadila ‘wood ess expensive kinds of cbonite, or metal. The hey work is nickel silver. The body is in ive scion, called mouthpiece, baer jain, top oie lower joint, and el, “The clarinet mouthpiece i sully made of ebonte or crystal. It seine deeds al” mp ona oss IAlls Gainer mouthpiece Reed Ligure Assembly Fig. “The ingle cane reed is hous to the open side of the mouthpiece by means of a metal ligetre with chombscrews. Ths the fa side ofthe reed becomes part of the inner surface ofthe clarinet rab, and is ia direct conser with the sir calumn. The upper end of the reed 1 scraped very thin, andthe orice between ian herp of the mouth16 INSTRUMENTS coe is carefully adjuved. A mctal exp it placed over the reed when In playing poston, the reed is ad on the lower lip, which covers te lower teeth. The oper teeth rest on the bevel of the mouthpiece. alge and volume ate affected by che amount of red within the he presute of the lower lip on the reed. The tongue “The clarinet family ta large one. The list of its members, with approximate lengths and their tanspostions, sa follows Incr Arua Sona (Soprnine clarinet in 35 sinh stove writen notes (Sopranin) clarinet in Ep hd above ween noes {Gepranino)cbrincinD S034 major second above writen notes, Constantia} 108 ewowtencand mjorsecondbe Tow writen note (Of these, oly four ay be id tobe regular members ofthe orches- tea: the small E> clarinet, the pair of clarinets in By and A, and the tas clarinet in Bp, The piccolo clarinet in Ay is rately seen even in Inds, Parts writen far D clarinet are most often played on the Ep. Many seores of the egheenth and nineteenth cenures call for © iarnes, bat today thse parts are played on either che Bp or the A larne. The alo clarinet sometimes used ro play baset horn parts tnd it Finds some emplnyment in military and danee bands. The bas Glarnes in A is veually never seen except on pape, andthe conte bs clarinet has yor tebe adopted by eomposes. The alto and bas instcuments are dtingsthed from the others by uproraed bell, and bent metal pipes to which the mouthpieces ar attached. ‘THE CLARINET 1s “The clarinets furnish a complete object lesson in the evolution of ransposing instruments, All ofthe instrumenss Tsted have the same Fingering system, 0 that one who leases this system ean phy chem ll In the act of plying any instrument there is automatic, iastincive teanlaion ofthe pried not int the proper postion ofthe fingers, and it would cbviouly be ipeactial wo leara dtlerent ach ofthe picchesIned under the Clarinet Family. The player eeads his paras though for C clarinet, and the instrument transpose: accord ing to its size. Since the C cline i now olslete, a clarinet’ noees are always diferent in ite fom chose writen In the dscusion of fingceng, regres ete, the notes mensioned willbe the notes as ead, ene fingered, by the player. The normal, or Standard, clarnes isthe Bp clarinet, cortesponding to the Au tboe, and exemplifying the ideal clarinet at prefered today. The A Carine is somes les exersively used ingerings for and Rees (Chapter Sit, and used a a bas for seodying the fingering of flue and ‘oboe, we find than the charirt this scale starts on G instead of D, and tives the written notesshownin Eig. 1 (2) ig to the slamentay sacle, sifngor seal decerbein asnet produces only the harmonies, when overblown. The series shown at ig. 51(B) repre sent the first notes available by overblowing fom (a), the tell ove, leaving a large gap benween the rv series. This gap was filed by (2 boring a hole for the lefe chum, giving G when open; (2) boring holes sl higher on the ube, for Gand A, with keys operated by the fe fine Finger, (5) utlsng the register key (provided for over blowing) to wound the B, tis key bing placed close to the G hole to thar the chumls can depres the key and close the hole at the samets INSTRUMENTS THE CLARINET 19 times and (4) extending the cownward range to E, with keys, so that the frst overblown aoe is Bs. The ast step involves the wse of both fourth fingers. The right chunb supports the insrument "The Boehm system and lat improvements were applied with suc- cess tothe clariaet, alshough some other systems ae also in use. The Boehm clarinet has up to even sig keys, and from seventeen to twenty-one other keys Many altemate fingerings are provide, espe- lly for duplicwing the acron ofthe fourth fingers Fig. 5. Fingering Chee for the Carinet (Boehm System) seg] Tes to be noted that the thumb hole i kep eeted, excee for the sovcilled throat tones G, Ge, nd Bp, and for on F fingering and that the register key, ako caled the speaker key, is depresed forall ‘notes upward from te fis verblown note, ‘Side keys 9 and 10 (sight hand fre Singer) are used 10 trill Bh-C, and By-Cp, respectively Fingerings above Fi are rot standardiaed, except for At, and no saci is tade inthe char che many aleroatives used by clari= nett, The practice is to dscover by experimentation chose finger Combinations which produce he best resus in tems ofthe individual player and the individual ins-ument. # Fig. 53 “The low eee ofthe laine cll the chalomeau register, fom the name of one ofits ancestors, The tone color in this pare of the1 INSTRUMENTS range has ben called ditk, menacing, and dramatic. There can be no doubt of ie richness ad invidunt. Tes unlike any other sound in the orchestra, and maredly diferent from other registers ofthe clai- fen employed in effec of an am x, 192. Repighi—Fomane dé Rema Aye. Rion Accompaniment figutes of repe potters are of notes and accented shythmic lee effect inthe chalumeas cog x, 193, Stravinsky—Diversinento, Le Baier de la Fée Pp t8 ed. Boosey & Hawkes Sas The contrast betwen the low and high regisers ofthe clarinet has suggested many passgss in which fire and second clarinets sound a5 ‘wo diferene instruments. THE CLARINET 1 8. Philharmonia x. 194. Mosart—Sympbony i By, R543. pes Astheupper par ofthe eulumeau register approached, che sound: ing length ofthe ube shortened and the charzeerisic tone quality Jz gradually lessened. The open tone G (hua hole) has 2 sounding Teagth of sbour 8% nches on the Bp clarinet, and the By 4 non tid Figher sounds fom length jst under 6 inches. Together with the G3 tind A, these ae called throm tones. They ate rater pale and less We brant than other clarinet toms, bute isa mistake to regard them simply ssinferiogtoneso be avoides. On the contrary, the roat tones should be recognized sa resource ofthe clarinet, to be employed apprope ately. The sh Ge and Aas been greatly ov phased x. 195, Debussy —L’Aprisiv0 INSTRUMENTS oterval made up of the thos cones often erroneously called the break. The beac means more preciely the passage from Bp to Bt and vie verso, nother words the pont ar which the highest funda rental tne, Br, adjoin the lowest overblown note, Be, Reference to the fingering chart willshow that wheres Bp splayed with the entre tube open, ly requires she entire tube to be closed, with the exception ofthe vent hole opened by depressing the reper Key. leis true that ‘his tansion presents a dificoly of coordination for beginners, but seis made with perfect smoothnes by good players 2.196, SibeliseSyimphomy no. 3 P.4oyed. Kalmus “The overblown notes from By to the frst C shove the sf, in close, constitute the elainn repster. Here the clarinet i bright in sive, warm, and expeasive x. 197, Beethoven Symphony no. 7 755d, Kales Above C, the high register tends to sound bel and piercing in {orte, nd somewhat futelte when played sfly. A good tone quality Ismainaned up o high G, which may be ten a a safe top note for fonchestral clarinet part. Ne xy, the earner exeriescon- THE CLARINET m trol over the diferent regstem so that no lack of homogeneity is fle in widely craversing melodic nes like the following 2.198 Stravinsky Symphony in Three Movements 1. 3o.ed. Asociaed Musi Publishers “The clarinet can be played up to high Cabove the G just mentioned, but hae extreme notes have ite sonorous value. GB and A are oc ‘easonally found in scores, specally chose of modern French com: posers ustally in ttt paseags, or doubled by other instruments. Ex: ples ike the following ae mos exceptional. x. 199, Casella—Puppertt 48, ed. Philharmonia ‘Throughout its ange the carne has greater capabilities of dynamic vatation than the other woodwind instruments, This i most remark:m INSTRUMENTS thle in pianisimo, By subduing the reeds vibrations wich the rongue the tone eat be reduced to viral innudiilty tion subtons, ot x, 200, Berhi—SysmpSonie Fontcique p17. 44h Eulenburg The A clarine is not an suilary inseument like the piccolo or che English hon, eis pated with te By caring forthe post for standard clatne,alehogh some esboch as prepa hat unequally. A clarinet ex. on fra playing engagement. He expects the misc ‘oben pat for Bp and in par for A casing. Sometimes hei asked to snake the change in eh course of a movement, which he does by re ‘moving the mouthpiece fom one instrument and connecting i tothe ‘other (to avoid playing witha dy reed). ‘Uns recently the rons for using the A earner were these: (a) tossimplify Bngeing in sharp keys by means of the added half cone transposon (Il major would be written D major for A. clarinet, Ce fo Dp majo for Bp cain 2); (B) to give the less bilan, slightly warmer tone of the longer instrument for certain expresive purposes ani (¢) to gun the low Cz, sounding fom the low Eof the A clarinet. These purposes now seed tobe further examined In regard ro (a), ‘he assumption char some Keys ae easier ro play in chan others i mis leading. The Fac is chit diicule pssages may occur in C major, and cesy ones may happen in Fe ma Inthe chromatic harmony and shiling coals of the ewenieth century, key signatures are un felable indiestore of Gngring difiulies to be encountered, Further he perfection af nechanison and dhe enormous advance in play ing technique have combined to minimize problems of execution, ‘As for (B), the difeence in tone color berween the A and By clarinets isnot sriking. deed, iis often imposible a tell by the rone alone which ofthe ro being played. The size ofthe instrument THE CLARINET ” towevernuestionsby anal the performer ia cerng dsed tone quay hd for (cs hier makes Bey (ight ha fou foc boon miveraly sect ten hs wo be lengthened an the guton aries wheter or note ermine ate Bp clanet, Wing for the A clarinet the only ere way tobi the low Ce “Kea mater of act the A drine as nfl ito disse, dpe tapny everything on the By tanpeing Ace puedo all tote, Sonetines ered the A cain bring wed Sea on an impo melody wre For empl, the sod ‘Avon the scond space wold be wren athe tone By forthe Bp carne, whereat onthe A clare would ell for ehe fall ererbown fom low E 1 supply B carne having 2 low the Ci. This adiion bas in onder to sound this note the istru- All major and minoe el ae good on the Bodh caine. Tremolos are of excellent effec, especily in the chalumeau, but should not be tosed on intervals wider than the major sath in that eepste, or the perfect fourth above the bre. Above the staf, the major tied is 2 Safe init, ex 201, Kodily-—Praloms Hingaicus 81, ed Philharmonia “The carne staccato much ess poted than that of the oboe, but ic cam be drier and sharper than the Bute staceato. Fast passages of single-ronguing are beter eieved by slasing wo or tree notes at™ INSTRUMENTS appropriate places, Douhle- and tripleconguing canbe used as emer- gency expedient, sin she following instance where the clarinets are called upoa co imitate ee light triple-tonguing ofthe Hts x. 0, Mendebvon-—itslin Symphony p-136,ed.Eulenborg In variety of rongue attacks the carne is superoe ra the ater reed instruments. The sat of tone can be entrlled to give al gradations from an explosive sforrndo to a soft attack something bike that of louré bowing inthe strings x, 203, Debussy—Premiire Rhaprodie ith, “The clarinet i clove second tothe ein ain, es tone quality, 1 well is technical expains, make i admirably suited for ll kinds of rapid scales, arpeggios, and figuration elling for esse in mobility, THE CLARINET vs and Aidty. Wide lego sigs berween regis ‘complished when in an upward dieecion. mx 204, Schoenberg—Picrrot Lanse p-tsed, Univeral “The following cadenza fr wo clarinets exhibis the Mowing quality and lesbilty ofthe clarinet lego x. 205. Ravel—Repsodie Espugnole p.8,ed Dorandv6 INSTRUMENTS: Besides the important melodie functions performed by clarines cither 3 solo instruments or doubling other melodic voces, the ha ‘ous, scan be cen in alnos any orchestral score. The unobtrusive a ture ofthe clarne's tone makes ie extremely tsefol for doubling and for combination with facially al instruments, Clarinet accompa ‘ment figures are commen and aften ingeniously aranged to coneibute ing ia good the fal sore; oristic posites ofthe clarinet Seton are very numer lite and vb ‘example of thiuseof chines, and shouldbe examined torte background texture. The fol 1 206 Strvinsky-—Pitroucha peared. Ruse ‘The evocative color of the chalmes tones, combined with harp andsol violin, crete afsscina ig amnephere in the opening messes cq THE CLARINET ” ‘of Alban Berg's Molin Concerto, The clasnets are writen at their tceal pitch inthe score «pactce adopted by afew modern com posers, che parts being printal withthe necessiry tanspoitions. A Footnote inthe score expsinsthat the frst elaine pat is notated for By laine, the second for A. sx. 107 Berg—Violin Concer posse Uni ve THE BASS CLARINET Fe, clerinte bases Ie, clannrto bao, elvone Ger, Bawbarintte Although the bass clarinet in A exis and some compine called for icin their scores, fewmsicians have ever seen the instrument Pars for care practically alvays played on the base clarinet in Bo, the player transposing the nots down » halftone, In most case themm INSTRUMENTS. composers abject in wring forthe A instrument to obtain the lowe Ce, the actual pitch ofthe low E-of the bas lari in A. This sound is now available, however, through the addition of the low Eh key (Cighthand fourth finger) to the Bp bas clarinet. Because ofthis ex renson the length ofthe instument isthe same a that of the bus larne in A. Since the bass caring is pitched an octave below the ‘ordinary elaine, ts lowes tone sounds a halftone above the open (Caring of the “alo, Bas clarinets have been made with a downward range o D, sound: ing G, and modern Rusia composers give evidence in thee scores of co C sounding By, the range the existence of bs clrines descending sven by Rimsky-Korakofl. A bass clarinet constructed by Rosan Mazzeo, ofthe Bostor Synptony Orchesta, provides two Furth semitones, down to Bp, sounding As. At the preeent tne, however, one ‘anor with certainty count on having sounds lower than Cf on the bas clarne. TThe mechanism duplicates that of the standard Boehm carne, ex capt that two coger heys are provided. The throat tones may be overblown atthe ewelith giving faller tones from high D to F, bat few players take advanage of this, preferting to keep to the fingering habit of the smaller lrnes,Exrevnal features ofthe bass elaine re the upturned bell andthe curved mouhpipe, both of ackel sve, andthe supporting necl-cord attached toto strap-rings “There are rwo sstens of notation in common we, called French and German, terns tae may have possessed logic when they og rated. Subsequently bh syscems have been employed by French snd German composer interchangeably, bt che names pers. In th French syste, the partis writen throughout in the treble clef, exacey as though for the ordinary By carne, the sounds being & major nich lower. Th the German syten the bass it used a the normal clef, the esble clef being employed only when the par Kes so high that keeping to the bass clef would require severa leger ines. The sounds area major second lower than writen, in either clef Fig ‘The French system seems the mote logical fom the standpoint of fingering habits, whereas the German notation has the advantage of appearing more nearly where i sounds ass clarinetist a a grou, do fot shox a preference for ether way. Ifthe par begins with notes in the treble clef, ambiguity may evi to hich notation i o be Fo- lowed. 4 foomore i omer given to make ths clea, e, “sound ing a major ninth (or major weond) lower.” “The low tones ate ich in hie odd-numbered partials, and resent Inajor tind ae often plainly audible when che Inrument is plying lone, The bass clrinet mates an excellent bass for the woodwind {gr 0up, with or without doulling by basons. Is panisimo in the low regeter canbe very niuch softer than that of the basoons and is valued resource Ta the following expresive solo pasage the bass caring is accom panied very lightly by fates, srith the harp placed above them, The ‘writen Cf exnnot be raced by mos instruments. 5% 108 Shostakovieh—Sympiomy no. 7 Ppp. Leeds0 INSTRUMENTS, 14 kind of shadowy fleetness characteristic ofthe cline fanily x. 209, Milhaud Syanpbony no. 2 p40, ed. Heugel Ieisimportant to form 3 mental picture of the sound of the carina register of the bas caine as compared to notes of the sme pit played on the ordinary Bp carne, There obviously no way td this without actully itening tothe ewo instrument, but some kno tege of what is involsed in che way of fingering, over hes the lstene ro keow what co lsten for, and to identify what be heats. la this register the bss clarinet is paler and somewhat ls ia cisve than its smaller prototype x, 240, Straust—EinHeldonleben p- ned: Eulenborg = SS r ‘The bass carne is hardly less capable than the other chines of a high degree of ail, despite che comparative cumbersomeness of ins mechanism, due tots size. The following example isthe statement ‘ofa fugue subject played alone by the ls clarinet, excep forthe sole accompaniment of a stare dram, The high Fis as high as is advisable to write for the bas cine THE CLARINET mt p ss.ed. G Schirmer x. 211,W.Schuinan—Symplony no. 3 “The sll clarinets in sn D standin the same pitch relationship toeach other asthe By and A slarners. The D clarinet i ite wed. Tt [s posible arin some instances the composer's choice of ce D elainee ‘was motivated by considerations of fingering, bu in any ease parts for the Dare nearly sways played on the Fb casing, reading the notes Ialf tone lower ‘Although the Ep clarinet ha the sume mechani athe Bits more dificult co play wel, and inte, especisly ifthe performer is asked to change quickly to the smaller instrument fom the larger. Te small feed and the rather eramped finger postion need tne for adjustment. sully one member ofthe clarinet section makes a speciary of plying the E> clarinet. “The nced for more strength inthe high-peched woodwind soften fete in the large symphony orchestra, and this the smal clarinet can supply. Te has a penetra agily, Its used to reinforce violins and les 8 well the upper tone ofthe othe clarinets hence the most used part ofits range isthe high register. The high G, sounding Bp, canbe considered a ae upper ng tne, an incve saceao, brilliance andmm INSTRUMENTS limit alshoagh Gz and A are written for the Bb clarinet more fe quently than forthe Bs carne. The following isa characteristic Eb carne passage vx. 212 Ravel—Daphnis et Chios 263, ed. Durand “The cote range i playable, down to the low E. The tone of the two Tower octaves lacks the warmth and expressive quality of the Bh clarinet, and the instrument has often been used here for purposes of parody and initain. As in the eae of the piccolo, however, it shold be sid agin tha auxiliary instuments bring new colors in their “weak” registers additonal resources needing only tobe employed in the right way Below isa wellAnovn solo for D clarinet. vx. 245, Stause—Til Eulompiegel 1-98, Philharmonia sari wer PRR CLARINET 6 ‘THE BASSET HORN “The bast horn may be described a clatnet with extension to low G, pitched to sound a perfecr Sth lower than wristen, ie in F. It louest sound is therefore F, + fourth above the ‘ell C-string. Is bore is narrower than tha of the ako and bass elatines, sometimes used 18 substitute, and thi gives the instrument a dsintive imbre Tealy forms ofthe base torn, the tube made a sort of Sturm in side box, 5 means af gaining length of ai alum without lengthen ing the insrument. The device's not found in modern bast hors ‘At present, the significance of the baset hom devives, notable instances of swe, Movare wrote important basset orn pare in the opers, especialy Die Enrfubrung and Die Zaberor; also in the Reguimand nthe Serenade, K.361.Beeshoven guveita prominent soloin Promecheut thas been revived by Sens inthe operas Ele tnd Die Frau ole Seb Surauss writes the base horn parts generally inthe tele clef even when icnecessitaes che eger lines fo low C. Somevimes, however, the bas clef i wed and on these acasons the pares writen to sound a perfcr fourth higher. Thsiea practice chat wil iter be seen in sing Tor the hors The procedures shown nthe follwing example x. 244, Struse—Eletora 258, ed. Boosey & Hawkesist INSTRUMENTS. ‘THE CONTRABASS CLARINET. Large clarnes have been constructed to sound in the octave below the bass carne, in Ey and in Bp. The later instcurent is made of metal and folded upon itself af hoe great dynamic warey ich tone quality, and an amtonishing pitch ‘ange sounding from she D jus above 16-foue Cto the D just above ‘idle C. The contrabass lavinets as yet too grcatararty to be con- sidered an avalable resource in symphonic composition. he manner of 2 contrabssooa, It “The extent to which composers have expanded the group of ear nets in the large orchetrs of the early twentieth century x shown by he following sting of the clarinets employed in sre works Mailee—Spmphony na § Schoenberg—Garreider 2 Ep larnes 7 Epcltaes $ebtinets By and A $elariersin By and A "slain has cline Serse—Eltors Stcwsinsy Le Saore du Prints "E> clarinet DUE) chrinet delerines in Bpand & Selanne in By and A 1 bas caine THE CLARINET ws THE SAXOPHONE Invented abt a by Ade So, he sxphone caida tena: This feces ons are produced wa « moutpce ed feed ainot ey ike dhe of ae, ei conmonly played by ‘lrneter wou fuer ning “Theepeued tl ofthe ao pone teninseac ofthe bs Jt. bits tube widely conical, ‘ver large sie toward the lower end the appeatance of the clarinet family “The tone holes have lr cy-covers operated by rod. aves from keys which ae arranged in two groups convenient for the hands. A cord around the neck supports the sseroment when playing The fingering very ruc lke tha ofthe oboe, so thar it need no Be Aeseribed in deal R owing figure. The sea is compleely el ofthe ube, present a contrast. Sophones are made in luge variery of ies and keys. All are writen fori she eb lf asin Fig. 65 their ferent sve eesling in nome produced. The mi smom are the Es alt (soning msjor sith lower) and the Bb tenor (Gounding a major sith lower). Next to these in frequency’ of are the Ey batone (sounding an octave and major snth lower) and the By soprano (sounding a msjr second lower). The sopeano so phone i ually made in stag for, without ehe upturned bell."The {tanspostions ae shown in noraion below6 NSTRUMENTS ‘A large bas saxophone in By is somes played; also soprano and tenor in C, and others in F. Ravel wie, in Boer, for Bp soprano tnd Bb tenor, and also fora small soprnino in F (sounding a fourth ‘up). The part fr the Ler, however, can perfectly well be taken over bythe lest rare By soprano, since it docs not go 0 high, The saxophone pasesss the agility of the clarinet, except in the imacer of fae tonguing, which is hindeed by a slightly slower re- sponse inthe embouchare Modern developmen in sixophone playing have completly changed higature and sound of the instrument from what it was hea melodies were asigned toi by Bies and ocher European con posers before 1920. From a pure, steady tone, partaking of beth horn and reed instrument qualities, is tone has become, evident with ts sscendancy in the field of popular dance mosic, remulous, overswee, seotimental and cis alnose invariably played out of tone. The sto phone a played tals cama be we sucemally Sv fetrumentl Combinations, di ythaps For this reason that ie did no, seemed likly twenty-five yeas ago, become a member of the symphony or- choses, “The numerous instacces ofthe wie of che saxophone in symphonic smusic have been chielya¢ a special instomene introduced to play 4 featured solo (See Mousoepsky-Ravel—Tablesux d'une Expostion) Tn the following example, the soprano saxophone i employed toi parta favor ofthe jazz style ofthe 1930's THE CLARINET 19 x 215. Coplnd-—Concert fr Pianoforte and Orc P36 ed Cot Cab Press ‘The following legito, expressive solo pasage for alo saxophone represents a ritherunsoilweof thisinstument ina work of reigows x. 216. Bristen—Sinfona da Requiem Dies Ise 80d, Boosey & Hawkes ot gee eeeTHE BASSOON Fr lasing fagotas Ger. Fagot JifBassoon is situresque fn appearance as ella in sound | Te air colunnbaboot 9 fet + inches long, sounding the By just below the open “cllo Costing, and the instrument i sendered manageable by being is unally made of maple inf Tong) joins the burr, andthe wing (or tenor) joints The butt and the wing join are lined! with rubber, aginst moisture, A double eed } Inch wide qui lke slayer Eng eds Sted onto a race fully curved mal mauthpipe called dhe crook, of bocal and this is ino che cop end of the wing join A neck-cord, attached toa ring at the top ofthe bute, provides sapporeso that the hands are Fee. Some bassoonits we a hand rest, fed to the but and bracing pln of che eh hand The right hand holds the but close tothe player's vig hip the lefc hand grasping the bass and wing joints together. Ln this position, the thumb Keys are os the sie toward the player called the back), tnd the finger find their postions on the fron side, out of sight the player. Since the se makes a sharp U-turn inside the bur, the left hand controls a nce the lowest nots, om the bass joint, and the highest mote, onthe wing joie. "The bore is conical fram 'y inch at the small end ofthe about 154 inches a he Bel, The piteh of the Basoon ean be altered only by changing the postion of the red an the end of the erook I snot a transposing naroment ded in wo, 20 to speak. The basoon 1 sections—the bell joint the bas (OF ook, 10 THE BASSOON 9 The wing il a device for adng thickness to the wall of the tube, inorder tha tone hols, bored on sane, ay be spaced propely for pi the fingers to reach (Fig ion the inside, yet clave enough together onthe out for sr) Fig. 57 Com Seton of Bon Wing Some hoes in the bute ae as bored shnewise. This peculiarity and the situation sling from the folding ofthe tube create an exter ‘speerof confusion and complexity inthe fingering system. Bassoon in se atthe present ime are of t+o main types the Feench (Buffer), ov the German (Heckel). Most German bssoons can be identified in the concert hall by the white ivory’ ing atthe top end of the bel joint. Some, hoseeve, donot poses his distinguishing feature. Moreen improvements, such a6 the Boehm prin ionized the mecha ples that evolu of othe: woodwind instruments have not been soccesfully incorporated into th bassoon Ke seems that practialy all inconation and caps bilies of execution inevitably descoy just those characterises of tone quality and delivery which goto make upthe cherished inividu- algy ofthe bassoon, Some key work wa indispensable in order ro cover the extraordinarily wide range, nd modern basoons are equipped ‘with seventeen to twenty-1w0 Leys "The fundamental sx-finger-bole series gives a scale just an octave below the writen clarinet sal, starting on G. In the borate G, A, Be, covered by right ehid,seomnd, and fst agers—the G withthe sid ofa key, a3 he hoes heyond zeach. On the wing are C,D, and E (ee third, second, and fst figs), andthe open noe, Fa “The downoeard extension ofthis series uses the rest of the bute gh fourth finger E right thom), and he bas and bell joins. The lef thumb conrols a rest of fur Keys (D, C, B, and Bp), as well at four other keys onthe wing joie thar lie within is reach to the contrabas in Bp, The conrabase in Cis the only sarrusophone fever wsed in the orcheses and pats designated for it are now phyed ‘on the contrassoon. hiss pely because of great improvements in the contrabassvon, and partly because the tone of ee srrusopone is ‘more suitable for paying out-of-doors than in a concer room “The sarrsophone entirely of bras, with large tone holesand hole covers sinilar to those of the stophwone, and iis played with a double feed ikea basoon reed, Ie has wide conical bore. The eonteabass felded after the manner ofthe contrabasoon, except that its Haring bell pints scaight upwards. The keys are arranged in eo groups venient for the fingers, The fingering sytem resemble that ofthe Aut, oboe, an sxophone.BRASS INSTRUMENTS ve student of orchestration ie faced with a dficul station in I titenpting to form a mental image of the sound of musc ‘weitren fr bras inscuments. The absence of standardization inthe types of brass insruments eaves him on far moreinsecure ground than nthe case of woolsvnds. Not only do the eypes themselves show important differences ia diferent countries, but insruments other than those designaed in the sore may be regularly used by custom, Fur thermore, the student isering to a performance of one of the grea ‘works of symphonic Steratre, let us say Becchoven's Ninth Sy ‘Phony, mast continualy remind himself thatthe sound of the bras, {Spesially, does aor ely represent the sound a conceived by the com ere principal objectives are necesary forthe sady of bras in orchestration, Fint, the sadent should Jean al he ean about the base Principles of eonstruccon and playing technique common eo al ras Instcumens, Then, he should proceed with the examination of the ‘ype of instruments thi have bee, or might be, used to play the pacts he ee in scores. Thirinludes natural horns and eeumpers and other obeoete instruments, anderstnding of which i indispensable ro an understanding of the orchestration by composes ofthe clasical period, 18 well as of later periods. Finally, ic of grea importance that he Ieep abreast of hi own ime by seeking all avaiable information about ‘contemporary practice in orchestral bras playing. TIn-a modern symphiny otehestea the bras section cons of four BRASS INSTRUMENTS Py subdivsions—hors, trumpes, trombones, and cubas. Ausiliary in- Seruments do not ex in the sme family relationship to these Four [group as were observed in he woodwind sedi. The haens (Feeneh hors) are always writen today’ as hors i Falthoug horas double horas in F and By may be used to play the par. Tram: pets ate either By or Cerumpers, the Dtrumpee and the bas erumpet Eppeating rarely. Corners cin hardly be considered members of the trump family. Trombones ae regulatly tenor eombones, exepe that, tone of them may be abs, or x combination enor-bas instrument, The tuba is 2 bass tuba, generally speaking, the tenor tuba (euphonium) being only occasionally employed. The Wagner rubss are speci in seruments more lke horns tan rubat "The average bass section na score employing woodwind by threes isa fellows: in practice Bp 4 bores 5 (or 2) eumpers 3 tombones “This will be found convenient to adopt aa standard, co which may he telaed the meri varinns in the makeup of the brat section Personal tate and the eharacer of the particular composition ae the chief deciding factors inthe adoption of variants by the composer. The variants range from the clsical convention of two horns and 680 trumpets to the expanded forces called for in scores ofthe late nine teenth and early twentieth cere. “The following ae illustenive examples of diferent bass y consitared Beslon—Sympbonie Fantastique 4 hoens 2 campers 3 trombones 2 tus rubas208 INSTRUMENTS Hols —The Panes 6 horas 4 trumps 3 trombones + bass tuba Wognet—Die Gitterdimmering horns 4 Wagner cubas 3 trumpers 1 bass trumpet 3 contrabas trombone ‘ontrabas tuba Schoenberg—Gurreleder to horns 44 Wagner tubas 6 erumpers 1 base trumpet 1 ako trombone 4 tenor-bas trombones 1 bass trombone in Ey + contrabass trombone + contrabass tba The function of sound generston, performed by reeds in oboe clarinet, and bascon, is ule ina bras insrument by the players uthpece feed the sal nd of the ain tube of the instrament. As che ar stream ced through the lp, they are se in vibration, and these vibrations are communicated ro the col of sit encased in the bras tube The sie an shape ofthe terior of the mouthpiece as a vit in uence on the tone quity of the instrument and also om the relative lips, eld against a more oles cup-shaped meal m BRASS INSTRUMENTS 209 case of production of lower or higher notes ia its range. shallower top. or bowl ads brillnce and foce, bringing ou he higher paras tof the tone, whereas the cone shap opening of the horn mouthpiece, lyin the bore, products ones characterized by softnes and mellownes. dividual tase and changing styles make i imposible to deserbe accurately a univeril standard shape of mouthpiece forthe various bass instruments, The forms shown in Fig. ate average types Horn ‘Trumpet Trombone Tuba Fig 61. Mouthpieces of Bras Imrumens (Cioss Seton) By means of lip tension, the harmonies of the rube'sfundamestal tone are isolated and made ro sound individually. The pitch of the fundamental rone being deterined bythe length of the tube, a tobe 8 fet lng ie theoretialyexpuble of sounding the following harmonic series fom 8-f00t Fig. “These harmonics represent vibrations ofthe ar column in fractions after the manner of frationalsring vibrations (ste Chapter One, page 29, For the second hatniniethe aircon wrates in halves, wich {ode atthe halfway point. For the next tone, G, the whole 8 footno INSTRUMENTS length vibrates in thirds, an so on. Ie wil be novied that the ratio bereen suceasve pis of res shows inervalt of steadily diminish- ing sie. Hence the minor third between sath and seventh harmonise ' bound to be smaller chan the minor third between fifth and sath harmonise follows rt the seventh harmonic, Bp, wil always sound too ft. For his ean, the use of the seventh harmonic ie regularly avoided in bras playing. “There are ochee tons in this “chord of mute” tha are ot of tune wvith our tempered seae. Those willy mentioned are mmbers 7. 1% sand 14, Doeif we examine numbers 8,9, and +0, we find that these rads ate terval of unequl sie. In shor, the performer a brs nsrument, racially all of who tones are harmonics, a ‘opposed to Fundamentl ean never relax his vigilance a 0 the intone tom of notes ax they come fom his instrument, Picch can be mid by the ips, within smal limits, Oer means cx, such asthe mobile side of the trombone, or che rghe hand in ‘ected in the bell ofthe hors. Here swell to repeat that in practice, ‘itch it not absolue, and tha playing in cune involves continual a jstment tothe sounds of othe instruments ‘The range ofa bras instrument should be thought of in terms of the length ofits tubing, and the portion, or number, of paras offs harmon serie it ean produce The length ofthe tube, regardless of is diameter, is reasonably ac- cutee gauge ofthe pitch of ts fundamental tone. Length sale a factor in the avabiley of upper haemonics, Because eh shorter the tube the more difficult i becomes to sound the highest partial ros. Two tubes of equi length may diferin ange becase of differen diameters. A wider bore facilitates the prodaction of lower harmonics, whereas « narrow bore is better forthe higher ones. To these considerations we ‘stad the wide anc dep of the mouthpizee wed, and the apitae and sl ofthe player "Tons higher than the sarenth harmonic can be sounded by some players but they are not practical because of ther diicley and in BRASS INSTRUMENTS am secore pitch. Fundamental tones ae called pedal tones. They are not always obrsinable, or ehey may be of such poor quality tha they are not used, Instruments that donot sound thee fundamencal are called falf-tube instruments in consist ro whoe-tabe instruments, which sive the peda tone. In the clasical period, hors and erumpets played only notes in the harmonic series ofthe Fordamentl to which chey happened 0 be tuned. Ths oning was accomplished by fing ditferene-sived sections of tube, cilled crooks, co the instrument, an operation requiring a cer tain amount of dime, Porter adjustment was:made by means of cuing tlide, This was a U-shaped bead somewhere inthe tube, designed 50 that the twa prong ofthe U fied ike sleves over rw ends ofthe tube By sliding tis U ino or, the otal ube length could be eaeflly| regulated, The principle of changing the sounding lenguh ofa ube by means ‘of ase isthe principle of tetrombone (Fig. 63), dating at east $f back ashe fifcench cenrury. “The fundamentals given in she diagram are those forthe tenor trom bone, The seven postios of the slide, sown by doted lines, provide seven diferent seis of haronics, moving down by half seps a di minised fish. Change of postion cannot be effected instantaneously, to tat there are probers of paying techie vo be mastered, but the slide system is ideal for perfection of iaconaion, since the side may bbe moved at will eo satisfy the earINSTRUMENTS, Alchoug invented fly ealy inthe ninctenth century, the wale system was slows in ining acceptance among misicians, and ic was, well after 1850 before instruments equipped with valves could be tid to have Become established in the orchestra ‘The operation of a valve opens the way for the ai cola, an extra loop of tubing at he same time blocking the eiginal pach, so thar the total tube lergth is greater than before and therefore lower in pitch, Depresing te piston or lever accomplishes instantaneously ‘what was previously done by changing crooks Two types of vale mechan are wed, the rotary valve and che piston valve. Thee mathod of operation may be cen in Fig. 6 1 s leverup —leverdown ‘ton up piston down Pixon Valve Fig 6g. Vales (uth fair alu s shown by brokes line) Rotary Valve “The drum of the rtary valve i wound with linen Flin oF gu ateached to the consesiag arm ofthe Bnger lever in such a way that depresing the lever gives the dram a quater turn. This aligns the open ‘ng inside the dram nthe manner shown inthe dgeam. The psn salve works up and doin within a cylinder. Boch are provided with springs, which star he valve toi original pasion when che pes sure of the finger i rlased BRASS INSTRUMENTS a Cre basic valve system employs thre valves operated by the hand is wed for fingering. The valves are arranged 0 that ‘ale (he one nearest che player, and played by the fire finger) lowers the pitch ofthe re a whole one; the second alte lowers the pitch 2 half tone; andthe third valve lowers the pitch stone and a half. Two valves, oF three, may be depresied ae the same time. The following {able gives the posible valve postions and combinations. These are sometime dencsed by numer with the trombone position having a corresponding eet Comesponting Inter by Which Trombone Shie Vatee Deprened Fachte Lowered Postion None fie Not one seorad Nor tone ‘hid No pornos cand: minorthird fourth Now ands ores fies Now andy artes forth sich Now weands Togmented fourh seventh “The use of valves in combination presents dtfcutes of intonation “The length of each valve tube is thar proportion of the whole tube length (without valves) necesary to lowe the pitch by the desired in terval. If however, oe valves deprened he other valves do not then aud ube ufcenry long to meet the proportional requtements ofthe ‘ew total length This sess eious whee che shorter tubes offs and second valves are concemed, but che diserepancy i pronounced when the third valve i sed in combination, In onder compensate for his deficiency in he third valves ube, inerumpersand corns i ginealy made lide longer, withthe result that notes played wring the tied valve alone are fat, and have to be played sharp by the lps For ths reson, che combination of frst and econ valves is preferred to the third alone The valve rbe cin be polled out bit by the hand note fingering, and instruments ate often equipped with rings or levers to factitate this means of pitch adjstent, Some instrament have ato- diaa INSTRUMENTS: imate compensating devices. Fi the larger instrument, for dhe purpose of corectng pitch, ‘Other seasons for siding more valves tothe thre-valve system are ‘ocstend the range wit lower tones, and ta effet the tanspoiion of ‘he entre instument toa new pitch, These devices will be desribed ‘in connection withthe individual instruments concerned Tes tobe nocced tac whereas in the woodwind inseruments the proces of chang the si columnby epering holes, in bras instaments itis one of leagth- ning the aie column by adding tubing. The ascending vale found ‘on some horns of French manufacture an exception. Mention should tho be made of the technique of hand stopping, by which tones of rhe homn ean be fastened without lengehening the abe ly, extra valves may be added, on the pitch of Fondamental wnesis ne of shortening If the stadene will tke the trouble o write ou the harmonic sree of £006 C, eransposing kc six tims downward progresvely by half steps he will have before his the notes theoretically obtainable in the seven valve positions, or combinations, as shown in the table. I ‘willbe a once parent tat inthe oppse pace ofthe range the sme rote can be found in more chan one series Many ofthese wil be har ‘monies known to be out of tune, snd so avoided. Oxhers wil be oc sionally chosen for thee special sound, or because of their fingering in elation to tha of preceding or following nots, sin tll, fr in stance In principle, however, that fingering is chosen which involves ‘he ation of the leas amoune of tubing, the purest tones being those neatest tothe open seres, without valves “The sinplese view ef the fingering shad by considering a descend ing chromatic scale in the performance of which the valves are em ployed for their origtal purpose of lowering the pitch of open tones progresively by half ep BRASS INSTRUMENTS, us stant. ists Fig. 65 ‘The proximity ofthe uppermost open tone (nos 13 £0 +6) suggests the possibility of playing wit the lips alone in tha eye, but sing the talves helps intonation ard articulation, As the sale descend, the inervals between the open tones grow larger, and the necesity for the use ofthe third valve inezeses. This means tha theaendane pice) defec is more pronounced inthe range ofthe bas instruments, and itaceounts forthe presence of extra valves finns The dhe cl ‘Since the total lowering of pitch by the three valves combined isa ininished fifth, no tones are aalable berween the fundamental and the Fz above. Evra valves are needed if ths pap ir be led in "The toal (theoretical) extension of the pedal tones down from &= foot C, as given in she figure, would aseestate the sounding of the fundameoral of + rube nearly 1 fet long. "No bras instrument can eocompas this entre sce In studying each instrament, the scale should be transposed to i che individual tube length, and the instrument's eapabiities and limitations should be learned In genera, the lips are lose for low tones and tighs for high ons Considerable muscular development inthe lps needed forthe pro- Auction of high notes and for control of tone. The conformation ndne INSTRUMENTS texture ofthe ips very importan, some persons posesing more na hoon players become specialitsin iter love notes or igh, and ate not expected eo change mentation are necessary to discover just the ‘alexis than others this resp, eis interesting ot speciation. Often long study and experi shape of mouthpiece tosnit the individual nut, The lips must be abe to pick out accurately the right harmenie in the series, and maketh proper adjustment where valve changes ae i volved. Following arestane technical deals of embouchure, based on the #-foor scale Tn (2) the thtceitervening harmonics mux not be accidentally sounded, and if too much reson i given forthe upper C, the next harmonic, D, may svnd Tn (b) the problem beh of suring from one tne to asecond tne whic i lower-numered harmonic, but with a higher fandamensa Dis che fifth harmonis fram the Fundamental By (Fest alee), wl isthe fourth harmorie fe ‘luring between adjacent harmonics inthe same serie, (c), give the best legato on bras instruments, If che harmonies ae not adjacent (2), more sil sill for to avoid sounding intermediae tones, and to miniize any possible break between the two tones nthe fondamentl C (open). “Tonguing on bras insruments employs all the various tongue serokes sed by the wondwinds. The tv af the woodwind arack i moce like tin the upper buss and ke di (Prench da) on trombone and tuba. Moge variety iasofe and sharp attacks can be had wth brass than with woodwinds, Example 237i an illstation of soft attacks in ex treme pianissimo, Ex. 238, of sharp attach in forte BRASS INSTRUMENTS Ao 5x 157. Dvoiik Symphony 40.5 ssc. Kalmusme INSTRUMENTS, x. 238, Staose—Don Juan a .9ed, Kalmus “The sforsando,sherp accents, and fort-pimo are especially well suited to brass Care should be taken o ite the exact kind of accent desired, ast staccato in sngle-tonguing ean be uted for al brass insraments buries o be expected that tubas and the lw segsers of horns and ‘rombones, will spond ess prompaly than the sll tubes, For ligh hess in fas tonguing, the tumpets, or cornet, are the bes inthe bras group. BRASS INSTRUMENTS 29 x35. Debussy Jer p.o8.ed. Dorand “The following ie an instanceof the use of double-tnguing forthe centre bras Seton ex. 240. Rinshy-Korskof-Scheberazade—p. 309, ed. Kalas main 7 Bras players are notin agreement as tothe relative merits of tsk and f-fim the arsiculition of tiple-tonguing. ‘The maior seem to favor r+: Double-tonguingcan also be wsed for tiple ychs, aler- nating the ¢ and the a the iil stroke of each tiple, thus! rE,20 INSTRUMENTS ‘tet, In amy case the effect of ripe pitched instrument, maguing is bee on the high x. 2gts Debussy Da Mer p. sted, Dosand BRASS INSTRUMENTS a uss Dou Quixote p.s5.ed Philharmonia Fluctertonguing is exy on the horn or trumpet, les easy on the trombone of tba. Ieswmetimes indicated for bras sa terol ike bowed tremolo for sn More winds quired in brs playin is esental that a reserve of wind is kept avaiable to the embouchure at all times, The air is blown inc the tube ofthe iastrument, whe some of icondsnac, making ic ccesry to drain the tubing From tine to time either by means of a water key or by polling ou the valve slides than in woodwind playing. Ie ‘Phra markings ar ike thot for woodwind, Ins unforcunately not general practice to mark the plces where breath so be taken, 36 opINSTRUMENTS. posed to congue articltons, These are often very important forthe ‘correct phrasing and dynamic emphasis of the musi. The diference herscen an interuptien for breathing and the effect of tonguing & ‘expecially noticeable inthe bras, most of alin chord progressions such as those in Ex. 237 and Ex. 2 Thythm. Composers shoold study dis deal of phrasing, which rot to be lef tothe decison of the individual player othe conductor. The wind is conroled by the diaphragm. Ie isnot permitted to putt cut the checks, condion under which command ofthe rone would be imperil 8 there all the voices are in che same “The full dynamic power of the brass is dominating force capable of blierating the sound ofthe rest of the orchestra, nd iis often lloed to doso by condactorslcking citer authority or dscriination. The limit of loadness and rone-weigh of strings and woodwinds sa phys cal face, Forcing them to compete with the brass simply results n di areable sounds, wich he bras sil fa inthe lead. Orchestra bal in grea climaxes isan imposibilty uns the brass volume is measured Uy the sononn cect of atings aad woodwind, “This problem of babince i a besetng one forthe composer and sorchestrtor, le solution les mainly in the understanding of the music by the conductor and she orchesr, The fise performance of anew and unfarliar sore is seldom a sasfatory est of the mers ofthe orchestration, and, onthe other hand, must be recognized that many ‘wellknown and well-loved symphonic masterpieces are made to sound well orchestrated only through sympathetic and understanding ad jistmene of the writen pars in performance. “The practice of making the bras at lower dynamic level chan strings and woodwind sould be reserved for special purposes, and not tesorted roa corrective for fuley balane due tothe lck of under sanding seferred to above, or willful coring. Good bras players know that dynamic indications do nor signify absole, but relative, ‘aloes Ir goes without eying thatthe orchestrator steives vo place the ‘atiows instrumental veces s0 that the effec wil be 35 near s possible to tha imagined BRASS INSTRUMENTS 2B [At the other end of the dynam sale, the brass cannot match the softness of «sting or woodwind piansimo, Ie provides, however, 3 real pansimo in eri ofthe bas self ad this valuable resource in orchestration. Muted bras of course stil softer and i can be redced ro nau bil. A vast arzay of mutes, of every conceivable shape and tone color, shave been invented in the rwetith century, product for che most part ‘ofthe enthuse interes in ne sounds in the Fld of poplar mui “Thirey years ago ie was belived that che ew mutes would be ino duced ino he symphony arehstea, but athe preset writing tea ‘or be sid that standard equipment of che symphonic bras scton in tlodes such colortic revourss as Solotone, Harmon, Whisper Tomaoolor, Vocatne, oF cup mutes, to name but a few "The mutes ordinarily wed ae cone-shaped air chambers of ear board, wood, fiber orsliminom, with smal blocks of corto prevent too tght xt when one i inserted nto the bl of he instrument. The tual sound of muted bras is somewhat metallic, more aki othe oboe sound than to any ether nthe overs. Ir can be cut when attacked with force, Loui muted bras i a common orchestral effec. Mutes ae wed of all bras instruments, and siular muted sound canbe obtained on the heen by hand-sopping and ride Horns are placed above the irampets in the scot, just below the Dbasioons. If tere ae four two saves at wed with tre hors om each ra Three trumpets may occupy one staff unles the pars are so di ferent in rhythm ae to case confusion in reading, in which cas a second tf alloted to the thi tramp. Fist and second trombones ae on one stall, usually inthe tenor lef. The third teombone is placed onthe same staff a the tuba inthe Das clef "The custom of omiting Key signatures for horas and teumpets is* INSTRUMENTS fairly oniversal, akhough some composers prefer to include them Originally the pares for these inscruments were always in C, with an indiestion of she proper crook cosoundin the key of the piece. Modern Players often expresa preference fortis feeedom from key signatures, {specially when they mey be using an instrament in a key other than that prescribed, and transposing the pare. Trombones and cuba are given the same key signuure asthe strings “The ditections given in Chapeet Six (page 126) are equally appl cable ro bras par TEE HORN ea eo; Is core; Get, Horm yur horn is often eld in English the French horn, bur ici I significant that it nots called by the Feench. ‘The term is supposed to have originated in England inthe eighteenth cen- tury, However, the horn as we know it today has been developed manly by Germans, and it could with more justiiation be called the German horn "A true French horn docs ex, almost exclusively in France. Its an instrument of sall bore, equipped sith piston valves instead of the rotary valves generally wed om the hora. [ts tone is of alight, br Ting and open quality, ue diferent tom te warm, rch, and rather dark tone of the German horn, wed practically everywhere “The horn without valves» called che eatural horn, or hand hora (Bt, cor simple; le, corno ntsrae; Ger, Waldborn). Ealer names, such ashuncing horn, corde shate, corn da eseca,Jagdborn are not found in scores ofthe period we ae sing. ‘The horn with valves is called the valve hoan (Er, cor & pistons, cor chromatigu; ty coro vvonile; Ger, Ventilorn) In ies eightcenth- and sinsteath-ceneury shape, the natural haem ‘san open hoop o cil of brs abing, quarter of an inch in diameter atthe small end holding the osurhpiece, expanding gently toa diameter (of 3 inches at che throat ofthe bel, The bel fares widely, measuring about inches across. This wid bells considered to favor the lower pata in the make-up of thetone of the born,28 INSTRUMENTS \ Fig. @. Neural Horn with Cooks A caning sie in U-shape isleated within she ice of tubing. This part ofthe bore snecesaily eylindial thatthe side may be moved Ind ov ‘Croos of various szes canbe fred onto the end of the tube, the ‘mouthpiece being ined inthe end of the crook. Some crooks were later made with slides, enabling them to be atached in place of the toning slide The erooks most wed were those which pitched the horn in the f= losing keys Bp ato, A, Ab, G,F.E, E5,D, Cyand Bp bass. The oe tube lengths, when craks are added to a horn pitched in foot C ‘messure from approxinacely 9 feet 3 inches fr the hora in By ako co 18 feet inches forthe torn n By baso. The folowing ae the intervals of transposition, shownby the effect on one note ofthe harmonic ris, the eighth hamonie Fig. 68 Higher pitches than Bp alto have very rately been preserbed. In che Haydn symphonies may be found hors in Beato and C alto. The C alo appears tobe the en without erooks. “Horn in C” always means shorn with C erok,scunding an octave lower than writen ‘As for low pitches, their a A ban i acen in Kalian opera sores, the Bs basso erook called fora Bra’ First Symphony, and the Dp ‘rook in Roméo et Julie, by Besion THE HORN m “Te ange ofthe hors fram the second hamonie she seem incre wthsone quiero The torte ube rm psa Sth difcly above the rwefth para wheter thse upp Ba Ionics ae more ely profuse on longer ues. On the ther ha the peda tone cones ou wellon he short Bp to orm poly on he F horn an fardly ever on lover pce eos "Trespuraion af har pero "high andlow,”ogeter with sheevoling of sein qu of the kl ho ene, rouge a peer hee for the lower pched sors and 2 gro evelopment the the kes Es and D send he mst ferred rd mote ite xing in inorant ars were writen for she econ player, o Tor the Four if here wee four horns. In he ieee sear, the feene tune the mile pith ofthe F hor and he Form ae these hor, to whith he wae stem aphid The puinie of high and low fans persed an bese permet Inte a unter of ors sand hd ce igh an secon nd fourth ae low “Te jay of ue ul ory wed anger moushiee and developed ferent eoacure. They a0 aed othe hrs sa Shien by the covery ea the econ harmonic ean be lowered Zsmuchasan augmented fourth by thelial. These ones cae clo factouy one Figure 6 shows thee place in the ha Toncseds Moder hom layers do neces pacceof wing thse